Materials Science and Engineering Handbook CRC press 2001 pdf

Table of ContentsStructure of Ceramics Atomic Mass of Selected Elements Solid Density of Selected Elements Density of Iron and Iron Alloys Density of Wrought Stainless Steels Density of

Shackelford, James F et al “Frontmatter”

Materials Science and Engineering Handbook

Ed James F Shackelford & W Alexander Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2001

MATERIALS SCIENCE

AND

ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

THIRD EDITION

James F Shackelford

Professor of Materials Science and Engineering

Division of Materials Science and Engineering

and

Associate Dean of the College of Engineering

University of California, Davis

William Alexander

Research Engineer

Division of Materials Science and Engineering

University of California, Davis

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© 2001 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S Government worksInternational Standard Book Number 0-8493-2696-6Library of Congress Card Number 00-048567Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CRC materials science and engineering handbook / [edited by] James F Shackelford,William Alexander.—3rd ed

p cm

Includes bibliographical references and index

ISBN 0-8493-2696-6 (alk paper)

1 Materials—Handooks, manuals, etc I Shackelford, James F II Alexander, William, 1950 Feb 13-

TA403.4 C74 2000

disclaimer Page 1 Wednesday, October 25, 2000 1:50 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Structure of Materials

Electronic Structure of Selected Elements Available Stable Isotopes of the Elements Periodic Table of the Elements

Periodic Table of Elements in Metallic Materials Periodic Table of Elements in Ceramic Materials Periodic Table of Elements in Polymeric Materials Periodic Table of Elements in Semiconducting Materials Periodic Table of Elements in Superconducting Metals Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements

Bond Length Values Between Elements Periodic Table of Carbon Bond Lengths (Å) Carbon Bond Lengths

Carbon Bond Lengths in Polymers Bond Angle Values Between Elements Key to Tables of Crystal Structure of the Elements

Table of Contents

Structure of Ceramics Atomic Mass of Selected Elements Solid Density of Selected Elements Density of Iron and Iron Alloys Density of Wrought Stainless Steels Density of Stainless Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys Density of Aluminum Alloys

Density of Copper and Copper Alloys Density of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys Density of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Density of Lead and Lead Alloys Density of Tin and Tin Alloys Density of Wrought Titanium Alloys Density of Titanium and Titanium alloys Density of Zinc and Zinc Alloys

Density of Permanent Magnet Materials Density of Precious Metals

Density of Superalloys Density of Selected Ceramics Density of Glasses

Specific Gravity of Polymers Density of 55MSI Graphite/6061 Aluminum Composites Density of Graphite Fiber Reinforced Metals

Density of Si3N4 Composites

CHAPTER 2 Composition of Materials

Composition Limits of Tool Steels Composition Limits of Gray Cast Irons Composition Limits of Ductile Irons Composition Ranges for Malleable Irons Composition Ranges for Carbon Steels Composition Ranges for Resulfurized Carbon Steels Composition Ranges for Alloy Steels

Table of Contents

Composition of Stainless Steels Composition of Wrought Coppers and Copper Alloys Classification of Copper and Copper Alloys

Composition Ranges for Cast Aluminum Alloys Composition Ranges for Wrought Aluminum Alloys Composition of Tin and Tin Alloys

Compositions of ACI Heat-Resistant Casting Alloys Composition of Zinc Die Casting Alloys

Compositions of Wrought Superalloys Typical Composition of Glass-Ceramics

CHAPTER 3 Phase Diagram Sources

Phase Diagram Sources

CHAPTER 4 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Data

Bond Strengths in Diatomic Molecules Bond Strengths of Polyatomic Molecules Solubility of Copper and Copper Alloys Heat of Formation of Inorganic Oxides Phase Change Thermodynamic Properties for The Elements Phase Change Thermodynamic Properties of Oxides Melting Points of the Elements

