The objectives of this chapter are to introduce the international trade. Learning objectives of this chapter include: Specialization and trade, domestic exchange equations, absolute advantage and comparative advantage, tariffs or quotas.
Trang 1International Trade
Trang 3• The causes of our trade imbalance
• What can we do to restore our balance of trade?
• Our trade deficits with Japan and China
• U.S. Trade policy: A historical view
Trang 4• We ran trade surpluses before 1975 and have run trade deficits since
• We faced increasing trade competition in the 1960s
• We have been running large and growing trade surpluses on services and growing trade deficits on goods
Trang 51840 1860 1880 1900 1920
Year
1940 1960 1980 2000 1820
70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Trang 6Tariffs
• Initially the tariff was purely a revenueraising device
• After the War of 1812 the tariff took on a
protective tinge
• During the great depression, virtually every
industrial power raised its tariffs to keep out foreign goods
– This caused world trade to dwindle to a fraction of what it had been and probably made the depression
a lot worse
Trang 7• Recent years have seen a growing
consensus in the United States that we need more import protection
• Economic reasoning, however, argues
strongly for free trade
Trang 8• Specialization is the basis for
international trade
– Country A specializes in making the products that it can make most cheaply;
Country B does the same– When they trade, each country will be better off than they would if they didn’t specialize and trade
Trang 9C B A
H G
1 copier = 2 VCRs
Trang 10U.S. 2 copiers = 1 VCR S.K. 1 copier = 2 VCRs
Instinct tells us that it that it would be best for each country to
produce what it does best and to trade with the other
Trang 11U.S. 2 copiers = 1 VCRS.K. 1 copier = 2 VCRs
Obviously the U.S. would be unwilling to trade more than two
copiers for one VCR. However, if S.K. offered more than 1 VCR for
2 copiers this would be a better deal
If the U.S. used its resources to produce 2 copiers and trade them for more than 1 VCR it would be better off than it would have been using the same resources to produce just 1 VCR
Obviously, S.K. would be unwilling to trade 2 VCRs for anything
less than 1 copier. If S.K. could trade 2 VCRs and get more than one copier in exchange it would be better off making VCRs and trading some of them for copiers
Trang 12• No nation will engage in trade with
another nation unless it will gain by that trade
• The terms of the trade will fall
somewhere between the domestic exchange equations of the two trading nations
Trang 13Production possibilities curve
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Production possibilities curve
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 F
Ended up with 50 VCR and 30 copiers
Trang 14• Absolute advantage is the ability of a country
to produce a good or service at a lower cost than its trading partners
– In the previous example, the bottom line is that Americans can buy South Korean VCRs at half the price that American producers would charge
– Thus the south Koreans have an absolute advantage
in making VCRs
• They are better at making VCRs than we are
Trang 15U.S. 2 copiers = 1 VCR S.K. 1 copier = 2 VCRs
Trang 17Absolute Advantage versus Comparative Advantage
• You can’t compare absolute advantage and
comparative advantage any more than you can compare apples and oranges
Trang 18Absolute Advantage versus Comparative Advantage
• As long as the relative opportunity costs
of producing goods differ among nations, there are potential gains from trade even
Trang 19• As America continues to hemorrhage
manufacturing jobs, there is a growing outcry for protections against the flood of imports
– But Americans, as consumers, are virtually addicted
to these imports – How do we justify excluding so many things that Americans want to buy?
• There are four main arguments for protection
– Each seems plausible and strikes a responsive chord
in the minds of the American public – Closer scrutiny will reveal that all four arguments are essentially pleas by special interest groups for protection against more efficient competitors
Trang 21• Our dependence on foreign suppliers
could make us vulnerable in time of war
– It is possible that we need to maintain certain defenserelated industries
– What if we depended on foreign suppliers for critical components of entire weapons systems?
– The continued spread of nuclear arms technology may soon make the national security argument much more relevant
Trang 22• American products are no longer produced by
infant industries being swamped by foreign giants
• About the best that can be said is that some of
our infant industries never matured while others have evolved into senility
– Textiles, steel, clothing, and automobiles may be in the senile category
• It is sometime argued that technological change may cause a grownup industry to need
temporary protection from foreign competition
Trang 23The LowWage Argument
• How can American workers compete with
foreigners who are paid sweatshop wages in labor intensive industries?
– There is no reason for American firms to compete with foreign firms in these
industries– We should import labor intensive goods and produce goods and services in which we can excel and compete
– We should use the proceeds to buy the goods and services produced by people who are
forced to work for very low wages
Trang 24The Employment Argument
• Hasn’t the flood of imports thrown millions of
Americans out out work?
