Chapter 5 - Leadership and social influence processes. Chapter 5 covers quite extensively three more of the internal influences in the tubbs model of small group interaction: status and power, leadership, and group norms. This chapter examines the two types of status, ascribed and attained, and the five types of power: reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert.
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• Ascribed Status—the prestige that goes to a person by virtue of his or her birth
• Attained Status—the prestige that goes to a person on the merits of his or her own individual accomplishments
• Coercive Power—the power an individual has to give
or withhold punishment
• Expert Power—our acceptance of influence from those whose expertise we respect
• Followership Styles—behavioral tendencies people have toward authority figures (e.g., obedient versus
rebellious)
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• Groupthink—refers to the tendency of group members
to share common assumptions which frequently leads to mistakes
• Legitimate Power—the influence we allow others, such as our bosses, to have over us on the basis of their positions
• Referent Power—power based on identification with the source of power, e.g., having admiration for someone
• Reward Power—the power an individual has to give
or withhold rewards
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Department 8101
1. What mistakes do you think Rita made as a leader in this case?
2. What, specifically, would you have done differently if you had been Rita?
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• Types of Status
– Some have theorized that power and status are a function of the ratio of the number of successful power acts to the number of attempts to
influence.
– The success rate and relative status of any individual will vary from group to group.
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• Types of Power
– Reward power – Coercive power – Legitimate power – Referent power – Expert power
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• Power tends to equate to effectiveness in the eyes of others.
– Comments in small groups tend to be directed more often (by direction of eye contact) to
higherstatus group members than to those of lower status.
• Positive and Negative Uses of Power
– Most experts agree that power tactics are amoral.
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• An effective leader is essential for optimal group performance.
• Historic Trends
– Trait Theory
• The physical traits associated with leadership were height, weight, physical attractiveness, and body shape
– Circumstances Theory
• A person may be an effective leader in one circumstance but perform poorly in a different circumstance
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– Hypothetical Relationship Between Weight and Leadership
Source: Copyright © 1971 by Henry R. Martin. Reprinted with
permission of Meredith Corporation and Henry Martin.
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– Leadership Characteristics Appearing in Three Studies
Source: Reprinted with permission of JosseyBass, from James Kouzes and Barry Posner. The Leadership Challenge, copyright © 2002 by JosseyBass.
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Source: Adapted from Robert F. Bates. Personality and Interpersonal Behavior. Copyright © 1970 by Holt, Rinehart
& Winston, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
Reprinted by permission of Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
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– Interaction Process Analysis. Categories of Communicative Acts
Source: Based on Robert F. Bates. Interaction Process Analysis (Reading, Mass.: AddisonWesley, 1950), p. 9;
A. Paul Hare. Handbook of Small Group Research (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), p. 66; and Clovis R. Shepherd. Small Groups, Some Sociological Perspectives (San Francisco: Chandler, 1964), p. 30.
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• Leadership Styles
– Manz and Sims (2001) reported:
1. The quality of group output was better under democratic leadership
2. Democratic leadership took more time than autocratic
3. Member satisfaction was higher under democratic leadership
4. The democratic group had the lowest absenteeism
5. The democratic group fostered more independence
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Harvey Robbins and Michael Finley (1995, pp. 94 100) offer the following advice on how to be an
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• SuperLeaders
– A SuperLeader who gets a lot of other people involved is said to develop SuperTeams.
– Manz and Neck (1999) have proposed the idea
of selfleadership:
• We are each responsible for our own choices
• The challenge is to channel these choices in a desirable direction
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Henry Simms, Jr. and Charles Manz set forth the following guidelines for the practice of self
leadership in their book The New SuperLeadership
(2001, p. 34).
