Cracking the toefl ibt part 25

Today, the surviving photagraphs produced by these methods are offen reterred to as daguerreotypes, but that desiqnation is, Incorrect, Lis not'surprising that photagrahy enthusiasts heg

22 Which of the follawing is mentioned

in paragraph 6 as a detail recorded

realistically in a daguerreotype?

(B) dearee of luster

(C) how tired the subject was

(D) whether the subject blinked

during exposure

Paragraph 6 is marked with an arrow

[>]

Only a'smal! number of professional photographers ever had any practical experience-as daguerteatypists, those technicians who made photographs througtr the daguerreotype process: By strictest definition, the daquerreatype process was common for at 20 years in the mid-1800s: Other ways-of making photagraphic images on metal plates, Such as tintypes and ferrolypes, were Ueveloped rapidly alter thesadvant

oof the daguerteotype: Thay quickly eclipsed it in popularity Today, the surviving photagraphs produced by these methods are offen reterred to as daguerreotypes, but that desiqnation is, Incorrect,

Lis not'surprising that photagrahy enthusiasts hegart ladking for alternatives fo the daquerreditype almost immediately; The materials \t required were boifiexpensive—the plates: contained silver and one:ct the'developing solutions contained gold—and extremely risky, Strict

adherence to pinaer 2 was necessary in order to avoid

poisoning by noxius g

The steps involved in’ preparing and exposing a dagueneolype were as

laborious and frustrating as:lhey were Hazardous Images were: recorded

on copper plates ta whictr several thin coats-of sifver had been applied

After being fastened (a wooden blacks, the plates wefe- scoured will alcohol arid squares of soft flannel, Since everone speck ot'dust could

easily Creale'a desp enough groove te render the tinal image worthless,

they hadto be perfectly buffed The platesiwere-then bathed in solitions.of bromineand iodine, The thin layerof bromo-lodine thar toned on them,

mate them sensitive ta light, a-whieh point they were (eady for exposiire,

Alfer exposure, the plates were dipped altemately in heated mercuryand freazing-cold water The mercury vapors: tielped fia the images to‘the

d them The chilled water kept the plates from breaking

The daquerrectypists next applied hydrosultate

soda tothe | plate surfaces to dissalveeny bramo-iodine that had not bean exposed ta light and brushed them will a Solution of gold and chlorine to | brighten the images and sharpen their black-while contrast

Thefe-Were difficulties tor the daguerreatypists’ customers foo The expense-of materials and jabor, was.piassed on-to:them in the form.of very high prices Only the'rich could easily 2fbrd tu sil for a daguerreatype 2

in-aelifetime treat, Additionally, daguerreotype piates required tarig

exposures, from 6 to 20 minutes, in order to yield high-quality images

Ghairs-and tables with-special support were designed lo help those posing for portraits fo remain absolutely-stif] throughout the exposure time, If =

they:did nef; the:resulting image would be blurred, Noteven the cleverest

such desian, of course, could compensate for the need of the:-umar eye

to'bilink periodically: 4

>Forall the disadvantages involved inmaking daguerreotypes, no ane : could argue with the finished product when things went well The:process:

recorded textural detail with a realism that Still seems:shacking The sheen

of satin’ and the dull, heavy nap of flannel are easily distinguished Those:

posing lor daquerreotypes:tired after trying ta maintain the same [acfal expression tor minutes:atia time; the resulf was that their features often

felaxed into an attractive thoughfulness, The incentive to develop a photographic process That retained the

advantages of the.daguerrsalype without ttié disadvantages wes thus

powerful The substitute with the: most lasting popularity was the

ferrotype or tinlyps; whichused an enamel-coated iron plate Ferrotypes

became popularwith photagraphers wha set up:stalls at street fairs and ino sive resorts because thay could be exposed and:developed very quickly Iron plates were alsa much less expensive than copper plates,

ad the resulting pholagraphs were less fragile han daguerreotypes,

On the other hand, iron, unlike copper, could rust (not properly stared

Many old farotypes were destroyed by long-term display in hot and moist

environments,

THE PRINCETON REVIEW TOEFL iBT PRACTICE TEST Ml 395

23 Paragraph 7 mentions each of

the following as an advantage of

ferrotypes EXCEPT

(A) durability of the images

(B) lowcost

(C) speed of developing

(D) resistance to rusting

Paragraph 7 is marked with an arrow

[>]

