Luận văn nhận thức của giáo viên thpt về phương pháp dạy học tiếng anh dựa vào nhiệm vụ và niềm tin của họ về bộ sách giáo khoa tiếng anh

LIST OF TABLES: Table 1.1: Components of teacher cognition Table 1.2: General objectives to achieve in Grade 10 to Grade 12 MOF Table 1.3: Topics in English 10, English 11 and English 1

DECLARATION

1 certify that this disscrtation doce nol, lo the best of my knowledge and beliof,

@ incorporate without acknowledgement any material previously submilted for a dcgice or diploma in any institution of higher education,

Gi) contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text; or

Gil) contain any defamatory material.

DEDICATION

‘Thus dissertation is dedicated to my parents who have bronght me up and helped me

to become the person I am I offer them all my affection for their love and understanding of this important period of my life, which has laken me so far away from my family

1 also dedicate this dissertation to my lifelong partner, wife, and very best ñiend, Thu, Her life and her weekends have been pul on hold for the provious years of our lives in order to help me achieve my goal of earning this doctorate degree Her undying and loving support has helped me through this research process My thesis would not have been matetialized without her and her constant encouragement

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

‘This Ph.D thesis would not have hecome a reality without the help of many peaple

First and foremost, 1 acknowledge my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Prof Di Hoang Van Van, for his continuing encouragement, invaluable suggestions and fecdback, and patient guidance thronghout my shudy He har showed impressive expertise in academic research and, as well, in the supervision of his postgraduate students I have benefited not only from his tích experience in academic rescarch, but also fiom hiv personal mexity eamest, kind, sincere, and caring

Secondly, I am enormously indebted to Prof Dr Nguyen Hoa, Assoe Prof Le Hung Tien, Assoc, Prof Dr Le Van Canh, Dr Do Quang Vict, and Dr Huynh Anh Tuan, who have given me enconragements, generous help and suggestions in my research project

Next, my heartfelt thanks gocs to all the participants, fiom many provinces, who cooperated with me in this research Theit views and comments gave me boundless inspiration Without their cooperation and contributions, this thesis would have never been made possible A special thanks go to the following directors of different provincial department of education and training and co-ordinatorz of the National Foreign Language

2020 Project (NF 2020 Project) of these departments who helped me get into contact with participants: Mr Le Van Quy Director and Ms Ln Thi Van co-ordinator of NFL 2020 Project of Dien Bien Department of Education and Training, Mr Nguyen An Ninh — Titector and Mr Le Thanh Hat — co-ordinator of NFL 2020 Project of Lao Cai Department

of Education and Training, Mz Nguyen Minh Thanh Director and Ms Le Thi Hang co-ordinator of NFL 2020 Project of Hoa Binh Department of Education and Training, Mu Hoang Tien Duc — Director and Ms Pham Thi Thuan — co-ordinalor of NFL 2020 Project of Son La Department of Fdneation and Trainimg, Mr Do Van Tlan — Director and Ms Pham Thu Hang co-ordinator of NFL 2020 Project of Lai Chau Department of Education and Training, Mr Tran Xuan Hung — Director and Mr Dang Tran Ha — co-ordinator of NFL

2020 Project of Yen Bai Department of Rducation and Training

In addition, I owe my debts to some of the cxperts in this ficld who gave me consultations to my questions in some stages of research, such as research design, research method, data analysis at times when I was highly confused: Asso Prof Dr Phan Le Ila, Assoc Prof Dr Nguyen Thy Minh, Prof Dr Nathan Cau, Prof Dr Simon Borg, Dt Hoang Xuan Hoa, Dr To Thu Huong, Assoc Prof, Dr Nguyen Phuong Nga, Dr Duong Thi

‘Na, Dr Tran Toai Phong, Dr Dnong Thu Mai, Dr Moang Thi Manh, and Dr Vu Hai Ta

Moreover, I would like lo extend my gratitude lo my friends such az Nguyen Manh Cuong, Bui Van Hau, and Blake Nichols for their kind enpport and willingness to proofread

of my drafts

Also, Lwish to oxpreze my profound grafitude to my family, my parents, my sieler, and my brother They have been so supportive and enconraging that I can always feel their care Their love and encouragement: have made my long joumey to PLD thesis colocful and enjoyable

Last, but by no means least, I am thankful to my wife whose deep and warm Inve is the most important source of courage and motivation for me to move along this journey Being so thoughtful and being always by my sido, she haz helped me in the most spocial and tender way!

7 Organization of the Study

PART II DEVELOPMENT

1.3 Theoretical Issues of Task-Bascd Language Teaching

13.2.4 Definition gƒTBỊT FratnewoiĂ

iv

1.5 Previous Related Teesearch

2.3 Research Collection Instruments

.3.8 Clarsroont ObgerWAHIH à cà cnerirerrieriirrirreoeaoooe đỂ

2.4, Research Procedure

2.4.2 Qualitative Analysis itt Phase 2o.oeucscusssusuen sien sie naiaiinsiiinstinni 57

3.3 General Findings about Teachers’ Reliefs about the Texthooks

3.3.1 Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Texthook Objectives’ 0

3.3.3 Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Content of the Texthooks” 4 3.3.3 Teachers’ Beliefs abơul "he Knowledge oƒ the Textbo0Äa" !01

3.3.4, Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Skills taught in the Textbooks”’ £03

3.3.5 Teachers’ Beliefs about “the Tasks and Activities af the Texthoaks” 106

3.3.6, Teachars' Balieft about “the Teaching Method of tha Textbooks” 109

CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION

vi

4⁄1 Diseussians af the Findings about Teachers’ Perceptions of TBIT

4.1.1.3 Differences in Perception of TBIT behveen IONN, co eioooeooooo.18

4.1.1.4 Teachers’ Perceptions of TBLT Tends to be Task-supported Language Teaching

4.1.2 Factors Affecting Teachers’ Perceptions of TBLT 126

42 Discussions of the Findings about Teachers’ Beliefs about the Textbooks

42.2, Factors Affecting Teachers’ Beliefs about the Textbooks and Main Propoxals.138

PART III CONCLUSIONS

1 Summary of the Major Points of the Study

2.1, Summary of the SUD) ce ceccssmesianancieasinincananaenimaneinnvenanin dS

1.8 Pedagoglcal iniplicdliorne eo

2 Limitation of the Study

RESEARCHER'S ARTICLES RELATED TO THE THESIS

REFERENCES

vii

LIST OF TABLES:

Table 1.1: Components of teacher cognition

Table 1.2: General objectives to achieve in Grade 10 to Grade 12 (MOF

Table 1.3: Topics in English 10, English 11 and English 12

Table 1.4: Themes covered in the Fnglish cnrricnlum

Table 2.1: Demographic Data of Survey Participants” Background Information

006: 19-25)

Table 2.2: Brief profiles of 30 cases in case study phase

Table 2.3: Overview of the data analysis procedure case studies

Table 2.4: The reliability of questionnaire | and ils domains

Table 2.5: Unreliable Items that need being left out the analysis

Table 2.6: Correlation hetween domains in the whole questionnaire

Table 2.7: Factor Analysis of Students” attitudes towards TBLT

Table 2.8: The reliability of questionnaire | and ils domaine

Table 2.9: Correlation between domains in the whole questionnaire (5.2.2.4.1)

Table 2.10: Factor Analysis of Students’ attitudes towards TBLT

Table 3.1: The descriptive statislies for Domain 1

Table 3.2: The interview's main themes for Domain 1

Table 3.3: The descriptive statisties for Domain 2

Table 3.4: The interview’s main themes for Domain 2

Table 3.5: The descriptive statisties fox Domain 3

Table 3.6: Teachers’ perception of principles of TBLT

Table 3.7: The descriptive statistice for Domain 4

Table 3.8: Teachers’ perception of features of TBLT

Table 3.9: The descriptive statistice for Domain 5

Table 3.10: The descriptive statistics for Domain 6

Table 3.11: Teachers® perception of techmiques of TRLT

Table 3.12: The descriptive statistics for Domain 1

Table 3.13: Teachers’ beliefs about objectives of textbooks

Table 3.14: The descriptive statistics for Domain 2

Table 3.15: Teachers’ beliefs about cantent of texthoaks

Table 3.16: The descriptive statistics for Domain 3

Table 3.17; Teachers’ beliefs aboul knowledge of textbooks

viii

Table 3.18; The descriptive statistics for Domain 4

Table 3.19: Teachers’ beliefs about skills of lextbooks

Table 3.26; The descriptive stalistics [or Domain 5

Table 3.21: Teachers’ beliefs about tasks and activities of texlbooks

Table 3.22; The descriptive statistics for Domain 6

Table 3.23: Teachers’ beliefs about teaching method of textbooks

Table 4.1: The descriptive slatisties for the whole questionnaire and domains

Table 4.2: Perception percentage of the whole questionnaixe and domains

Table 4.3: Typical focused themes of teachers’ perception of TBLT

Table 4.4: Differences in teachers’ peteeption of TBLT according to provinces

Table 4.5: Differences in teachers’ peteeption of TBLT according to economic

Table 4.6; Differences in teachers’ perception of TBLT according to first degree

Table 4.7: Qualitative data of teachers’ perception of TBLT

Table 4.8: Model summary of the whole questionnaire and domains “Teachers” perception

of TBLT”

Table 4.9: Coefficient of prediction model 3 for the main domain “Teachers” perception of TRLT?