– But if we restrict imports, the governments of our foreign competitors will restrict our exports
– By curbing imports, we will be depriving other nations of the earnings they need to buy our exports
– If we restrict our imports, our exports will go down too
• We would just lose the jobs connected with these lost exports
• Which would be best? Lose the jobs of workers who work for companies who can’t or won’t compete or lose the jobs of
workers who work for companies who can compete but can’t export their products because of restrictions we ourselves caused?
Trang 25producers in and keep out more efficient producers
Trang 26• Tariffs are better than quotas
• But free trade is best
Trang 27• Several countries subsidize their export
industries
– This makes their products cheaper– Many Americans complain that this gives foreign competitors an “unfair advantage”
– Subsidies are a relatively minor expedient in the United States
Trang 28• Economics is all about the efficient allocation of scarce resources
• There is no reason why this efficient allocation
of resources should not be applied beyond national boundaries
• International trade helps every country
• To the degree that we can remove the tariffs,
import quotas, and other impediments to free trade we will all be better off
• The economics profession nearly unanimously
backs free trade
Trang 29• Our balance of trade compares the dollar
value of the merchandise and services we buy from foreigners with the dollar value
of the merchandise and services they buy from us
• Our balance of trade is our country’s
record of all transactions between its residents and the residents of all foreign nations
Trang 31Trade Imbalance
• The Rise of the Dollar
– A rising dollar makes our exports more expensive and our imports cheaper
• Our Low Saving Rate
– Americans have become notoriously poor savers averaging less than 5% of their disposable income since the mid1980s
– If you don’t save, you can’t invest and thus grow – American business firms have been left with one choice, borrow from foreigners
• Foreigners have come here only because of our high interest rates
Trang 32Trade Imbalance
• The High Cost of Capital
– Mainly because of our low savings rate and partly because of the huge federal budget deficits, high interest rates have discouraged investment in plant and equipment as well as in technological innovation
• High Defense Spending
– The defense expenditures of the United States have dwarfed those of every other industrial power
– In a time of diminishing military tension, should we
be diverting our dollars to defense from areas where they could be used more productively?
Trang 33Trade Imbalance
• Our Failing Educational System
– The American educational system, once second to none, is now second to practically everyone
• About onethird of all college freshman need remedial work in reading, writing, and arithmetic
• This is why we used to go to K through 12
• Almost every college has special classes for students unprepared to do college work
• One million new functional illiterates every year are not exactly job candidates for today’s high tech economy
Trang 34Trade Imbalance
• The Role of Multinationals
– Since the 1960s multinational corporations began to move their manufacturing operations abroad to take advantage of lower wages available in low wage
countries – Capital has long been much more mobile than labor, and that capital has been flowing very rapidly to low wage nations
– Our import business is dominated by our own multinational corporations that have shifted their production overseas and put their name on the goods that are produced in other nations
Trang 35Trade Imbalance
• Since 1995 we have had one of the highest rates of economic growth of any
industrial nation
– Countries with high economic growth rates import more goods and services than they would if they had low growth rates
– At the same time demand for U.S. exports has been lagging due to low growth rates in other industrial nations
Trang 36• Devalue the dollar—which would make our
exports cheaper while imports would become more expensive
– We need to put a lid on consumption – We need to save more
– We need to bring back the taxfree IRA – We need to decrease defense spending – We need to really educate our workforce – We need protectionist legislation if our foreign competitors are, in fact, dumping goods below cost
on our shores
Trang 3770
Trang 38• Japanese dumping (selling many of their
products below cost) is driving out American competitors
Trang 39• The Japanese consumer has long accepted a
lower standard of living because it was necessary for the greater economic good
– They are willing to pay more for goods they produce when they could have them cheaper if they imported the same good
– Can you imagine Americans being willing to make that kind of sacrifice
• Americans would not stand for restricting
Japanese imports because they are addicted to Japanese goods
Trang 40• We began trading with China in the mid1970s
• Although exports to China have grown rapidly, our exports are only about onequarter of our imports
• We import so much from China because U.S.
retailers are seeking the cheapest goods available and are finding them in China
• The Chinese are making unauthorized copies of American movies, CDs, and computer software
Trang 41generating equipment, and computer software to China in exchange for toys, clothing, shoes, and lowend consumer electronics
Trang 42• Chinese exports so far have generally not
translated into job losses in the United States
Trang 43• The Chinese and the Japanese both insist
on licensing agreements and largescale transfer of technology as the price for agreeing to imports
• These agreements, of course, lead to
eventual elimination of imports from the United States
Trang 44“We are consuming more than we are
producing, borrowing more than we are saving, and spending more than we are
earning”
Trang 45• Reducing Our Overall Trade Deficit
– We need to maintain our high rate of productivity growth and keep improving the quality of American goods and services
– We need to lower our dependence on oil imports by raising the tax on gasoline
– We need, somehow, to reduce our trade deficit with Japan
– We need to do something about our rapidly rising trade deficit with China