Daguerreotypes Only a small number of professional photographers aver had any practical experience as daguerreotypists, those technicians who made photographs through the daguerreotype proces: strictest definition, the daguerreotype process was common for 20 years in the mid-1800s, Other ways of making photographic images on metal plates, such as tintypes and ferrotypes, were developed rapidly after the advent

of the daguerreotype They quickly eclipsed it in popularity Today, the surviving photographs produced by these methods are often referred to as daguerreotypes, but that designation is incorrect

lt is not surprising that photography enthusiasts began looking for alternatives to the daquerreatype almost immediately The materials it required were both expensive—the plates contained silver and one-ot the developing solutions contained gold—and extremely risky Strict

was hecessary inorder to avoid

poisoning by noxious gases

The steps involved in preparing and exposing a daguerreotype were as laborious and frustrating as they were hazardous Images were recorded

on copper plates to which several thin coats of silver had been applied

After being fastened to wooden blocks, the plates were scoured with alcohol and squares of soft flannel Since even one speck of dust could easily create a deep enough groove to render the final image worthless, they had to be perfectly buffed The plates were then bathed in solutions of bromine and lodine: The thin layer of bromo-iodine that formed on them made them sensitive to light, at which point they were ready for exposure, After exposure, the plates were dipped alternately in heated mercury and freezing-cold water The mercury vapors helped fi the images ta the plales and develo them The chilled water kept the plates from breaking

; The daguerreotypists next applied hydrosulfate soda to the plate surfaces to dissolve any bromo-iodine that had not been exposed to light and brushed them with a solution of gold and chlorine to brighten the images and sharpen their black-white contrast

There were difficulties for the daguerreotypists’ customers too The expense of materials and labor was passed on to them in the form of very high prices Only the rich could easily afford to sit for a daguerreotype

portrait For those of é, a daguerreotype was a once-

in-a-lifetime treat Additionally, daguerreotype plates required long exposures, from 8 to 20 minutes, in order to yield high-quality images

Chairs and tables with special support were designed to help those posing for portraits to remain absolutely still throughout the exposure time If they did not, the resulting image would be blurred Not even the cleverest such design, of course, could compensate for the need of the human eye

to blink periodically

For ail the disadvantages involved in making daquerréotypes, no one could argue with the finished product when things went weil The process recorded textural detail with a realism that still seems shocking The sheen

of satin and the dull, heavy nap of flannel are easily distinguished Those posing for daquerreotypes tired after trying to maintain the ‘same facial expression for minutes.at a time; the result was thal their features often relaxed into an attractive thoughtfulness,

>The incentive to develop a photographic process that retained the advantages of tha daguerreotype without the disadvantages was thus powerful The substitute with the most lasting popularity was the ferratype or tintype, which used an enamel-coated iron plate Ferrotypes became popular with photographers who'set up stalls at'street fairs and inexpensive resorts because ‘ould be exposed and developed very quickly Iron plates were also much less expensive than copper plates, and the resulting photographs were less fragile than daguerreotypes

On the other hand, iran, unlike copper, could rust if not properly stored

Many old ferrotypes were destroyed by long-term display in hot and moist environments

396 HE CRACKING THE TOEFL

photographers

stalls

ferrotypes

street fairs and resorts

[ayuerreotynes

(Inly ä small tiuumbar of professtonal photographers ever had any

practical experience a5 daquerreatypists, those technicians who made biologi iGrovah Ihe da@iieiretfype nies By strictest detinitian,

Such as tintypes and lerrotypes, wate devéloped rapidly after the advent

of the daguerredtype They quickly eclipsed it'in popularity Today, the surviving photographs produced by these mathods:are often referred to as

daguerreotypes; but that designation is incorrest

itis notsurprising that phobography enltiusiasts began looking for

ditarnatives 1a: the daguerrestype almost immediately The materlals it reauired were both expensive—the- plates containad silver and one ot IEtfwgifpitj solutions Gortained gold—and extremely risky Strict