Table 4.10: Unfocnsed themes of teachers’ perception of TRLT

Table 4.11: The desctiptive statistics for the whale questionnaire and domains

Table 4.12: Belief percent af the whole questionaire and domains

Table 4.13: Typical focused themes of teachers’ beliefs about textbooks

Table 4.14: Differences in teachers’ beliefs abont textbooks according to provinces

Table 4.15: Model summary of the whale questionnaire and domaine

Table 4.16; Coefficient of prediction model 3 for the main domain

Table 4.17: Unfoensed themes of teachers’ beliefs about texthoaks

Research framework Analytical framework for the research Mean plots according to pravince Mean plots according to economic slate Mcan plots according to first degree Mcan plots according to locality Mcan plots according to province Model of task sequence

ABBREVIATIONS

MOET: Ministry of Fđueation and ‘Training

TINUE: Tanoi National University of Education

ULIS: University of Tanguages and International Studies NEL 2020: National Foreign Languages 2020

NWA: Northwest Arca

TBLT: Task-Based Language Teaching

TSI: Task-Supported Instruction

TST: Task-Supported Teaching

BA: Bachelor of Arts

MA: Master of Arts

ESL: English as Second Language

ELT: English Language Teaching

CLT: Communicative Langnage Teaching

Ll: Mother Tongue/Fi:st Language/Native Language

2: Second Language

6, insicad of Grade 10 The roscarcher’s particular allention focuses on the Englich curriculum for sccondary schools as this level ie considered to be the preparatory stage for Victnamese students to study al higher levels In practice, universities in Vietnam require graduate students and even newly-entered students to have certain English competency A good English curriculum for secondary schools can contribute significantly to the development of the knowledge-based economy for the county It motivates the researcher to investigate

secondary school teachers’ cognition of the English curriculum

This research focuses only on a specific area ay contextual features are very important

in the consideration of the language policy in a country Due to the English curriculum for secondary schools, students fiom all areas have to get the same expected learning outcomes

na matter where they come from The matter is if itis feasible for students from difficult areas such as the Northwest of Vietnam, the Central Highlands, and the Southwest to have the same learning materials, lessons and exams as students fom central urban areas like Hanoi, Iai Phong, Da Nang, and Io Chi Minh City te achieve one common standard of competence, knowledge and ckills in English The researcher chose the Northwest Area (NWA) becante it

is the area within the researcher's reach and it is one of the three most difficult areas in the country Furthermore, the researcher has soma knowledge of the geography, the culinre, the customs, and the traditions of the people of this region from many visits to the area and many friends living there

“The researcher intended to stndy teachers” cognition of the tark-hased curriculum, so

the idea of a research title of “Secondary school teachers’ cognition of the new curricnlum”

1

was iniliatcd However, ìn Viclnam, cunicnla are fixed by the MOET, and the contents of the curricula are realized in a series of textbooks Modules for units, revised unils, and tests are decided in the English cumiculum for Vietnamese schools Basing on the curriculum of the MOET, book designers develop learning tasks and activities for cach unil, Through the review

of the English curriculum by the MOET (2006) and the textbooks which have beon implemented for secondary schools in Vieinam, il can be confirmed thal this new curriculum

is the task-based onc As the textbook scrics has been claimed to adopt task-based language teaching (TBLT) methodology, the investigation into teachers’ beliefs about the book series

focusing on its TBLT features will help give room to implications helpful to the

implementation of TBLT celevant to the book series in practice According to Nnnan (2004),

in investigation of a task-based curriculum, the three main dimensions that should be focused

on are textbook content, teaching pedagogy and learner assessment In fact, according to the

English curriculum, the series of textbooks adopt task-based syllabus design and the teaching

method imbedded in the textbooks is TBLT, the student assessinent is still aligned to the

traditional manner when it does not focus on students’ performance, but their linguistic Knowledge Hence, the current study investigates teachers’ cognitions of two dimensions, namely teachers” cognitions of the series of English textbooks for secondary schools, and the

teaching method (TBLT) Therefore, instead of investigating teachers’ cognitions of the

Fnglish ourriculam, the researcher decided to study teachers’ cognitions of the new series of

textbooks and teaching method (TRI.T) imbedded in the series of textbooks As in the

literature concerning teachers’ cognitions, this concept can umbrella teachers” beliefs and

teachers’ perceptions (Rorg, 2003), for that reason, the researcher changed the research fille to

“Secondary school teachers’ perceptions of tast-based language teaching and their beliefs

about the current series of English textbooks” £0 as to:indicate more explicitly (he purpose of

stidying two major fields, namely teachers’ perceptions of TBI.T and teachers? beliefs about

the current series of English textbooks for secondary schools; through theee two ficlds, the researcher hope to find out (cachers? cognitions of the English curricula in Vietnam, In the two ficlds, the rescarcher used two under-umbrella terins of teacher cognition, namely teacher perception and teacher belief’ however, due to (he multivalancos of the concepis in the literature, these two constructs ean also be understood as teachers? undesstandings

4.2 Theoretical Reasons

According to Louden (1991), teachers “don't merely deliver the custicnlum They develop it, define it, and xeinterpsct it too" (p iv) Borg (2009) also states that teacher coguition relates closely with what teachers do, he lists out some sophisticated understandings

2

of the relationships between teachers’ cognitions and practices According 10 Borg (2009),

“teachers were nol robols who simply implemented, in an unthinking manner, curricula designed by others; rather, teachers exerled agency in the classroom — they made decisions, both before and while (caching, these decisions thus became a new focus for educational resvarchers — (eacher cognition” (p.3) This reality should have been a provoking mark for the research related to how teachers think, know, perceive and believe about the series of texlbooks as well az the teaching method imbedded in this series of textbooks, which is like the way that Borg (2003, 2006) did and named it teacher cognition, Itis widely acknowledged

that teachers have their own theoretical belicfs and perceptions about language leaming and

teaching, and that those tend to shape the teaching practices (Pajares, 1992, Woods, 1996) Avcording ta Borg (2003), teacher belief and teacher perception are terms under the bigger

unbrellaterm teacher coguHơi

Regarding the current series of English texthooks for upper secondary schools (Tidng Anh 10 (English 10), Tiéng Anh 12 (English 11), and Tiéng Anh 12 (English 12), each set is

comprised of three books: the Student's texthook, the Warkbook, and the Teacher's baoks

‘When the development of this texthook series was completed, it was piloted in some selected

schools across Vietnam in 2004 After necessary revisions were made, this series of textbooks

was officially approved and was put into use, nationwide, in schools by the MOET in the academic year of 2006-2007 The presence of the enrent series of English texthooke is an effort of the MORT to change teachers” attitudes, and teachers? awareness of English teaching

in Viemam from teacher-centered orientation to learner-centered orientation The series of

English textbooks are claimed to follow the “learner-centered approach and the

communicative approach with task-hased teaching being the central teaching method”

‘As far as English leaching method is concemed, the implementation of lhe series of textbooks approved in 2006 placed all Vietnamese teachers of Fnglish in the teaching renovation in order to raisc the quality of English language leaching; teachers in the NWA are

no exceptions, This setics of textbooks were claimed to incorporate the latest methodology im forcign language (caching: communicative language toaching (CLT) and TBLT because the focus of this serics of textbooks is more on the leamer than on the teacher, as traditionally gramunar-based textbooks; learning activities were designed in tasks and mainly cmployed task-based language teaching method as developed by the framework of Willis (Hoang Van Van, 2011, p.103) The adoption of the communicative approach and its guiding principles of

English language teaching from this series of English textbooks are specified as follows:

1 Attaining communication skills is the goal of the teaching and learning process; linguistic knowledge is the means by which communication skills are formed and developed

3

2 Siudents play an active role in the teaching and learning process and teachers’ roles are as organizers and guiđes

3 Teaching contents are selecled and organized according to themes lo guarantee a high level of comnmunicativeness while catering to the accuracy of the mademn tangnage system

4 Textbook writing, management of teaching and learning, testing, assessment and evaluation

follow the curriculum gudelines (MOLT 2006: 6)