Melting Points of Elements and Inorganic Compounds Melting Points Of Ceramics

Heat of Fusion For Elements and Inorganic Compounds Heats of Sublimation of Metals and Their Oxides Key to Tables of Thermodynamic Coefficients Thermodynamic Coefficients for Selected Elements

Table of Contents

Values of The Error Function Diffusion in Metallic Systems Diffusion of Metals into Metals Diffusion in Semiconductors

CHAPTER 5 Thermal Properties of Materials

Specific Heat of the Elements at 25 ˚C Heat Capacity of Ceramics

Specific Heat of Polymers Specific Heat of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Part 1) Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Part 2) Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Part 3) Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Part 4) Thermal Conductivity of Alloy Cast Irons Thermal Conductivity of Iron and Iron Alloys Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum and aluminum alloys Thermal Conductivity of Copper and Copper Alloys Thermal Conductivity of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys Thermal Conductivity of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Thermal Conductivity of Lead and Lead Alloys Thermal Conductivity of Tin, Titanium, Zinc and their Alloys Thermal Conductivity of Pure Metals

Thermal Conductivity of Ceramics Thermal Conductivity of Glasses Thermal Conductivity of Cryogenic Insulation Thermal Conductivity of Cryogenic Supports Thermal Conductivity of Special Concretes Thermal Conductivity of SiC-Whisker-Reinforced Ceramics Thermal Conductivity of Polymers

Thermal Conductivity of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Thermal Expansion of Wrought Stainless Steels Thermal Expansion of Wrought Titanium Alloys

Table of Contents

Thermal Expansion of Graphite Magnesium Castings Linear Thermal Expansion of Metals and Alloys Thermal Expansion of Ceramics

Thermal Expansion of SiC-Whisker-Reinforced Ceramics Thermal Expansion of Glasses

Thermal Expansion of Polymers Thermal Expansion Coefficients of Materials for Integrated Circuits Thermal Expansion of Silicon Carbide SCS–2–Al

ASTM B 601 Temper Designation Codes for Copper and Copper Alloys

Temper Designation System for Aluminum Alloys Tool Steel Softening After 100 Hours

Thermoplastic Polyester Softening with Temperature Heat-Deflection Temperature

of Carbon- and Glass-Reinforced Engineering Thermoplastics

CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Tensile Strength of Tool Steels Tensile Strength of Gray Cast Irons Tensile Strength of Gray Cast Iron Bars Tensile Strength of Ductile Irons Tensile Strength of Malleable Iron Castings Tensile Strength of Austenitic Stainless Steels Tensile Strength of Ferritic Stainless Steels Tensile Strength

of Precipitation-Hardening Austenitic Stainless Steels Tensile Strength of High–Nitrogen Austenitic Stainless Steels Tensile Strength of Martensitic Stainless Steels

Tensile Strength of Wrought Coppers and Copper Alloys

Table of Contents

Tensile Strength

of Wrought Titanium Alloys at Room Temperature Tensile Strength of Wrought Titanium Alloys at High Temperature Tensile Strength of Refractory Metal Alloys

Tensile Strength of Ceramics Tensile Strength of Glass Tensile Strength of Polymers Tensile Strength of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Tensile Strength

of Carbon- and Glass-Reinforced Engineering Thermoplastics Strength of Graphite Fiber Reinforced Metals

Tensile Strength of Graphite/Magnesium Castings Tensile Strength of Graphite/Aluminum Composites Tensile Strength of Graphite/Aluminum Composites Tensile Strength of Silicon Carbide SCS–2–Al Ultimate Tensile Strength of Investment Cast Silicon Carbide SCS–Al Ultimate Tensile Strength

of Silicon Carbide–Aluminum Alloy Composites Tensile Strength of SiC-Whisker–Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Ultimate Tensile Strength

of Aluminum Alloy Reinforced with SiC Whiskers vs Temperature Ultimate Tensile Strength

of Reinforced Aluminum Alloy vs Temperature Tensile Strength

of Polycrystalline–Alumina–Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Tensile Strength of Boron/Aluminum Composites Compressive Strength of Gray Cast Iron Bars Compressive Strength of Ceramics