@ was necessary in order to avoid

poisoning by noxious (yases

The steps involved in preparing anid exposing a daquerredtype were as laborious and frustrating as they wers hazardous: Images were recorded

on copper plates to.which several thin-coats af silver had bean applied

After being fastened to wooden blocks, the plates were scoured with

alcatiol and squares of sift Hannel Since even ane-speck of dust could

easily create a deep eriough groove te render tfie-final image worthless, they had to he perieelly buffed The plates were then bathed In salutions of bromine-and iodine The thin layer of bromo-ioding that formed ov them fade them sensitive ta'light, at which point they were jeady for exposure

After expasure, the plates were dipped-altemataly in heated mercury ard

freezing-cold water The mercury vapors helped ff the images to the:

plates-andd developed Ihem The chilled water kepithe plates from breaking

Ý 6 The daguerrentypists next applied hyúrositlfatg fates to dissolve any bromo-iodine.that had rint bean exposed io light: and brashed them with asaiution of gold and chlorine tor

brighten the itnagesand sharper their black-white contrast

*There.were: difficulties for the daquerresiypisis’ custamers:teo, The expense of materials and labor was passed on to them in the fonn’of very high prices Oniy the rich aan afford.to sit for a daguerreotype portrait, For these of | a.daguerreniype was 4 onde- if-a-lifetime treat Additionally, caguementype plates required Jong

exoosures, from 4 fo:20 minutes, in arder to-yield high-quallty images

Chairs-and tables with special support were designed to help:thass posing for portraits to remain absolutely still throughout the exposure fime: If they: didnot, he resulting image-would be blurred Not even’ the cleverest

sich design,.ol course; could compensate for the need-ol the hamaneye

to blink periodically,

Forall tiedisadvantaoes involved jn making dague/reotypes, no-one

could: argué:with the finished product when things went well, The process

recorded textural dotail witha realism that’still seems shocking The:shean

of satin and the-duill, heavy hap of flannel are easily distinguished, Those posing for daguerreatypes tired after trying ta maintain the same facial i expression for minutes ata time; the result was that their tedtures often

relaxed! into.an attractive thoughifulness

The incentive to developra photographic process that retained the /

advantages of the daguerreotype without the disadvantages was thus S

powerful The substitute with the most lasting popularity was the ferrotype or tintype, which used an sname!-coated iron plate Ferrotypes

besame poputar wiih pliatographers wip set up stalls-at'street fairs anc!

inexpensive resorts becatise Fg could be axposad and developed very

quickly, iron plateswere alsa much less expensive than copper plates, and the resulting photographs were less fragile than daguerreotypes

On the-other hand, iran, unlike copper could rust ifrat properly stored

Many ald ferrotypes ware destrayed by lang-term display in hot and: maist

environments,

THE PRINCETON REVIEW TOEFL iBT PRACTICE TEST Mf 397

25 It can be inferred from paragraph

7 that storage space for ferrotypes

should be

(A) cleaned frequently

(C) brightly lit

Paragraph 7 is marked with an arrow

[>]

Daguerreotypes Only a small number of professional photographers ever had any pfactical experience as daguerreotypists, those technicians who made photographs throagh the daguerreotype process Bị strictest detinition, the daguerreotype process was common for f 20 years in the mid-1800s, Other ways of making photographic images on metal plates, suchas tintypes and ferrotypes, were developed rapidly after the advent

of the daquerreotype They quickly eclipsed it in popularity Today, the surviving photographs produced by these methods are often referred to as daguerreatypes, but that designation is incorrect

{tis not surprising that photography enthusiasts began looking for alternatives to the daguerreotype almost immediately The materials it required were both expensive—the plates contained silver and one of the developing solutions contained gold—and extremely risky, Striet adherence to pF was hecessary in order to avoid poisoning by noxious gases

The steps involved in preparing and exposing a daguerreotype were as laboricus and frustrating as they were hazardous Images were recorded

on copper plates to which several thin coats of silver had been applied

Alter being fastened to wooden blocks, the plates were scoured with alcohol and squares of soft flannel Since even one speck of dust could easily create a deep enough groove to render the final image worthless, they had to be perfectly buffed The plates were then bathed in solutions of bromine and iodine The thin layer of bromo-iodine that formed on them made them sensitive to light,,at which point they were ready for exposure