– Helping others to master a selfleadership system that is best suited to their own unique qualities is the ultimate goal of SuperLeadership
– Effective selfleadership combines and balances self
discipline, natural enjoyment and motivation, and effective thinking habits and patterns
– Learning and development of selfleadership skills have considerable value that is worth shortterm costs
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Henry Simms, Jr. . . . (continued)
– Facilitating the development of others’ confidence in their selfleadership capability is an important
foundation for effective selfleadership practice
– With patience and persistence, almost everyone can become an effective selfleader and be of benefit to their organizations
– Selfleadership is a logical and effective basis for influence in a civilized, educated world and will provide the best outcomes over the long run
– Selfleadership is an ethically sound basis for organizational leadership as long as it is pursued with the resulting benefits to the individual as a first priority
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• Followership Styles
– Dependent – Counterdependent – Independent
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• Leadership and Followership Styles
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• Fiedler and Chemers (1974) and Potter and Fiedler (1993) argue that a combination of three separate factors determines a leader’s effectiveness:
– Leadermember relations – Task structure
– Position power
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• Researchers stress the following functions:
– Taskoriented behavior – Peopleoriented, or relationship, behavior – The readiness of followers
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• Fiedler’s Contingency Leadership Model
Source: From Fiedler and Chemers. Leadership and Effective Management (Glenview, Ill: Scott, Foresman,
1974), p. 80. Copyright © 1974 by Scott, Foresman & Co. Reprinted by permission of the author.
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• Hershey and Blanchard’s Contingency Model of Leadership
Source: From Hershey, Blanchard, and Johnson, Management of Organizational Behavior, 8 th ed.
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:PrenticeHall, 2001), p. 182.
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• Wood, Phillips, and Pedersen (1986) define
norms as “standardized patterns of belief,
attitude, communication and behavior within groups.”
Trang 28– Withstand pressures to yield, which have on objective or logically sound foundation.
– View differences of opinion as both natural and helpful.
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• Conformity: Research and Applications
– The results of several studies are summarized below.
1. Group pressure does, indeed, produce conformity
2. Yielding can be induced even in attitudes having personal relevance
3. Yielding is greater on difficult decisions than on easy ones
4. There are large differences in the amounts of yielding for different individuals
5. When subjects are tested again without the group pressure, a major part of the original yielding
disappears
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• Conformity: Research and Applications
– Individual personal factors have been studied in relation to conformity.
1. Conformists are less intelligent
2. Conformists are lower in ego strength and in their ability to work in stress situations
3. Conformists tend toward feeling of personal inferiority and inadequacy
4. Conformists show an intense preoccupation with other people
5. Conformists express attitudes and values of a more conventional nature than nonyielders
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• Conformity: Research and Applications
– LipmanBlumen and Leavitt (1999) offer a qualitative anlaysis of the four stages of
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• Conformity: Research and Applications
– Groupthink tends to occur when several factors are operating at once.
• Type I: Overestimation of the group—its power and morality
• Type II: Closedmindedness
• Type III: Pressures toward uniformity
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– Theoretical Curves of Communications from Strong Rejectors, Mild Rejectors, and Four
Nonrejectors to the Deviant in the Four Experimental Conditions.
Source: From Schacter. “Deviation, rejection, and communication.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
46:202. American Psychological Association, copyright © 1951.
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• Group development seems to be partly the result of individual psychological needs and partly the result of the social influences
manifested in the group.
– Phase 1 (orientation)
• Seems to be a period in which group members simply try to break the ice and begin to find out enough about one another to have some common basis for functioning
– Phase 2 (conflict)
• Frequently characterized by conflict of one kind or another
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• Group development . . . (continued)
– Phase 3 (emergence)
• Involves a resolution of the conflict experienced in Phase 2
– Phase 4 (reinforcement)
• The phase of maximum productivity and consensus
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• Summary of Literature on Group Phases
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• Highstatus individuals tend to have more power.
• The leadership style that would be appropriate in one situation with one set of followers may not be the most appropriate
in a different situation with a different set of followers.
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• Conformity pressure differs depending on the type of group, the personalities of the group members, and a number of other factors.
• Groups go through fairly common phases, depending on the type of group.
– The systems theory approach suggests that these phases are simply parts of a recurring cycle of events that probably occur during a single
meeting and tend to be repeated throughout the group’s lifetime.