Compressive Strength of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Ultimate Compressive Strength

of Investment Cast Silicon Carbide SCS–Al Yield Strength of Tool Steels

Yield Strength of Ductile Irons Yield Strength of Malleable Iron Castings Yield Strength of Austenitic Stainless Steels

Table of Contents

Yield Strength of Ferritic Stainless Steels Yield Strength of Martensitic Stainless Steels Yield Strength of Precipitation-Hardening Austenitic Stainless Steels Yield Strength of High–Nitrogen Austenitic Stainless Steels

Yield Strength of Wrought Coppers and Copper Alloys Yield Strength of Cast Aluminum Alloys

Yield Strength of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Yield Strength of Wrought Titanium Alloys at Room Temperature Yield Strength of Wrought Titanium Alloys at High Temperature Yield Strength of Cobalt-Base Superalloys

Yield Strength of Nickel-Base Superalloys Yield Strength of Commercially Pure Tin Yield Strength of Polymers

Yield Strength of SiC-Whisker–Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Yield Strength of Reinforced Aluminum Alloy vs Temperature Yield Strength of Polycrystalline–Alumina–Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Compressive Yield Strength of Polymers

Flexural Strength of Polymers Flextural Strength of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Shear Strength of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Torsion Shear Strength of Gray Cast Fe Hardness of Gray Cast Irons

Hardness of Gray Cast Iron Bars Hardness of Malleable Iron Castings Hardness of Ductile Irons

Hardness of Tool Steels Hardness of Austenitic Stainless Steels Hardness of Ferritic Stainless Steels

Table of Contents

Hardness of Ceramics Microhardness of Glass Hardness of Polymers Hardness of Si3N4 and Al2O3 Composites Coefficient of Static Friction for Polymers Abrasion Resistance of Polymers

Fatigue Strength of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Reversed Bending Fatigue Limit of Gray Cast Iron Bars Impact Energy of Tool Steels

Impact Strength of Wrought Titanium Alloys at Room Temperature Impact Strength of Polymers

Impact Strength of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Impact Strength of

Carbon- and Glass-Reinforced Engineering Thermoplastics Fracture Toughness of Si3N4 and Al2O3 Composites Tensile Modulus of Gray Cast Irons

Tension Modulus of Treated Ductile Irons Tensile Modulus of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Tensile Modulus of Graphite/Aluminum Composites Tensile Modulus of Investment Cast Silicon Carbide SCS–Al Tensile Modulus of Silicon Carbide SCS–2–Al

Young’s Modulus of Ceramics Young’s Modulus of Glass Elastic Modulus of Wrought Stainless Steels Modulus of Elasticity of Wrought Titanium Alloys Modulus of Elasticity in Tension for Polymers Modulus of Elasticity

of 55MSI Graphite/6061 Aluminum Composites Modulus of Elasticity of Graphite/Magnesium Castings Modulus of Elasticity of Graphite/Aluminum Composites Modulus of Elasticity of Graphite Fiber Reinforced Metals Modulus of Elasticity of SiC-Whisker–Reinforced Aluminum Alloy

Table of Contents

Modulus of Elasticity

of Polycrystalline–Alumina–Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Modulus of Elasticity of Boron/Aluminum Composites Compression Modulus of Treated Ductile Irons Modulus of Elasticity in Compression for Polymers Bulk Modulus of Glass

Shear Modulus of Glass Torsional Modulus of Gray Cast Irons Torsion Modulus of Treated Ductile Irons Modulus of Elasticity in Flexure for Polymers Flexural Modulus of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Flexural Modulus

of Carbon- and Glass-Reinforced Engineering Thermoplastics Modulus of Rupture for Ceramics

Rupture Strength of Refractory Metal Alloys Rupture Strength of Superalloys

Modulus of Rupture for Si3N4 and Al2O3Composites Poisson's Ratio of Wrought Titanium Alloys