In this series of English textbooks leammg tasks in TBLT are considered central to

the whole insiractional design process, from the identification of leamer needs to the measurement of student achievement The design of the series of English textbooks from Grade 10 to Grade 12 organizes each unit in five lessons (reading, speaking, listening, writing, and langnage focus), and each lesson consists of three phases (pre-task, while-task and post-task); each phase has gubisske or activities This design seems to ft the framework proposed by Willis (1996a, 1998, 2001, 2007) A litle deviation is that the task cycle in the current series of texthooks is not accomplished in a class teaching periad bnt in five periods (one periods for each part: reading, speaking, listening, writing, and langnage focus), so a task

in these textbooks is bigger (han a task of other TBLT [ameworks slated in (he lilerature Bosides, in the reality of English language teaching, TBLT has gradually appeared in teaching though teachers might not have had full conscious awareness of it; therefore, TELT might not

be fully exploited

Le Van Canh (2007) and Keuyen Thi Timy Minh (2007) were the first researchers slarling up rescarch on these series of textbooks in Victnam night afler the new curriculum was issued Le Van Canh (2007) reported on 249 in-service socondary school English-as-a- Foreign-Language (EFL) tcachers’ beliefs about the new textbooks Nguyen Thi Thmy Minh (2007) conducted research in which she allempled to evaluate the textbooks to sec if they meet the goals of the curriculum Her careful analysis of the text showed both the strengths and weaknesses of the textbooks Most recently at the University of Waikato, New Zcaland, Barnard and Nguyen Gia Viet (2010) cairied out research on the curriculum and textbook series entitled “Task Based Language Teaching: A Vietnamese Case Study Using Nauative Frames to Elicit Teachers Belief”, In this rovearch, Bamard and Vict used nazrative flames (as suggested by Barkhuizen & Wette, 2008) to explore what teachers know and believe about the reformed curriculum in their specific contexts in compatison with the former curricular in the direction of grounded analysis (Charmaz, 2006) They mainly asked teachers to write (in Vietnamese) their reflective comments about their attitudes towards TBLT, and their recent experiences af applying it in their classraom Some of the research was not condnoted on a large sample size, so the overview of teachers’ cognitions of the textbooks and the teaching method were hard to capiire Moreover in spite of the importance of understanding of

teachers" belicfs about whal the lextbooks really are with respect lo different cultural regions (Byrd, 2001); no practical research has been done in the NWA In practice, through casual talks with secondary school teachers, and through some minor research assignments from my practicum students in secondary schools where they did their leaching practice, surprising information was verbalized, in which teachcr-conteredness was admitied lo be popular and leamer-centeredness was by far reachable although teachers usually led their teaching according to what Ihe textbooks instructed Moreover, some issues related to the content and

knowledge from the textbooks were cupposed to be inadequate to students in this area

For all the reasons mentioned above, I have decided lo carry oul this resoarch Io uncover two main ficlds: (i) teachers” perceptions of TBLT and (il) teachers’ belicfs about the series of textbooks For field (i), I will explore six domains; (1) the definition of task and TBLT, (2) the philosophy of TBLT, (3) the principles of TBLT, (4) the features of TBLT, (5) the stages of TBLT, and (6) the techniques of TBLT And for field (ii), I will also explore six domains: (1) the objectives of the textbooks, (2) the content of the textbooks, (3) the knowledge of the textbooks, (4) the skills taught in the textbooks, (5) the tacks and activities

of the textbooks, and (6) the teaching method imbedded in the textbooks

2 Aim of the Study

The overarching aim of this research is tu investigate Vietnamese secondary school teachers’ cognitions of the task-based English cniriculum As indicated in the title, the research is realized into two main aims, focusing on two dimensions, namely teachers? perceptions of TBLT and their beliefs about the series of English textbooks which have been

used thronghout Vietnam since 2006

3 Objectives of the Study

Given the aim above, the research sels for itsclf the following objectives

«e Identifying how secondary school teachers of English in the North-Westem Area (NWA) of Vietnam perceive or nnderstand task-based language teaching (TBLT) in

terms of theory

* Exploring what chapes their perceptions of TBLT

«œ Finding out what secondary school teachers of English in the NWA of Vietnam

‘clieve about the current series of English textbooks in their (caching context

* Discovering what shapes their belief: about the current series of English textbooks

A, Research Questions

The above objectives are anstaled into the following questions and subquestions for

exploration

1 What are the NWA secondary school teachers’ perceptions of TBLT?

1.1 How do the teachers perceive TRLT in terms of theory?

1.2 What shapes their perceptions of TBLT?

2 What ara the NWA secondary school teachers’ balieft about the current saries of English textbooks?

2.1 How do the Lcachers believe about the current serics of English textbooks?

2.2 What shapes their heliefs about the cmrent series of English textbooks?

5 Significance of the Study

AAs a first attempt to look at the NWA teachers’ cognition of the task-based English cuziculum, specifically their perceptions of TBLT and their beliefé about the cwrent series of English textbooks for secondary schools, this research would be beneficial not only to ELT in the NWA but also to ELT in Vietnam It may also be beneficial to some stakeholders including textbook designers, the English teachers in the NWA, and the education administrators of ELT in the study area

Through an investigation of teachers’ perceptions of TBLT, the research would be of both theoretical and practical value In the theoretical perspective, with the hope of making a small contribution to ELT in the NWA and in Vietnam, the researcher proposes a general theoretical ELT model modified from TBLT when CLT is making teachers confused and embarrassed in application as there is no specific and precise teaching model of this methad officially issued The model is only the reasoning and generalization of the researcher in the theoretical field based on what previous researchers and educators mentioned about TBLT; therefore, there needs to be further research into it in the future In the practical perspective, it cannot be denied that TBLT is adhered to as the teaching instruction model of the current serigs of English texthaaks for secondary schools in Vietnam; accordingly, investigating as well as improving teachers” understanding af the method is an indispensable need The resnlt

of teachers” perceptions of TBLT can serve as sources for the solutions to improve their understandings of this teaching model

‘With the investigation of the current series of English texthooks for Vietnamere

secondary schools, the research would be of practical value in teaching practice In an EFL context like Vietnam, textbooks are regarded as the main source of learner's language input and langnage praches For many Vietnamese teachers, texthooke may even help them construct their class instruction The research is a chance for secondary school teachers lo raise their voices about what they are facing everyday As a reenlt, the understanding of teachers” beliefs about the current serice of English textbooks is souree of reference for the euiculun designers, textbook writers, teacher trainers and education officials; and it can

6

help them evaluate the effectiveness of the scrics of English textbooks after having been pat into usc on a large evale for nearly ton years, For thal further adjustments and even revisions need to be made to perfect the malerials so that the texlbooks can meel the increasing needs of modcm Vietnamese education, Hopefully, some of the resuls of this primary rescarch can be considered in the design of the forthcoming scrics of textbooks when the MOET exercises the policy of “one curriculum, many sets of textbooks” lo Git different contexis and areas in

‘Viclnam in the coming ycars

6 Scope of the Study

Given the tidle of the thesis, it is neccesary to narrow the research down to ø scope which can be manageable The title of the thesis is “Secondary School Teachers* Perceptions

of Task-Based Language Teaching and Their Beliefs about the Current Series of English Textbooks”, the research confines itvelf to investigating the perceptions of task-based language teaching of sccondary school teachers of English and their belicfs about the ewrent seties of secondary English textbooks in six provinces, including Hoa Binh, Son La, Dien Bien, Lai Chau, Lao Cai, Yen Bai With regard to the title of this research project, I would like to investigate the whole ourent scries of Euglish textbooks, being implemented in nationwide secondary schools, from Grade 10 to Grade 12

7 Organization of the Study

The study is exganized around three parts: Part I, Part II, and Part III

PartI Introduction presents rationale for the study, aim of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, signsficance of the sindy, scope of the study, and organization

of the sindy

Part IT — Development — comprises four chapters Chapter 1 — Literature Review — reviews theoretical iseuss related to TRILT, textbook design and evaluation, teachers” perceptions of the teaching method and teachers” belief about the textbooks

Chapter 2 — Methadology — describes research context, explains the reasons for research method choice and how the two phases of data collection and analysis were set up, clarifies the reasoning behind the variens decisions which were made along the way, ontlines the context within which the dala were gathered and presente a composite picinse of the teachers who parlicipaled in the sludy, and describes the teachers’ values and shows how the teachers ftom both phases of the study held similar sets of perceptions of the nature of TBLT and sets of beliefs about textbooks

Chapter 3 — Findings — presenls main findings of the teachers’ understandings of TBLT and leachor beliefs aboul textbooks according to themes

Chapter 4 — Interpretations and Discussions — inlerprets and discusses data according

to research questions stated al the beginning of the study

Part II - Conclusion — recapilulaice what has boon investigaled, draws conclusions from major findings, points oul limitations of the study, and makes some suggestions for further research, Special recommendations arc made on what should te done (o increase the

perception secondary school teachers of English in the NWA about TBLT as well as increase

the ability to implement the English textbooks, including the textbook modifications, and

teachers’ self-study in a mare effective way to fit the context of the NWA

PART IL DEVELOPMENT CTIAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to set up a framework for the shudy Ta đo this, the chapter

‘will (1) re-examine same of the main concepts relevant la the dissertation, (2) disenss TBLT

framework, (3) present main fealures of the current series of English texlbooks for Vietnamese upper secondary schools, and (4) look at previous research related to the dissertation

Towards the averview of TBI.T and features of the current series of English texthooks,

issues related to domains are deeply discussed so as to lay the theoretical base for the design

of items in each domain With TRIT, the following theoretical issues accordant with six

investigated domains of TELT arc considered: (1) the definition of task and TBLT, (2) the philosophy of TBLT, (3) the principles of TBLT, (4) the features of TBLT, (5) the stages of

