Chapter 2 - Communication processes. Chapter 2 focuses on four of the internal influences of the system''s Model of Small Group Interaction: communication, language behavior, self-disclosure, and interaction roles. This chapter concentrates on the important topic of communication. Because communication is one of the most important aspects of group interaction, a thorough discussion of it is necessary.
Trang 3• Appropriateness—includes several factors that help determine the timing and extent of selfdisclosure.
• Bypassing—a misunderstanding that occurs when the sender . . . and the receiver . . . miss each other with their meaning
• Content and Process—content of a group discussion includes comments about the topic of the discussion.
Process is the manner in which the discussion is conducted
Trang 4• DefensiveSupportive Communication — defensive communication occurs when a psychological barrier is created, known as a defense mechanism. This barrier acts to reduce effective communication. Supportive communication minimizes these types of problems.
• Emotional Intelligence—personal and interpersonal skills that enable one to induce desired responses in others
help the interpersonal functioning of the group and alter the way of working by strengthening, regulating, and
perpetuating the group
Trang 5• Group Task Roles—identifiable behaviors that are directed toward accomplishing the group’s objective.
• Individual Roles—roles that are designed to satisfy an individual’s needs rather than to contribute to satisfying the needs of the group
• Inference Making—refers to going beyond observations and what we know. Inferences have only a low probability of coming true
Intentional communication occurs when we communicate what we mean to. Unintentional communication occurs when we communicate something different from what we intend
Trang 6• Polarizing—the exaggeration that occurs when people attempt to make a point.
• Signal Reactions—learned responses to certain stimuli, such as emotional reactions to offensive swear words or racial slurs
communication is the use of words to get across a message. Nonverbal communication is the use of physical actions, such as facial expression or tone of voice, to get across a message
Trang 71. What do you think would have been your reactions if you were Jones, Cameron, or Hotchkiss?
2. What would have been your reactions if you were one
of the members of the department?
Trang 8• Emotional Intelligence
– A combination of intrapersonal communication (personal competence) and interpersonal
communication (social competence).
• Communication Defined
– The process of creating meanings in the minds
of others.
Trang 9• Communication Defined . . . (continued)
– O’Hair, Friedrich, and Shaver (1998, pp. 45) identify six key components of effective
communication skills:
1. Creative insight is the ability to ask the right questions
2. Sensitivity means [a person] practices the golden rule
3. Vision means being able to create the future
4. Versatility is the capacity for anticipating change
5. Focus is required to implement the change
6. Patience allows . . . people to live in the long term.
Trang 10• Communication Defined . . . (continued)
– Communication among group members may depend on the nature of the group.
• IntentionalUnintentional Communication
– Unintentional messages may be transmitted by action as well as by words.
– Like the intended message, feedback also has content and relationship levels.
Trang 11• IntentionalUnintentional . . . (continued)
– Groups are one context in which we get feedback on behaviors that help us eliminate unintentional cues.
• The gap between what we intend to communicate
and what is actually received is called the arc of
distortion.
• Most experts agree that effective feedback should (1) be clear and understandable, (2) come from a trusted person, and (3) be as immediate as possible
Trang 13• VerbalNonverbal Communication (cont’d)
– Vocal Cues
• Vocal cues include regional dialects, methods of pronunciation, and the five major factors:
– Volume—speaking with adequate loudness is the first responsibility of any communicator.
– Rate and fluency—if the person is able to articulate well, a faster rate seems to be more interesting to listen to.
– Pitch—refers to the frequency in cycles per second (CPS)
of the vocal tones.
– Quality—refers to the resonance of the voice.
– Inflection—refers to the relative emphasis, pitch changes, and duration in uttering different word parts in a sentence.
Trang 14• VerbalNonverbal Communication (cont’d)
– All verbal and nonverbal cues are perceived as a whole.
– Nonverbal communication takes a different form at the organizational level.
• An openoffice layout, as opposed to the conventional, individualoffice design, is often conducive to communication in the workplace and can lead to greater employee satisfaction
• The décor and layout of corporate offices lead to the impressions that people have about that corporation
Trang 15• DefensiveSupportive Communication
– Gibb (1961) described defensive and supportive communication climates that Whetton and
Trang 16• DefensiveSupportive Communication
– Sometimes it may become necessary to criticize
a group member.
1. Direct critical comments to the work, and not to the person who performed it
2. Turn individual criticism into a group criticism by making the statement general
3. Present the criticism in a way that forces the group members to come up with answers to the problem
Trang 17• DefensiveSupportive Communication
– LaFasto and Larson (2001) divide communication patterns into four types:
Trang 18• Listening
– When we can make the other person feel really understood, we are often seen as effective
communicators.
Trang 19• Listening . . . (continued)
– Improving listening skills:
1. Pay attention and show positive nonverbal behavior
2. Listen for content. Describe what you hear, then attempt to state what it means to you
3. Try not to interrupt
4. Try not to argue mentally
5. Ask for clarification rather than assuming you know what is meant
6. Avoid side conversations.
Trang 20Tjosvold and Tjsovold (1991) offer the following practical advice on how to communicate
effectively in a team setting.