Poisson’s Ratio for Ceramics Poisson’s Ratio of Glass Poisson's Ratio of Silicon Carbide SCS–2–Al Compression Poisson’s Ratio of Treated Ductile Irons Torsion Poisson’s Ratio of Treated Ductile Irons Elongation of Tool Steels

Elongation of Ductile Irons Elongation of Malleable Iron Castings Elongation of Ferritic Stainless Steels Elongation of Martensitic Stainless Steels

Table of Contents

Elongation of Cobalt-Base Superalloys Elongation of Nickel-Base Superalloys Ductility of Refractory Metal Alloys Elongation of Wrought Titanium Alloys at Room Temperature Elongation of Wrought Titanium Alloys at High Temperature Total Elongation of Polymers

Elongation at Yield for Polymers Ultimate Tensile Elongation of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Total Strain of Silicon Carbide SCS–2–Al

Area Reduction of Tool Steels Reduction in Area of Austenitic Stainless Steels Reduction in Area of Ferritic Stainless Steels Reduction in Area of High–Nitrogen Austenitic Stainless Steels Reduction in Area

of Precipitation-Hardening Austenitic Stainless Steels Reduction in Area of Martensitic Stainless Steels Reduction in Area of Commercially Pure Tin Area Reduction of Wrought Titanium Alloys at Room Temperature Area Reduction of Wrought Titanium Alloys at High Temperature Strength Density Ratio of Graphite Fiber Reinforced Metals Modulus Density Ratio of Graphite Fiber Reinforced Metals Viscosity of Glasses

Internal Friction of SiO2 Glass Surface Tension of Elements at Melting Surface Tension of Liquid Elements

CHAPTER 7 Electrical Properties of Materials

Electrical Conductivity of Metals Electrical Resistivity of Metals Electrical Resistivity of Alloy Cast Irons Resistivity of Ceramics

Volume Resistivity of Glass Volume Resistivity of Polymers

Electrical Permittivity of Glass Arc Resistance of Polymers

CHAPTER 8 Optical Properties of Materials

Transmission Range of Optical Materials Transparency of Polymers

Refractive Index of Polymers Dispersion of Optical Materials

CHAPTER 9 Chemical Properties of Materials

Water Absorption of Polymers Standard Electromotive Force Potentials Galvanic Series of Metals

Galvanic Series of Metals in Sea Water Corrosion Rate of Metals in Acidic Solutions Corrosion Rate of Metals in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions Corrosion Rate of Metals in Air

Corrosion Rates of 1020 Steel at 70˚F Corrosion Rates of Grey Cast Iron at 70˚F Corrosion Rates of Ni–Resist Cast Iron at 70˚F

Flammability of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics

CHAPTER 10 Selecting Structural Properties

Selecting Atomic Radii of the Elements Selecting Ionic Radii of the Elements Selecting Bond Lengths Between Elements Selecting Bond Angles Between Elements Selecting Density of the Elements

CHAPTER 11 Selecting Thermodynamic

and Kinetic Properties

Selecting Bond Strengths in Diatomic Molecules Selecting Bond Strengths of Polyatomic Molecules Selecting Heat of Formation of Inorganic Oxides Selecting Specific Heat of Elements

Selecting Specific Heat of Polymers Selecting Melting Points of The Elements Selecting Melting Points of Elements and Inorganic Compounds Selecting Melting Points of Ceramics

Selecting Heat of Fusion For Elements and Inorganic Compounds Selecting Entropy of the Elements

Table of Contents

Selecting Diffusion Activation Energy in Metallic Systems

CHAPTER 12 Selecting Thermal Properties

Selecting Thermal Conductivity of Metals Selecting Thermal Conductivity of Metals at Temperature Selecting Thermal Conductivity of Alloy Cast Irons Selecting Thermal Conductivity of Ceramics Selecting Thermal Conductivity of Ceramics at Temperature Selecting Thermal Conductivity of Polymers