After exposure, the plates were dipped alternately in heated mercury and freezing-cold water The mercury vapors helped fix the images to the plates and developed them: The chilled water kept the plates from breaking

up durin The daguerreotypists next applied hydrosulfate soda to the plate surfaces to dissolve any bromo-fodine that had not been exposed to light and brushed them with a solution of gold and chlorine to brighten the images and sharpen their black-white contrast,

There were difficulties tor the daguerreotypists’ customers too The expense of materials and labor was passed on to them in the form of very high prices Only the rich uld eas ly afford to sit for a daguerreotype portrait For those of fi as a daguerreotype was a once- in-a-lifetime treat Additionally, daguerreotype plates required long exposures, from 8 to 20 minutes, in order to yield high-quality images

Chairs and tables with special support were designed to help those posing for portraits to remain absolutely still throughout the exposure time, If they did not, the resulting image would be blurred Not even the cleverest such design, of course, could compensate for the need of the human eye

to blink periodically

For all the disadvantages involved in making daguerreotypes, no one could arque with the finished product when things went well The process recorded textural detail with a realism that still seems shocking, The sheen

of satin and the dull, heavy nap of flannel are easily distinguished Those posing for daguerreotypes tired after trying to maintain the same facial expression for minutes ata time; the result was that their features offen relaxed into an attractive thoughtfulness

>The incentive to develop a photographic process that retained the advantages of the daguerreotype without the disadvantages was thus powerful The substitute with the most lasting popularity was the ferrotype or tintype, which used an enamel-coated iron plate Ferrotypes became popular with photographers who set up stalls at street fairs and inexpensive resorts because tHey could be exposed and developed very quickly Iron plates were also much less expensive than copper plates, and the resulting photographs were less fragile than daquerreotypes

On the other hand, iron, unlike copper, could rust if not properly stored

Many old ferrotypes were destroyed by long-term display in hot and moist

environments

398 ME CRACKING THE TOEFL

26 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is

provided below, Complete the surmmary by selecting the THREE answer choices

that express the most important ideas in the passage Some sentences do not

belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the

passage or are minor ideas in the passage This question fs worth 2 points

The daguerreotype was a kind of photography that was briefly popular before being replaced by other methods

Answer Choices Some daquerreotypes have lasted long The ferrotype was less expensive and more

enough to be enjoyed today durable than the daguerreotype and became

a popular substitute

Daguerreotypes had to be brushed with gold | The daguerreotype process used dangerous

than they would otherwise be and chlorine to make the images brighter chemicals and inconvenienced people posing for pictures

The images in daguerreotypes weré realistic | Many photographers preferred to continue

and detailed, so people looked for easier using the daguerreatype process even after

ways to produce them alternatives were introduced,

THE PRINCETON REVIEW TOEFL iBT PRACTICE TEST MI 39%

Hormones in the Body

Up to the beginning of the twentieth century, the nervous system was thought to control all communication within the body and the resulting integration of behavior Scientists had determined that nerves ran, essentially, on electrical

impulses These impulses were thought to be the or thought, emotion, movement,

- and internal processes such as digestion

However, experiments by‘William Bayliss and — Ernest Starling on the chemical secretin, which

is produced in the small intestine when food enters the stomach, eventually challenged that view From the small intestine, secretin travels through the bloodstream to the pancreas There,

it stimulates the release of digestive chemicals

In this fashion, the intestinal cells that produce secretin ultimately regulate the production of different chemicals in a different organ, the pancreas

Such a coordination of processes had been thought to require control by the nervous system;

Bayliss and Starling showed that it could through chemicals alone This discovery &

Starling to coin the term hormone to refer t secretin, taking it from the Greek word hormon, meaning “to excite” or “to set in motion.” A hormone is a chemical produced by one tissue to make things happen elsewhere

As more hormones were discovered, they were categorized, primarily according to the process

by which they operated on the body Some glands (which make up the endocrine system) secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream Such glands include the thyroid and the pituitary The exocrine system consists of organs and glands that produce substances that are used outside the bloodstream, primarily for digestion The pancreas is one such organ, although it secretes some chemicals into the blood and thus is also part of the endocrine system