TRU-T, and (6) the techniques of TRLT With the enrrent seriex of English textbooks, the

following theoretical issues in harmony with six investigaied domeins of the textbooks are considered: (1) the objectives of the lextbooks, (2) the content of the textbooks, (3) the knowledge of the textbooks, (4) the skitls taught in the textbooks, (5) the tasks and activities

of the textbooks, and (6} the teaching method imbedded to the textbooks

1.2 The Main Concepts Related ta the Research

1.2.1, Teacher Cognition

Though this research only investigates two concepts, namely teacher perception and teacher belief, il is necoseery lo preliminarily mention the concept the concept teacher cognition because ieacher cognition has been considered to be the umbrella term of teacher

perception and teacher belief (Borg, 2003)

In the mainstream cducalional literalurc, the concept of teacher cognition was first proposed by Borg (2003) Before thal il was labeled under a number of terns feacher judgment (Clark & Yinger, 1977, Peterson & Clatk, 1978), theoretical beliefs (Iohnson, 1992), belief Pajares, 1992), specific pedagogical kmowledge (Stulman, 1987, Spada & Massey, 1992), conceptions of practice (Freeman, 1993), theories for practice consisling of thinking and belicfs (Bums, 1996), personal pedagogical systems consisting of belicfs, knowledge, theorics, assumplions and altitudes (Caldethcad, 1996, Borg, 1998), pedagogical

knowledge (Shulman, 1987, Gatbonton, 1999}, practical knowledge (Meijer, Vedoop, &

9

Beijaard, 1999), pedagogic principles (Breen et al., 2001), teacher cognition including belief, perception, and knowledge (Caldethead, 1996, Borg, 2003, 2006, 2009; Woolfolk, Davis & Pape, 2006) in which most dominant and notable notions are beliefand knowledge The most common referenced perspective of teacher cognition in the recent studies in this decade has been contributed by Borg (2006) The reason is that Borg can summarize and analyse the complete picture of the mainstream literature of teacher cognition from those overlapping and divergent constructs to add up a new construct with proper components and clear

categonzation of related terms

Extensive experience of May affect existing cognitions classrooms which defines early although especially when cognition and shapes teachers’ unacknowledged, these may perceptions of initial training Umit ies impact

Schooling J+ [Professional Coursework

images, assumptions, ‘metaphors, OGNITIO: ACHER students, subject matter, Curricula, materials, conceptions, Se instructional activities, ‘sell

‘Including practice teaching

Figure 1.1: The construct of teacher cognition (Borg, 2003, p.82)

Borg (2003, 2006) made his own model of teacher cognition based on most of the scholars’ viewpoints mentioned above in this field According to Borg (2009), research on teachers’ cognitive dimensions had primitively emerged in the late 1970s, however, it was only until late in the 1990s that the study of L2 teacher cognition bloomed, and from the mid- 1990s onwards, there was a rapid increase in the research examining various aspects of what L2 teachers know, believe and think, and the research of the relationships to what teachers do Borg (2003) revised hundreds of works about terminologies and constructs of teacher cognition from 1970s to his present time Actually, he made-a remarkable contribution to the literature by graphing previous research of terminologies into categories for ease of understanding into a new construct, “teacher cognition” has appeared to be the most cited viewpoint from its first appearance up to now

As seen in Figure 1.1, the construct of teacher cognition by Borg has four components

coming from four main sources or sectors, and incorporates many other related under-

10

umbrella notions, such as altitudes, beliefs, conecplions, pereeplions, images, theories, perspectives, ete, Inheriting a view from Borg’s previous works and acknowledging rescarch

by [hipps and Borg (2007), Borg (2009, pp.2-3) summarized the nature of teacher cognilion and ifs relationship to what teachers do as follows:

= Teachers’ cognitions can be powerfully influenced by their owa experiences as feamers

These cognitions influence what and how teachers learn durins teacher eduication

= Teachers act as a filter through which teachers interpret new information and experience

Teachers may outweigh the effects of teacher education in influencing what teachers do in the classroom

Teachers cau be deep-rooted and resistant to change

‘Teachers can exest a persistent long-term influence on teachers" instructional practices

Teachers are, at the same time, not always reflected in whal leachers do in the classroom

Teachers interact bi-directionally with expenence (ie beliefs mfluence practices bul practices can also lead to changes in beliefs)

With regard to teacher cognition research, Borg (2006) claime that: “Teacher

cognition research is concerned with understanding what teachers think, know and beheve Ite

primary concem, therefore, lies with the unobservable dimensions of leaching - leachers" menial lives” (p.1), He explained the definition by farther stressing that the questions being addressed now were nol simply “whal do leachers do?” bul also “what do they think?”, “what decisions do they make?”, and “why?” (2009, p.3)

Inevitably, a further critical discussion of Borg’s model of teacher cognition can be made contribution to the literature in lis ficld For there are four sections determining teacher cognition az indicated in the figure, it may be inferred that if we wanl to change leachers” teaching practice according to a now theory (for example from leamer-ecntrcdness to learning-centredness or the imbed of the Iwo), we can acl on onc in three, or all of three sections {Le., professional courseworks, contextual factors, classroom practice) except for

schooling as we cannot tum teachers’ time back to their university moment In this sense, it

seems that Borg mentioned sources for the activeness of changes in teacher cognition For example, if teachers are forced to change their theory or method of teaching by a policy fiom

the MOET that requircs changes to all subject teaching pedagogies aligned with modem

education systems without the need of careful sacial surveys for the context adaption because politicians believe what come fiom inodem society is superior, while to same extent, teachers ate passive recipients of the compulsory change It is, equally, clear that Borg’s category cannot incorporate the situation in this case, the reason may be assumingly possible that Borg

might get used to modem system of education like the USA, Tong Kong, the UK, Canada,

and Anstralia, where teachers persist the right to act according to their thoughts: and

ehucational policies are inquiry-hased, and due to social investigations Borg might not have

l1

sufficient information abont the top-down educational policies in other parts of the world; hence, for second language pedagogy in the context of some developing countries, a reference

lo the aclive role of teacher cognition alone according 19 Borg’s theory proves to be insufficionl, The question one may raise o Borg’s model is “Why aren't there more than four componcals for teacher cognition, euch as political faclors, religious feelors?” In other words,

in order lo develop the Borg’s category model, il is highly likely, if not inevitable, thal the consideration of an altemnalive one may be put in this way

Schooling —_}-+(Frofessivaal Coursework

\_7

3

‘Classroom Practice Contermnal Factors }-+) „su mac

Figure 1.2: Modificalion construct of teacher cognition {adapted from Borg, 2003, p.82)

1.2.2, Teacher Perception and Teacher Belief

perspectives, knowledge, awareness, and so on, are usually overlapping in meaning (Woolfolk

et al., 2006) Verloap et al (2001) explains thal“ in the mind of the teacher, components of

knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, perception and intuitions are inextricably intertwined” (p.446) The proliferation of terms has led to “detinrtional confusion” (Fisenhart, Shmm,

Harding & Cuthbert, 1988; Woolfolk ct al., 2006) Clandinin and Connelly (1987) point out

those identical lerms have been defined in different ways and different (enms have been used (o describe similar concepts, which can cause conceplual ambiguity

For case of understanding and distinguishing the two terms, ‘eacher percepfion and teacher belief, and for avoiding the ambignity of these notions, in this study I categorize the

term feacher cognition into undcr-umbrella terms az in Table 1.1 below

Table 1.1: Components of teacher cognition about their teaching (Nguyen Viet Hung, 2012c, p.100)

belief, attitude, judgment, personal being emotional, subjective,

Teacher Hneories, perspective, dc, easily-emerged, unreasonably-

perceplion, conception, being logic, objeclive,

knowledge, strategy pedagogical reasonably:

l2

1988; Pajares, 1992), perception is interchangeable with knowledge, awareness and

understanding Belicf ie differen! irom perception as balicf relalcg to intornal mental processes that are more slatic, whereas perception is more dynamic like knowledge, and il changes or reconsimets when mare or different knowledge 1s acquired (Nespor, 1987, Woolfolk et al., 2006) The catcgory above serves best for the purpose of this study because under the umbrella term - feacher cognition, belief and perceptions are a litlle distinctive from each other (Borg, 2006) In other words, the terms feacher perception and teacher belief in this research can be understood as follows:

Teacher perception is mainly conceined with tcachets* thinking is interpretations or understanding of the teaching and learning issucs based on teachers’ knowledge, the past experience, the current context, the needs, the goals, and the expectations (Borg, 2009) This viewpoint should indicate that I could intertwine usc of the term understanding and conception as synonym of the term perception elsewhere in this thesis

Teacher belief includes the information, attitudes, viewpoints, values, expectations, theories and assunptions about teaching and leamning that teachers build up over time and bring with them to the classroom (Berg, 2009)