1. Express your own ideas clearly and logically, but avoid arguing blindly for them. Consider other viewpoints
2. Change your mind based on the … logical [points] of others. Do not change your mind [only] to avoid
conflict
3. See a consensus decision. Avoid majority voting, tossing a coin
Trang 214. Foster opposing views. Encourage people to become involved and speak their minds.
5. Discuss underlying assumptions and ideas
6. Strive for a winwin solution that incorporates the best
of all ideas
7. Reconsider an earlier decision. (pp. 13637)
Trang 221. What do you think of the mayor’s action to dismiss Mr. Howard for the use of the word niggardly?
2. What do you think of Mr. Howard’s judgment in using the word in a district that is 65 to 85 percent black?
3. What other examples can you cite of your experiences
in groups where language has created a problem for the group?
Trang 23• The study of the interaction between verbal symbols and the thought patterns associated
with them is referred to as general
semantics.
• Bypassing
– In group discussions, the entire focus of the discussion may be diverted by a difference in interpretation of a given word.
Trang 24• Be personminded, not wordminded.
• Question and paraphrase.
• Be receptive to feedback.
• Be sensitive to context.
Trang 25• Inference Making
– In attempting to analyze behaviors, it is wise to recognize that analyses often involve inferences that go beyond what we have observed and
involve some probability for error.
Trang 26• Polarizing
– The statements get more intense emotionally.
– The statements go from being specific to being more general.
– The statements tend to move away from the topic at hand to other issues.
– The simple restating technique can be quite potent in reducing the problem of polarization.
Trang 27• The Relationship Between an Object and the Symbol for the Object
Trang 28• The Same Object May Be Represented by More than One Symbol
Trang 29• Inferences versus Observations
Trang 30• Surface and Hidden Agendas Compared
Trang 31• Signal Reactions
– A study that directly tested emotional reactions
to verbal symbols proved that strong physiological reactions to symbols are typical rather than pathological.
– In group discussions, certain phrases—referred
to as idea killers or communication stoppers—
are likely to produce signal reactions that are counterproductive (Tubbs and Moss, 2003).
Trang 32– “We’ll be the laughingstock.”– “You’re absolutely wrong.”
– “You don’t know what you’re talking about.”
– “It’s impossible.”
– “There’s no way it can be one.”
Trang 33• Igniter Phrases
– “I agree.”
– “That’s good!”
– “I made a mistake. I’m sorry.”
– “That’s a great idea.”
– “I’m glad you brought that up.”
– “You’re on the right track.”
– “I know it will work.”
– “We’re going to try something different today.”
– “I never thought of that.”
– “We can do a lot with that idea.”
– “Real good, anyone else?”
– “I like that!”
– “That would be worth a try.”– “Why don’t we assume it would work and go from there.”
Trang 341. What do you now think of Mr. Howard’s use of the word?
2. What do you now think of the mayor’s actions?
3. What lessons have you learned about language behavior from this case?
Trang 35• Perhaps one of the greatest dilemmas facing
a group member is the choice between openly expressing his or her thoughts and feelings and concealing or distorting inner feelings, thoughts, or perceptions.
Trang 36• The Johari Window
– The Johari window classifies an individual’s relating to others according to four quadrants (or windowpanes).
• Quadrant 1, the open quadrant, represents our
willingness to share with others our views on general topics
• Quadrant 2, the blind quadrant, represents the things
others may know about us that we do unintentionally and unknowingly
Trang 37• The Johari Window
– The Johari window . . . (continued)
• Quadrant 3, the hidden area, represents the feelings
about ourselves that we know but are unwilling to reveal to others
• Quadrant 4, the area of the unknown, includes
almost anything outside our experience
– Luft advocates changing the shape of the window so that quadrant 1 enlarges while all the others become smaller.
Trang 38• The Johari Window
Trang 395. When it moves by relatively small increments.
Trang 41• Group Task Roles
– Initiatingcontributing – Information seeking – Opinion seeking
– Information giving – Opinion giving
– Coordinating
Trang 42• Group Task Roles . . . (continued)
– Elaborating – Orienting – Evaluating – Energizing – Assisting on procedure – Recording
Trang 43• GroupBuilding and Maintenance Roles
– Encouraging – Harmonizing – Compromising – Gatekeeping and expediting – Setting standards or ideals – Observing
– Following
Trang 44• Individual Roles
– Aggressing – Blocking – Recognition seeking – Selfconfessing
– Acting the playboy – Dominating
– Help seeking – Specialinterest pleading
Trang 45• Many authors stress that the participants in any communication event are highly
dependent on one another.
• The type of group and the personalities, genders, body shapes, and ability levels all interact to produce the outcome.
Trang 46• Four problems related to language behavior
—bypassing, inference making, polarizing, and signal reactions—are related to both the background factors of the individuals and the eventual consequences of group
discussion.
• Appropriate selfdisclosure will vary considerably from group to group.
• Group task and group maintenance roles contribute the group’s needs.