Selecting Thermal Expansion of Tool Steels Selecting Thermal Expansion of Tool Steels at Temperature Selecting Thermal Expansion of Alloy Cast Irons

Selecting Thermal Expansion of Ceramics Selecting Thermal Expansion of Glasses Selecting Thermal Expansion of Polymers Selecting Thermal Expansion Coefficients for Materials used in Integrated Circuits Selecting Thermal Expansion Coefficients for Materials used in Integrated Circuits at Temperature

CHAPTER 13 Selecting Mechanical Properties

Selecting Tensile Strength of Tool Steels Selecting Tensile Strength of Gray Cast Irons Selecting Tensile Strength of Ductile Irons Selecting Tensile Strengths of Malleable Iron Castings Selecting Tensile Strengths of Aluminum Casting Alloys Selecting Tensile Strengths of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Selecting Tensile Strengths of Ceramics

Selecting Tensile Strengths of Glass

Table of Contents

Selecting Yield Strengths of Ductile Irons Selecting Yield Strengths of Malleable Iron Castings Selecting Yield Strengths of Cast Aluminum Alloys Selecting Yield Strengths of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Selecting Yield Strengths of Polymers

Selecting Compressive Yield Strengths of Polymers Selecting Flexural Strengths of Polymers

Selecting Shear Strengths of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Selecting Torsional Shear Strengths of Gray Cast Iron Bars Selecting Hardness of Tool Steels

Selecting Hardness of Gray Cast Irons Selecting Hardness of Gray Cast Iron Bars Selecting Hardness of Ductile Irons Selecting Hardness of Malleable Iron Castings Selecting Hardness of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Selecting Hardness of Ceramics

Selecting Microhardness of Glass Selecting Hardness of Polymers Selecting Coefficients of Static Friction for Polymers Selecting Abrasion Resistance of Polymers

Selecting Fatigue Strengths of Wrought Aluminum Alloys Selecting Reversed Bending Fatigue Limits of Gray Cast Iron Bars Selecting Impact Energy of Tool Steels

Selecting Impact Strengths of Polymers Selecting Tensile Moduli of Gray Cast Irons Selecting Tensile Moduli of Treated Ductile Irons Selecting Young’s Moduli of Ceramics

Selecting Young’s Moduli of Glass Selecting Moduli of Elasticity in Tension for Polymers Selecting Compression Moduli of Treated Ductile Irons Selecting Modulus of Elasticity in Compression for Polymers Selecting Bulk Moduli of Glass

Selecting Elongation of Ductile Irons Selecting Elongation of Malleable Iron Castings Selecting Total Elongation of Cast Aluminum Alloys Selecting Total Elongation of Polymers

Selecting Elongation at Yield of Polymers Selecting Area Reduction of Tool Steels

CHAPTER 14 Selecting Electrical Properties

Selecting Electrical Resistivity of Alloy Cast Irons Selecting Resistivity of Ceramics

Selecting Volume Resistivity of Glass Selecting Volume Resistivity of Polymers Selecting Critical Temperature of Superconductive Elements Selecting Dissipation Factor for Polymers at 60 Hz

Selecting Dissipation Factor for Polymers at 1 MHz Selecting Dielectric Strength of Polymers

Selecting Dielectric Constants of Polymers at 60 Hz Selecting Dielectric Constants of Polymers at 1 MHz

Table of Contents

Selecting Arc Resistance of Polymers

CHAPTER 15 Selecting Optical Properties

Selecting Transmission Range of Optical Materials Selecting Transparency of Polymers

Selecting Refractive Indices of Glasses Selecting Refractive Indices of Polymers

CHAPTER 16 Selecting Chemical Properties

Selecting Water Absorption of Polymers Selecting Iron Alloys in 10% Corrosive Medium Selecting Iron Alloys in 100% Corrosive Medium Selecting Nonferrous Metals for use in a 10% Corrosive Medium Selecting Nonferrous Metals for use in a 100% Corrosive Medium Selecting Corrosion Rates of Metals