1.23 Task and TBLT

Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) can be regarded as one particular approach to implementing the broader “communicative approach” in general (Littlewood, 2004, p.1) In other words, communicative language teaching is the origin of task-based language teaching (Skehan, 2003)

‘The definition of ‘task’ and ‘TBLT" has been so numerous and various in the literature (e.g Prabhu, 1987; Bygate et al., 2001; Ellis, 2000, 2003; Lee, 2000; Long, 1985, 1997, 2008; Nunan, 2004; Richards and Rodgers, 2001, Salabemy, 2001; Skehan, 1998, 1998b, 2003,

‘Willis, 1996a, 1996b, 1998) that it is not an easy matter to offer a unique and unanimous definition In what follows, I shall present some of the most cited and acknowledged conceptualizations of ‘task’ and ‘TBLT" in the literature

Prabha (1987, p.12), bemg considered to be the first methodologist in TBLT research when he carried out the Bangalore Project, regards a task as “an activity which required fearners to arrive at an outcome from given information throngh some pracess of thonght, and

13

which allowed teachers to control and regulate thal process”, He additionally discussed that the TBLT is a frnitful way of language practice as effective learning is urged when students are fully engaged and allached to a language task, rather than jus! learning linguistic forms

{p.17)

Another definition of ‘pedagogical task’ comes from Richards and Rodgers (2001, p.224) which regards task as; “ , an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.c as a responsc)", The cxamples of tusk fom Richards and Rodgers (ibid.) are drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing 2 command may be referred to as tasks Notably, in Richards and Rodgers’ conception, involving the production of language may not be a pretequisite of a task, but it is usually reqired as for full completion They believe that “the use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practive of langnage for its own sake” (p.228)

Breen (1987 p.23) offers another detinition of “pedagogical task’:

any structured language leaming endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of autcames for those who undertake the task, “Task’ is therefore assumed Lo refer (o a range of work plans which have the overall purposes of facilitating language leaming — from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision- making

This definition is very broad, and implies that nearly anything the leamner does in the classroom qualifies ae a task It conld, 1n fact, be used to justify any procedure at all as “task- based” and, as such is not particularly helpfal

With Swales (1990), tasks are “ sequencenble goal-directed activities relatable to the acquisition of pre-genre and genre skills appropriate to a foreseen or emerging situation" (p 76), while Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001, p.1l) view a task as “an activity which requires leamers to nse language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective”: Lee (2000) defines a task is “(1) a classroom activity or exercise that has: (a) an objective obtainable only by interaction among particpants, (b) a mechanism for stmetnring and sequencing interaction, and (c) a focus on meaning exchange, (2) a language learning endeavor that requires learners to comprehend, manipnlate, and/or produce the target

language as they perform some sets of work plans”

Long (1985) described a ‘tack’ as" a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some teward Ry “task” is meant the Imndred and one things people do

4

in everyday life, al work, al play, and in between" (p 89) As for Willis (19968), and then in

‘Willis and Willis (2001): “a classroom underlaking whore the targel language is used by the leamer for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome” (p 173) The

very concise notion docs nol mention the meaning of a communicalive task as it is

incorporated in “oulcome” through the exchange of meanings As staled in Willis and Willis (2009), “a task has a number of defining characteristics, among them: does il engage the Icamers” interest, is there a primary focus on meaning, is success measured in lens of non- linguistic outcome rather than accurate use of language forms, and does it relate to real world activities? The more confidently we can answer “yes” to cach of these questions the mere task-like the activity is” (p.4) Basing on various different authors, Skehan (1996) advances four key featnres of a task in a pedagogical perspective: (1) meaning is primary, (2) theze is some sort of telationship to comparable seal-world activities, (3) tack completion has some priority, and (4) the assessment of the tack is in terms of ontcome Ellis (2003, p 16) provides

a composite definition:

A task ig arworkplan that requires Icamers to process language pragmatically in order to achieve

an outcome thal can be evalualed in lerms of whether the correct or appropriate propositional

content has been conveyed To this end, it requires them to give primary attention to meaning

and to make use of their own linguistic resources, althongh the design of the task may predispose them lo choose particular forms A lask is intended lo resull in language use thal

bears a resemblance, direct or indirect, to the way fanguage is used in the real world Like other

language activities, a task can engage productive or receptive, and oral or written skills, and also

‘various cognitive processes

Another useful definition of TBLT is provided by Samuda and Bygate, who put that

“TRLT? refers to “contexts where tasks are the central unit of instmotion: they “drive” classroom actvities, they define curriculum and syllabuses and they determine modes of assessment” (2008, p.58) This conceptnalisation of TRI-T takes the agreement of writers ax

Le Van Canh (2004a, p.102), Long and Crookes (1992), Skehan (1998) and Willis (19962) Typically, Le Van Cah (2004a) states:

Tasks provide a purpose for the use and leaming of fanguage other than simply learning language items for their own sake Viewed from a broader perspective tasks are simply a

context for Ícancrs tơ cxpcricncc languagc in a range of ways, [or tcachcr and lcamcrs lo

evaluate process and producl, and for leachers Lo select from, exploil and develop

From the aforementioned viewpoints of “lask" and *TBI.T”, it is evident that the conceptualisations of task and TBLT between researchers are not unanimous, They are variously defined For this reason it is necessary to clarify the common features of task and TRLT into following gromps: (1) task and TBLT are meaning-foensed (Prabhu, 1987, Willis, 1996a, 1998, 2007; Fllis, 2003, 2006, 2009; Ie, 2000; Robinson, 2005), which bear some

characteristics including (a) basing on the synthetic approach to langnage ieachrg, (b} noi

15

being based on grammar, (¢) being based on involvement in the completion of a task, (4) using authentic or real-life tasks, (c) making the learner contzal lo the loaning and teaching process, and so on; (2) task and TBLT are form-focused (Long, 1997, Nunan, 1989) which bear some characteristics as (a) basing on the analylie approaches to language, (b) being focused on grammar, (c) there being room for oxplicil learning of forms, (4) building grammatical scaffoldings before doing lask, (e) selecling tasks according to leamers’ needs, and sơ on, and (3) task and TBLT are balanee-focused (i¢,, they are focused on both form and sneaning) (Skehan, 1998, p.121)

Despite the fact thal difforent task-based approaches cxist today (Johnson, 2008, p 184), TBLT, in its broadest scuse, is based on “the use of tacks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language caching” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p

task and TBLT is strongly influenced by Willis (1996) and Skehan (1996), and Lee (2000), in

which pedagogical tasks involve communicative language use in which the user's attention is

‘My definition refere to the deployment of leamers’ knowledge, experience and skills

to express meaning, highlighting the fact that meaning and form ate highly interrelated, and that grammar exists to enable the language user to express different communicative meanings Supports for this choice of notion of tasks came from other reasons According to Hoang Van

‘Van (2011), the series of the texthooke af Finglieh enbject is based on the TBLT framework proposed by Willis (1996a) Thns, a unanimons choice of a task notion and TRI-T framework

corresponding ta Willis” theory is a suitable act

1.3 Theoretical Issues of Task-Based Language Teaching

13.4 Thearetical Foundations of TBET

As TBLT grows out of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), il ccrlainly remains present with lhosc theoretical philosophics az a base (Ellis, 2003; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Swan, 2005) Nanan (2003, p.10) pointed out that TBLT can be scen as the

16

realisation of the CLT philosophy al syllabus design and methodology levels, He went further

to mention Iheorice of narrow roscarch branches laying the theoretical basis for CLT: namely, discourse/interaction basis for learner-learner relation ot leacher-leamer relation, linguistic basis (Linguistic fimctional view of constructivism theory and linguistic inleractional view of social constructivist theory), cognitive basis as in cognitive perspective of language processing (sce Ellis, 2003, Skehan, 1998), socio-cultural basis, pedagogical basis, and psychological cognitive theory The prominent theoretical educational linguistic approach,

that should be acknowledged when inost researchers admitted that they underpin theories for CLT and TBLT is lcatner-centrcdness

With respect to leamer-centredness, Icamery arc regarded at all stages of the curriculum and teaching process, ftom initial planning, through implementation, to aszessment and evaluation (Nunan, 1989) The philosophical reasons for the selection of a leamner-ventied approach to teaching and learning hay been mentioned in xescarch into learning styles and strategies (Willing, 1988, Oxford, 1990), and conceptual and empizical research on learner autonomy (Benson 2002) Historically, the conceptral undezpinnings of learner-centered pedagogy are truly numerous in the sense that its theory of language, language learning, and language teaching came not only from lingnisties and peychology, but also fom antuopology and sociology as well as from ethnography, ethnomethodology, pragmatics, and discourse analysis The influence of all these areas of inquiry is very much reflected in the theory of language communication adopted by leamer-centered pedagogists More deeply, a brief review of theoretical perspectives constituting leamer-centredness and TBIT is worth regarding,

With linguistic perspectives, learner-centered approach is supposed to be a combination of linguistic theories, such as functionalism, structuralism, and sociolingnistic theory Leamer-centered approach regards language communication ax a syntheste of textual, interpersonal, and ideational fimctions according to the Iallidayian viewpoint which was much different from Chomsky's perspective in language natire when he demonstrated the generative nature of the language system and hypothesized about the innate ability of the

hnman mind te acquire it These functions, according ta Rreen and Candlin (1980), refer to

the abilities of interpretation, expression, and negotiation, all of which are mutnally interconnected with one another during communicative performances They suggest that:

Language learning is most appropriately seen as communicative interaction invofving all the participants in the learning ane including the various material resources on which the learning

is exercised Therefore, language leamming may be seen as a process which grows onl of the interaction between leamers, teachers, texts and activities (p 95)

1?

