Lecture A systems approach to small group interaction (8/e): Chapter 6 - Stewart L. Tubbs

Chapter 6 - Decision-making processes. Our analysis of the internal influences of the tubbs model of small group interaction continues in Chapter 6. Several different decision-making processes are presented. We begin with a discussion of ways to improve creativity. The reflective thinking process, which is one of the oldest and most often used decision-making methods, is described.

Decision-Making

Processes

Decision-Making Processes (continued)

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Glossary

• Brainstorming—a technique used to generate ideas. It emphasizes brain activity. It can be applied as part of the problem­solving process

• Convergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which ideas come together to form a solution

• Divergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which many different aspects of an idea are explored. 

Brainstorming is one technique of divergent thinking

• Fishbone Technique—a method of examining cause and effect using a fishbone diagram

• Incrementalism—the process of making decisions that result in change by increments

• Kepner­Tregoe Approach—a variation of the reflective thinking sequence. Its most important 

contribution is the way in which a group works through the criteria phase, differentiating between the musts and the wants of a solution

• Mixed Scanning—a decision­making strategy that combines examining a problem comprehensively (the rational approach) and part by part (the incremental 

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Glossary

• Reflective Thinking Process—a pattern for small group problem solving that includes six components:

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Improving Creativity

• Creativity can be divided into two phases of  thinking.

– Divergent thinking – Convergent thinking

Improving Creativity

• Gibson and Hodgetts (1986) identify four  different kinds of creativity that may be  applied to group problem solving.

– Innovation – Synthesis – Extension – Duplication

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Improving Creativity

• Left­ and Right­Brain Functions

Improving Creativity—Practical Tips

The following are some mental flexibility exercises  that should help you improve your creativity. 

These are adapted from Lawrence Katz and  Manning Rubin (1999).

1. Use your nondominant hand for brushing teeth, writing, using the remote

2. Vary your usual routine

3. Take a different way to work or class

4. Seek out social stimulation, especially with people you don’t already know

Reflective Thinking Process

• The reflective thinking sequence first  proposed by John Dewey (1910) emphasizes  the left­brain functions.

– Define problem.

– Analyze causes.

– Identify criteria.

– Generate solutions.

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Kepner-Tregoe Approach

• A variation of the reflective thinking  sequence has been proposed (Kepner and  Tregoe, 1992).

The Kepner-Tregoe Approach

• SSC Ratings for Competing States

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Fishbone Technique

• The fishbone technique is so called because  its outline resembles the skeleton of a fish.

– It helps to identify graphically the underlying  causes of a problem.

The Fishbone Technique

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brainstorming—Practical Tips

One way to get at the root causes of problems is to  ask “why” five times. For example, some team 

members don’t follow through on a team’s  decision (Carr, 1996, p. 66).

– Why? Because team members weren’t really committed 

to the decision in the first place

– Why? Because the team didn’t spend enough time exploring the problems in implementing the solution

– Why? Because it didn’t want to spend the time

– Why? Because it didn’t think the problem was that important

– Why? Because no one thought through the team’s mission clearly when it was formed

• Brainstorming emphasizes right­brain  activity.

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brainstorming—Practical Tips

1. While brainstorming, take 3 x 5 index cards and have each member of the team follow this sequence: Say it, write it, toss it (on the table)

2. Categorize ideas

3. Classify

4. Prioritize

Six Thinking Hats

• Six thinking hats is an intuitive way to keep  your thoughts focused while problem 

solving.

– White hat—emotionally neutral.

– Red hat—emotions, gut instincts, intuition, and  feelings.

– Black hat—represents careful and analytical  thinking.

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Six Thinking Hats

• Six thinking hats . . . (continued)

– Yellow hat—represents sunny, optimistic, and  positive thinking.

– Green hat—represents creativity, new ideas,  alternatives, and possibilities.

– Blue hat—represents coordination, control, and  the discipline to know when to use which hat.

• Braybrooke and Lindblom (1963) argue that  numerous decisions concerning 

governmental policies are arrived at  partially as a result of adapting to political  pressure rather than as a result of rational  analysis.

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Incrementalism

• The term incrementalism refers to the 

process of making decisions that result in  change.

– Quadrant 1—High understanding/large change – Quadrant 2—High understanding/incremental  change

– Quadrant 3—Low understanding/incremental  change

– Quadrant 4—Low understanding/large change

• Model of Decision­Making

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Mixed Scanning

• Etzioni (1968) offers a decision­making  strategy that is a combination of reflective  thinking and incrementalism.

– The ability to maintain a balance between  attention to the general and attention to the  specific appears to be a major factor in 

successful problem solving.

Tacit Bargaining

• Murnighan (1992) advanced a strategy  referred to as “tacit bargaining” or 

“bargaining in which communication is  incomplete or impossible” (pp. 35­36).

– People can cooperate fairly successfully in some  problem­solving situations if it is to their 

advantage to do so.

• Mixed­motive situations—when there is 

simultaneous pressure to cooperate and to compete– imply communication procedures that are distinctly 

• Surmise whether his perception of his strength or weakness accords with your reality.

The Systems Approach

• The decision­making process in most groups  can be improved.

• The systems principle of equifinality is that 

several alternative methods may be used to  reach the solution to the group’s problem.

• The appropriateness of any method will  depend on the demands of the specific  situation.

McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Systems Approach

• The rational problem­solving methods work  well in most cases but seem particularly 

suited to an autonomous group trying to  satisfy its own needs while being allowed to 

do so by a democratic leader.

• Tacit bargaining seems to be primarily  appropriate in mixed­motive situations.

• The demands of the situation play a great  part in suggesting which problem­solving  strategy we want to employ.