Selecting Corrosion Rates of Metals in Corrosive Environments Selecting Flammability of Polymers

To Penelope and Scott Li-Li and Cassie

2.1 Front Matter Page xvii Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Shackelford, James F et al “Structure of Materials”

Materials Science and Engineering Handbook

Ed James F Shackelford & W Alexander

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2001

Bond Structure

Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements Bond Length Values Between Elements Periodic Table of Carbon Bond Lengths (Å) Carbon Bond Lengths

3.0 Structure Page 1 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Structure of Ceramics

Density

Atomic Mass of Selected Elements Solid Density of Selected Elements Density of Iron and Iron Alloys Density of Wrought Stainless Steels Density of Stainless Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys Density of Aluminum Alloys

Density of Copper and Copper Alloys Density of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys Density of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Density of Lead and Lead Alloys Density of Tin and Tin Alloys Density of Wrought Titanium Alloys Density of Titanium and Titanium alloys Density of Zinc and Zinc Alloys

Density of Permanent Magnet Materials Density of Precious Metals

Density of Superalloys Density of Selected Ceramics Density of Glasses

Specific Gravity of Polymers Density of 55MSI Graphite/6061 Aluminum Composites Density of Graphite Fiber Reinforced Metals

Density of Si3N4 Composites 3.0 Structure Page 2 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Structural Properties

Table 1 E LECTRONIC S TRUCTURE OF S ELECTED E LEMENTS

At Element Sym Electronic Configuration No.

Abundance (%)

Abundance (%)

Source: Wang, Y., Ed., Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides, The Chemical Rubber Co.,Cleveland, 1969, 25

3.1 Structure Page 6 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

Source:

3.1 Structure Page 7 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

Source: Wang, Y., Ed., Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides, The Chemical Rubber Co.,Cleveland, 1969, 25

3.1 Structure Page 8 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

3.1 Structure Page 9 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

Source: Wang, Y., Ed., Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides, The Chemical Rubber Co.,Cleveland, 1969, 25

3.1 Structure Page 10 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

3.1 Structure Page 11 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

Source: Wang, Y., Ed., Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides, The Chemical Rubber Co.,Cleveland, 1969, 25

3.1 Structure Page 12 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

3.1 Structure Page 13 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

Source: Wang, Y., Ed., Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides, The Chemical Rubber Co.,Cleveland, 1969, 25

3.1 Structure Page 14 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

Abundance (%)

Source: Wang, Y., Ed., Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides, The Chemical Rubber Co.,

Cleveland, 1969, 25

3.1 Structure Page 15 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

13Al

14Si

15P

16S

17Cl

18Ar19

K

20Ca

21Sc

22Ti

23V

24Cr

25Mn

26Fe

27Co

28Ni

29Cu

30Zn

31Ga

32Ge

33As

34Se

35Br

36Kr37

55

87Fr

88Ra

57

89Ac

90Th

91Pa

92U

93Np

94Pu

95Am

96Cm

97Bk

98Cf

99Es

100Fm

101Md

102No

103Lw

3.2 Structure L Page 16 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

13Al19

K

20Ca

21Sc

22Ti

23V

24Cr

25Mn

26Fe

27Co

28Ni

29Cu

30Zn

31Ga37

55

87Fr

88Ra

3.2 Structure L Page 17 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00

13Al

14Si

15P

16S19

K

20Ca

21Sc

22Ti

23V

24Cr

25Mn

26Fe

27Co

28Ni

29Cu

30Zn

31Ga

32Ge37

55

87Fr

88Ra

57

89Ac

90Th

91Pa

92U

93Np

94Pu

95Am

96Cm

97Bk

98Cf

99Es

100Fm

101Md

102No

103Lw

3.2 Structure L Page 18 Wednesday, December 31, 1969 17:00