Leamer-centered pedagogy also necds to acknowlcdge Hymes" 6øciolingadstic Theary

in which communicative compelence is supposed lo incorporate sociocultural norms thal contol language communicalion, In addition, duis educational linguistic co-accidentally relales lo Austin’s Speech Act Theory in thal conmmunicative performances need the elaborations of how language users perform specch acts such ae requesting, informing, apologizing, and so forth, As illustrated, with those underpinned linguistic theories, leamer- centered approach allowed TBLT to balance the development of both accuracy and flueney in

language performances, where accuracy activities involve conscious learning of grammar and

flucney activities focus on communicative potential (Brumfit, 1984)

With regard to theorics of language learning, leamer-centered approach is supposed to

be the combination of psychological theories, such as Cognitive perspectives, Heuristic Perspectives, Constructivism, Input hypothesis, Socio-cultural perspectives Heuristic Perspectives ot Experiential Learnung Theory is the “learning by doing” viewpoint mentioned

by some famous waiters (Litflewood, 1981, Prabhu, 1987, Savignon, 1997, Nunan, 2004), where the leamner-centeved approach takes the learnet’s immediate personal expetiences and intellectual as a point of departure for the learning experience The most articulate application

of experiential learning fo Janguage teaching is provided by Kohonen (1992) cited in Nunan (2004) In numerous respects, the model can be regarded ae the theorehcal imiiation for TBLT, as the following list of maxims for action is mostly originated from his work

«© Encourage the transformation of knawlcdss within the learner rather than the transmission of knowledge from the teacher Lo the teamer

s _ lšncoungc learners Lo participate actively in small, collaborative groups (I ste group and pair work as important, although I recogatize that there are many contexts where class size makes pair and group work difficult)

w Embrace a holistic attitude towards subject matter rather than a static, atomistic and hierarchical attimde

© Fimphasize process rather than product, leaming how to leam, self-inquiry, social and communication sills

© Encourage self-directed rather than tcacher-directed Icarning

© Promote intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation

© Learner centerednese and autonomy

(Nhan, 2004, p 14)

Jeon and Hahn (2006) belicvcd that the TBLT is basod on the Constructivist Theory of lcaming and CLT methodology Nunan (2004) agreed with Kohonen (1992, p.37) when he emphasized that “experiential leamning theory” gives the fundamental philosophical base of learning as a featue of sclfimprovement when it considers learners’ setting or full of affective variables, for example, individual commitinenty and expetieuces In this way, the learners are accountable for their own particular learning with the tasks set up for them

18

According to Ellis (2003), the leamer-centered cducational linguistics approach is promised on a theorclical view compatible wilh the Cognitive Theory, This perspective originaled ftom the classical works of Chomsky and Piaget Inevitably, this approach derives their language learning theories mainly from cognitive psychology, which unlike bchavierism with its habil formation being according to which leamers’ compelence is mediated by teacher inpul (stimulus) and leamer output (response), highlighls mental processes and active involvement of leamers in the learning process; il is duc lo the meaningful, not role leaming, leamers can get the language internalization According to Skehan, cognitive perspectives on Tanguage learning highlight the devclopinent of leamers’ intorlanguage that can influence three different aspects of leamers’ performance, namely accwacy, and fluency Here, accuracy refers lo a learne's ability to use the target language efficiently according to its structures; while fluency is associated with the learner's ability to communicate in seal-time situations, and complexity relates to the leamer's ability 10 uso more detailed and complex

language structures when performing a task (Robinson, 2001a, 20016)

According to Nunan (2003, p.76, the lenmer-centered educational linguistics approach is also laid on the foundation of Input hypothesis by Krashen which characterizes the ability of leamers to acquire a language under a condition of understanding the messages Gnput) that 1s jnet beyond their current level Nunan (2003, p.79) points ont that Krashen further suggested that reception shonld precede production, especially in the early stages of acquisition process According to Ellis (2003, p.23), focus on the input like this could create a condition where language learning can occur incidentally and suhcanscionsly As cited in Ellis (2003), Long based on Krashen's Input Hypothesis to give out the Interaction Hypothesis that emphasizes that the best input for langnage acquisition is only acqnired when learners interact and negotiate in meaning Long argnes that an exchange of information gives learners

an oppartunity to receive feedback in their target langnages

As mentioned in Ellie (2003, p.24), the leamer-centered educational linguistics approach is based an Socto-cuulmual Perspectives on language learning, which originated trom the works of Vygotsky This theory sggests that a learners interlanguage capacity can take place when learners have a chance to interact with ather users of the langnage Specifically Rewards and Willis (2008, p.24) help to explain this point that learners may succeed in performing a new function with help from others Il is theorised that with time and practice this function will hecome intemalised and the leamer will he able to use it unassisted According to Edwards and Willis (2005, p.25), this proposed process ie often called

“scaffolding”

4.3.2 Framework of TBLT

43.2.1, Definition af TRLT Framework

The acronym TBLT stands for Task-Based Language Teaching It was initially applauded by Prabhu (1987) In the bom time, it only existed within the Bangalore Project, and it was not considered an English (caching method until other laler methodologists sequenced stages of leaching to shape them inlo different frameworks This section will explore the model by Willis (1996a) thal was regarded az one of the most common frameworks according to the strong version of CLT In mainstream social academics, the term framework is normally attiibuted to a working theory for the benefit of dirccting research activities Notwithstanding, the term TBLT framework assigns to the favourable way to sequence tacks ot to arrange elements within tasks According to Richards and Rodgers

indicated by Salaberry (2001), a

successfill task sequence may lead leamers to: (a) communicate with limited resources, (6)

(2001), sequencing is a noteworthy issue in TBLT /

become aware of apparent limitations in their knowledge about linguistic structures that are necessary to convey a meseage appropriately and accurately, and finally, (c) look for alternatives to overcome such limitations In this section, framework of TBLT is in tum presented Johnson (1996), Skehan (1998b), and Willis (199Gb) discussed sequencing of taske according to methodological task features, such as the extent of communication (negotiation

of meaning), task difficulty, and amount of planning allowed Others have discussed how to sequence tasks in or to reflect the developmental seqnence of language acquisition Foster and Skehan (1999) suggested targeting a range of structures rather than a single one, and using criterion of usefilness rather than necessity ax a sequencing criterion The review in following section intends to categorize the way of task seqnence in steps or stages

1, Different TRLT Frameworks

As mentioned above, the sequence of subtasks ar elements within tasks to form stages

ig the essence of TBLT framework The sequence of stages in TRI-T framework is perceived differently by different researchers: some experts approve a three-stage sequence while some others approve a fonr-stage sequence and so on Actnally, in the literamre, the number of stages in TRILT framework ranges from three to seven This section intends to review thase

different viewpoints of the stages of TBLT

Firsily, the three-stage sequence has been extensively approved in the literature (e.g

Prabhu, |987; Estaire and Zanon, 1994; Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996a; Lee 2000; Nartis, 2009,

cte.), Prabhu who iz considered the first language eduealor to launch task-based approach, proposed a model of three stages in his work published in 1987 Those three stages include:

20

(@) pre-task (preparatory), (b} Iask émeaning-focused, inleractive process), and (c) posi-task (discussion - attending lo form) This original proposal was then inherited by Willis (1996a) Willis (1996a, 1996b, 1998, 2001, 2007, 2009) designed precisely and approved the framework for TBLT, which was then advocated by many other writers (Frost, 2006, Noris, 2009) Drawing on Prabhu (bid.), Willis aleo saw TBLT as having duce stgce: (1) preparation for the task (pre-iask), (2) the (ask itself (lask-cycle), and (3) follow-up or language focus (post-lask), Skchan (1996) also sequenced lacks in three slepe known as

“weak” forms of task-baved teaching (p.39) In this approach, tasks are roughly compatable to the production stage of a presentation-practice-production instrnetion model (PPP)

Regarding the four-stage model, Salaberry (2001), building on the work of MoCarthy (1998), offered a pedagogical soquence of four stages for students and lachers, Stages for

students include involvement, inquiry, induction, and incorporation, and stages for teachers

consists of a four-step sequence which includes the introduction of the topic, illustration,

implementation, and integration

.As the proponent of the five-stage framework, Ellis (2003) organized task sequence into five stages, inclnding: (1) listening tasks, in which listening of a text is for meaning, (2} noticing tasks, in which the listening of a same text is for gap-filling with missing words, (3) conscionsness-taising tasks, in which the Listening text is exploited to find ont the target graminar structure by analyzing authentic materials, (4) checking tasks, in which a complete activity is required to be carried out despite whether students know the target form or not, and (5) production tasks, in which students are asked to reprodnce their own sentences using the target form Ellis (2003) also discriminates between (a) unfocused tasks (eg ordinary listening tasks or interactions) and (b) focused tacks, which are utilise to either elicit a specific finguistic feahire or ta focus on langnage as task content Ile additionally proposes three principal designs for focused tasks: comprehension tasks, consciausness-rasing tasks, and stnichure-baced production tasks

From another perspective, Nunan (2004) introduced a framework of a six-stage sequence Nunan contended for Ialliday's (1985)'s topic-based units in which three macrofunctions were subdivided into microfanctions, each of which was linked with a specific grammatical form The six-stage sequence of Nnnan's task-hased syllabus is: (1) schema building, (2) controlled practice embedded in a context (unlike traditional controlled practice), (3) authentic receptive skills work, (4) a focus on form (lexical and/or grammatical),

(5) freer practice (communicative activities), and (6) the (commmnicative) task itself In

Nanan's model, the task is the conseqnence of all other work In this sense, as noted by

21

Feency (2006), this shares many similaritios with the PPP format, excep! thal Nunan’s controlled practice occurs within a communicative context thal is mostly absent from the PPP arrangement Nunans focus on form occurs before both fieer practice and the task, whereas

‘Willis' model employs a focus on form afler the task (Nortis, 2009)

Finally, a seven-stage sequence is acknowledged hy Long (1985, 1997, 2005) wha refers to a focus on form having main involvement in meaning, structure, and the contexl of communication The instruction model organizes the seven stages sequence fiom task development to task implementation, and then to aseessmentevaluation including: (1) performance of a nced anulysis to identify largot tasks, (2) classification of targel task types, (3) derivation of pedagogic tasks, (4) sequencing to form a task-based syllabus, (5) implementation of the appropriale methodology and pedagogy, (6) assossment of lask-based, cliterion-teferenced, performance tests, and (7) evaluation of the program In Long's model, the selection of tasks is based on the analysis of real-world communication needs Those tasks ate paticularly crucial to language learning since they can generate useful communication withont the fear of breakdown (Long, (985) The teacher offers the leamer some kind of assistance to help them focus on form if it is needed for communication, this is the moment when meaning meets form While not clarifying the leather's error, the teacher signals indirect assistance for their own solutions to the communication problem without intermpting the negotiation of meaning Besides this, Long (1991; 2005) and Long and Robinson (1998) have consistently argued for a particular type of focus on form in which learners” attention is drawn

to lingnistic feamres if and when demanded by the communicalive activities and the negotiation of meaning leamers are engaged in

‘After examining all the models above, it is found that the current textbook series for Vietnamese schools has employed the three-stage mode developed hy Willis (1996a) ax if is easier to sequence tasks (Inang Van Van, 2011) This ftamework 1s beneficial for the following reasons:

« _ Te most enables learners to engage in communicative activities as it develops the strong form

of CLT which [follows the mcaning-focuscd cricalation;

if easesteachers’ implementation when attaching instruction to demonstrated figure:

© and it has clear stages with specific activities and suggestions for implementation

To clarify those points, amore extensive analysis of this model is provided in the scction that follows

re 8

1.3.2.3 TBLT Framework by Willis (1996)

This section aims to revise the TRLT framework of Willis (1996a, 1996b, 1998)

‘Though this madel has three stages, itis quite distinctive from other thee stage models in that Willis divides each stage into small steps with precise, manageable activities A thorough discussion af Willis” model 1s indispensable as it lays the hase for the design of research

instrumenls, including domains, questionnaire ilems, and interview questions

Figure 1.4: Willie? franewnsk of TRLT (Willig, 1996a, p.38)

According to the Figure 1.3, the three main stager of TIT are: (1) pre-task stage, (2) task cycle stage, and (3) language focns stage, and each stage has its own purpose Ta form this model, Willis (1996a) criticised and changed the previons madel from Prabhu (1987) Willis (199Gb) stated that the teaching framework by Prabhu (1987) appeared to he more teacher-centred, as class performances were decided by teachers’ experiences, without concerning stdents’ needs analysis suggested by Long and Crooks (1992) Prabhn’s framework seems to make learners acquire language only through using il as it keeps students from paying sufficient attention to forms of language (Imura, Kimura, & Kiduka, 2001; Nartis, 2009) Willis (1996b) claims that stages such ae the “language-focus’ in TBLT offer learners

more tine lo reflect on their communication in the task cycle stage

For all of the renovated ideas, Willis (1996a) set up a TBLT framework with three slages mt using different snbtasks and their finctions According to that, the pre-task stage introduces the topic, along with related vocabulary ilems or expressions, which cuables sludents 10 understand the task instruction and prepare for the next stage In the lask cycle slage, students firstly conduct the task in pairs or groups by communicating with cach other, using the language they have acquized This is fallowcd by the sindents discussing with their

partners to prepare to report orally to the rest of the class At this stage students experience

23

using the language, which wall help them develop fluency Finally, in the language focus slage, students focus on certain language items lo analyse and practice them These activitice aim to improve students’ accuracy The following is the thorough discussion of them

Regarding the first phase — the pre-task phase, it is usually the shorlcal stage in the framework It could last belwoon two or iwenly minules, depending on the learners’ degree

of familiarity with the topic and the type of task If there is a pre-lask recording lo set the scene, it could take slightly longer In this phase, the teacher has to do some of the following jobs: 1) the teacher does come advance preparations, in which the teacher has to bear in mind the students’ needs and interests to decide which malerials to use and what kind of tasks to introduce (activities in course book or designed by the teacher), how to introduce it clearly, what supporting visual aids should be brought to the class, and what suppotting linguistic input should be put in the teacher’s talk for students” exposure, 2) the teacher introdnees the topic of lesson and task instruction in a brief and precise way co that students can know what they will have to do to get the goal The teacher should be sure that their students understand the requirements of the task before they engage in the tack stage, 3) the teacher uses activities to help students to lear useftl words or phrases The teacher can elicit students to brainstorm related words and phrases that they may know in activities As students think of words or phrases, the teacher writes them on one side of the board and talks something abont them If the task involves reading ar talking about a text or listemng piece, the teacher canld pick out same words ar phrases that are vital for general understandings of the main theme Lots of things should be taken into consideration in this phase, but the teacher has to bear in mind that this is not the best time to teach large amounts of new

language, and certainly not fa teach a specific grammatical structure It is to boost students”

confidence in handling the lack, and give them something to call back on if necessary

(np.41-43)

The second phase — the task cycle phase is to offer students a chance lo use whatever language they alrcady know to cauy out the task, and then students can improve thal language under the teacher's guidance, while planning a report of thal lask Feedback rom the teacher can come when studenis wanl it mosl, al the planning stage, and after the seport, Exposure to language in use can be provided at differcal points depending

on the type of task, Either during or before the task cycle, students might listen to recordings

of other people doing the task or tead a text connected to the tack topic, and selate this to their own experience with the task, In the task stage, students are usually asked to do the task in paits or in small groups, while the teacher works ag a monitor and a facilitator who

can provide helps whenever stndents need In the planning stage of the task cycle, students

z4

are usually asked to propare 1o report to the whole class orally or in writing how they did the task, and whal they decided or what they discovered This stage, in Willis’ view, regards a leacher as being a linguistic adviser, who is in charge of giving feedback, and helping students to corrcet, rephrase, and rehearse so az for them to draft a wrilten report, The third stage of the task cycle iz the report slage thal is the chance for students to present their reports of the task lo the class orally orin writing, The leacher can ask groups lo choose their

Tepresentatives to report about the task, and the teacher works ag a chairperson (o judge their

performance with comments and feedback on the content and form if needed

The last phase in the framework is the language foens, which allows students to

further study specific features emerging in the langnage used in the task cycle stage At this point, the students will have already had contact with the target language and acquired its

meaning Hence, it is the right time to focus on the specific language forms that carry

meaning Obviously, it is crncial to set pedagogical contextnalization for the task in order lo stndy these language forms The final phase incInding analysis and practice, which sets a supporting condition for the explicit learning of language forme

The reason for this choice is not only due to the model being of precise design, which enhances teachers’ approach and understanding to it; but also no other way of task sequencing

is more comprehensive than this model Fundamentally, the choice depends very nmch on the setting of both the research goals and the textbook design model Many second langnage leamer textbooks now follow this practice

In another regard, the common principles for TBLT proposed by recent renowned scholars (Willis, 19962, Skehan, 1998, Ellis 2003: Swan, 2005) can be represented as follows

«© Instructed language learning should primarily involve ‘natural’ or ‘naturalistic’ language use, hased on activities concerned with meaning rather than language structure

«Instruction should motivate ieamers to engage in language use rather than teacher control

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# Students should be primarily focused on meaning when they carry out a task

© There should be opportunities for focusing on form

© Formal pre- or post-task lanauage study will be uscfil

Besides, there exist a number of other principles known in the literature Leamers” need respect is a prominent principle (Skchan, 1996, Long, 1998; Willis & Willis, 2007) becanse TBLT is very adaptable to leamers’ needs: “ the most effective way to teach a language is by engaging learners in seal language use in the classroom This is done by designing tasks discussions, problems, games, and so on which require leamers to use the language for themselves” (Willis & Willis, 2007, p.1) Authenticity (as mentioned earlier) and contextualization are crueial principles mentioned in varions works According

to Jeon and Hahn (2006), task-based Ianguage teaching provides leamers with natural sources

of meaningful material and ideal situations (context) for communicative activity which allows for much greater opportunities for language use Rahimpour (2007 2008, 2009, 2010) claims that task-based language teaching creates a favorable condihon for language development, and consequently facilitates language acqnisition Feedback is highlighted ax one of the key principles of the teaching method (Jeon & Hahn, 2006, Nunan, 2006, Ellis,

2006, Rahimponr, 2007) A next principle 1s “leaming-centered” (ae apposed ta “learner- centered”, andis based on the principle that learning, of form 1s best carried out when attention

is given to meaning (Prabhu, 1987) In Prabhu’s own words: “Grarmmar-construction by the learner is an unconscious process which is best facilitated by bringing about in learner prcoccupation wilh meaning, saying and doing” Prabhu, 1982, p.2) The philosophical basis for the choice of a leamer-centred approach to TBLT has been reporled in some previous Tescarch: rescarch on learning styles and strategics (Fotos, 1994, Willing, 1988; Nunan, 2004), and conceptual and cmpirical rescarch on learner aulonomy (Benson, 2003)

“With the sccond extent, sorae noliccable principles should not be ignored With lhe six slage framework that favors much form-focused in the direction of a weak version of CLT

realization, Nunan (2004) suggesled seven principles for TBLT, ic., scaffolding (something

similar lo “input” provide in Willis’ framework), task dependency (one lack should be grown out of or built upon the previous task), recycling (the reintroduction of language items over a period of time in different environments), active leaning (leamers aelively work and use

language in most class time), integration (between linguistic forms, conumnicative fanctions

and semantic meaning), reproduction to cteation (learners reproduce language models provide

by the leacher and adapt them to another situational communication usc), and reflection,

(learners readjust continuously their strategies of how to learn)

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43.2.4 Task Features

‘As boing an investigated domain for teachers” perceptions of taske, features of TBLT should be considered, Since being the realization of communicative language teaching, TBLT bears numbers of prominent features confirmed in the literature, such as, attention of the four language skills, communicalive procces focus, puposefulness (moaning focus), language

authenticity, contexlualization, cognitive processes engagement, etc These features are

mentioned and iflustraled by other writers Therefore, this section is intended to mention features emerged in the literature az well as to distinguish between tasks and non-tasks (exercises and activities)

1) Typical acknowledged features of tasks

To a fixst extent, the notion of task features, though being naated in different wording, holds quite a convergent opinions based on task principles Ellis (2003a, pp.16-17) points out, tasks are activities that “call for primarily meaning-focused Ianguage use” With Samnda and Bygate (2008, p.58), TBLT sefers to the comtexts for the applicability of tasks as

a focal unit of the learning and teaching They explain that tasks “drive classroom activity, they define curriculum and syllabuses and they determine modes of assessment” (2008, p.58) Nunan (2004) suggests that TBI.T helps learners develop individual differences and supports learning autonomy This approach provides opportunities for leamers to plan tasks with an emphasis on the learning communication process through anthenfic experience while engaging the target language, clearly determines the purpose of each task and employs evaluation throughout the task According to Skehan (1998), the three aspects of a leamer's performance (aconracy, fluency, and complexty) can he influenced by different types of communication tasks m which leamers engage They suggest that meaning-onented tasks would likely influence the learner's Iuency lo leamer's accuracy and complexity, while form- focused tasks would likely affect the leamer's accuracy to leamer's flueney and complexity (Robinson, 2001a, 20016), II may lead to thal whether the chosen lask type could be decided

as a focused task or not, and it is necesvary ty look at the place of focus on form in TBLT

Of all viewpoints of task features, those from Willis (1996a, 2007, 2009) should be the focus of our discussion as it scrvers the later dala inlerpreiation phase Some of the main defining characteristics of a task arc mentioucd and illustrated under the interrogative forms

as fullows,

it engages the Iearners’ interest;

«there is a primary facus on meaning:

«itis sneeessfully measired mn terms of non-lingnistic outcame rather than accurate use

of language forms; it relates ta real world activities

2?

a) Goals and outcomes

One job of course designers and teachers is to select topics and (askz thal will motivate learners, engaging their allention, present a suilable degree of intellectual and linguistic challenge, and promote Icamer’s efficient development of languages 11 is obvious that all taske have specific objective thal must be achieved, often in a given time, or arc

‘goal-oriented’ In other words, the focus is on understanding and conveying meanings in order to complete tasks sueccssfully, lcamers can use language in a meaningful way in the time of task doing, All tasks should have outeomes which are a litle challenging to achieve, itis the way that makes TBLT a motivating procedure in classroom

b) Meaning before form

An important feature of tasks is that leamers ean feel fiee to choose whatever Innguage foun they wish to convey the meaning in order to fulfill, as well as they can, the task goals It would be defective for its purpose if teachers dictate ax control the language fons that stadenls must use As needs azise, words and pluases previously acquired but yet unused will often spring lo mind If the need to communicate is strongly felt, learnere will find a way of getting around theso words ar forms that they do not yet know ar cannot remember If, for example, leamers at a very elementary level and want to express something that happened in the past, they can use a bare form of adverb, and an adverb

denoting the past time (¢.g 7 ga vesterdiay)

‘The teacher can monitor the student's performance from a distance, and especially

in a monolingual class, which should encourage all students’ attempts to communicate in

target language But this is not the best time for teacher’s advice or correction Leamers

need to feel free ta experiment with the language on their own, and la take risks Fluency

in communication is whal counls In Jaler stages of the task framework, accuracy does nol

matter, but rather it is not so important at the task stage

Leamere need to regard their crrora in a positive way, and {o Ircal them as a normal part of leaning Teachers explain to students that it is better for thom to 1isk getting somelhing wrong, than not lo say anything If their message is understood, then they have boon reasonably successful If they remain silent, they arc loss likely to lean All Leamers need to experiment and make e1ors Language, then, is the vehicle for attaining task goals, tui the cmphasis is on meaning and communication, not on producing language form correctly

©) Tasks and skills practice Some scholars’ opinions approach language leaching regard tasks in terms of four

separate skills inclnding listening, speaking, reading and waiting, in which skills lessons are

28

prineipally designed io improve one single skill and often supplement grammar teaching Other opinions approach tasks in terms of integrated skills However, this opinion scoms biased because, except for reading or lislening for pleasure, it is rare for anyone to use one skill in isolation for any Length of time If @ person is speaking 1o someone, he/she will be both observing the inlerloculor's reactions and listening for the responses; as a person listens to someone, he/she will be composing whal to say nexl, Writing usually involves reading, checking and often revising whal writers have writlen

Teachers follow a task-based cycle naturally so as to foster combinations of skills and tasks The skills are integrated into the working procodure to get task goals, ekills cannot be separated in a vacuam practice

The tack objectives ensure that there is always a purpose for any reading and note- taking activity, jnst as there is always an audience for speaking and writing Carrying ont a task demands meaningful interaction of some kind If the teacher is aware of leamers” current

or fnture language needs, he/she can select or adapt tasks that help them to practise relevant shille To learners, there are a number of purpoees for learning English, such as, academic

purposes, translation or oral interpretation purposes, or to pass a written examination

2) Tasks versus non-tasks

For ease of recognising tasks and non-tasks, itis hetter to nnderpin that tasks must he pedagogical ones which come ftom everyday activities (Nunan, 2004) According to Long (1989 p.19), target tasks occurring in everyday life are sources for pedagogic tacks Pedagogic tasks are derived from the target task seqnenced to farm the task-hared ayllabns It

is the pedagogic tasks that teachers and students actnally work on in the classroom In this sense, tasks are different from activities and exercises, Willis and Willis (2001) point out that tasks differ from grammatical exercises, in that, while exercises focus on ane or some Tangnage strictures ta drill, reflect and reinforce; tasks endevour learners to use a range of langnage stmoires to achieve task outcomes — the forms are not specified in advance As Littlewood (2001} puls il, the distinction between lacks and activities seems nol to be complicated, as most writers are under strong agreement that tasks can incorporate numbers

of non-commumicative and communicative activities in different stages (Willie, 1996a, 1998,

2001, 2007, 2009; Ellis, 2003, 2006, Sheen, 2003; Nunan, 2004) For ease of comparison between tasks, activities, anđ cxerciscs, some scholas (Liltlowood, 2004; Estaire & Zanon, 1994; Ellis, 2000 cited in Littlewood, 2004) based on the table from Long (2000) about the

different communicative cxcrcises to sct up their own continuum on the distinction between