400 Mi CRACKING THE TOEFL

ty

Much has been learned about hormones since

their discovery Some play such Rey roles in regulating bodily processes or behavior that their absence would cause-immediate death

are very intricate Evan amounts of the right chemicals can suppress appetite, calm aggression, and change the attitude of a parent toward a child Certain hormones accelerate the development of the body, regulating growth : and form; others may even define an individuals ƒ personality characteristics The quantities and proportions of hormones produced change with |

age, so scientists have given a great deal of study |

to shifts in the endocrine system over time in the hopes of alleviating ailments associated with aging

In fact, some hormone therapies are already very common ™ A combination of estrogen and

progesterone has been prescribed for decades

fo women who want to reduce mood swings, sudden changes in body temperature, and other discomforts caused by lower natural levels of those hormones as they enter middle age ™ Known as hormone replacement therapy (HRT), the treatment was also believed to prevent weakening of the bones ™@ At least one study has linked HRT with a heightened risk of heart disease and certain types

of cancer HRT may also increase the likelihood that blood clots—dangerous because they could travel through the bloodstream and black major biood vessels—will form Some proponents of HRT

their enthusiasm in the face: of this new evidence, recommending it only to patients whose symptoms interfere with their abilities to live normal lives,

THE PRINCETON REVIEW TOEFL (BT PRACTICE TEST MM 401

Human growth hormone may also be given

to patients who are secreting abnormally low amounts on their own Because of the complicated effects growth hormone has on the body, such treatments are generally restricted to children who would be pathologically small in stature without it

Growth hormone affects not just physical size but also the digestion of food and the aging process

Researchers and family physicians tend to agree that it is foolhardy to dispense it in cases in — which the risks are not clearly outweighed by the benefits

402 MM CRACKING THE TOEFL

Bihar

closest in meaning to

(A}

(B)

(C)

(D)

desire origin science chernical

Hormones in the Body

Up tothe beginning of the twentieth century, ihe nervous system was

thought tơ œotitro{ all communicatian within the body and the resulting integration of behavior Scientists had determined [hat nerves ran,

assentially on electrical impulses: These impulses were thought to he the

S28 for thought, ernotion, movernent, and internal processes suoh as

digestion However, experiments by William Bayliss and Ernest Starling

on the-chernical secretin, whioh is praduced in lhe-small intestine when

foad.entess the:sfomach, eventually challenged that view From the small

intestine, secretin travels through the bloodstream to the pancreas: There, stimulates Ihe release of digostive chemicals (n tits lashion, (he-intestinal vells that produce seorstin ullimately Tegulate the priduction:al dilferent chemicals ina different organ, ihe pancreas

Such a:coondination of processes had been thought 1 require coniral

by the nervous:system; Bayliss and Starling showed that it could eecur through chemicals alone This diseovany j

term iorrrpie tà refef lu secretin, taking it from the Greekwortl harmon,

meaning “to excite” nr “to'set in motion,” A:hosmone isa chemical

produced by one fissueio make thixigs happen elsewhere,

As move-hormones were discovered, they were categorized, primarily

according to the process by which they operated on ths body Some: glands

(which make up the endocring system) secrete-hormanes directly into

the bloodstream Such glands include the thyroid and the: pituitary, The

exocrine system consists of organs-and glands that produce substances

that are used outside the bivodstieam, primatilyiordigestion The — pancreas is one-such oryan, although it seoretes some chemicals into the blood aad thus is also part af the endocrine system

Much has been leamed about hormones since their discavery Some play such figg rotes in be stag processes or benavior that their absence

: sys very the right chemicals car’ SUDpfES8 appetite, cz calin aggression, ‘nd change the atfitude-of a parent toward a child, Certain

Hormones atpélérate the development of the body, regulating growtlyand

forty, others mayeven datine an individual's personality characteristies

The quantitiss and propartions of hormones produced change with.age, $0 scientists have givan « great deal of study to shits

in tha endocting system over time in the hopes of alleviating

ailmants assoctalad with aging

Invfact, tome lormone therapies are-already very: common WAL

cambination of asimgen and progesterone has heen prescribed

for decades to women who want la radice mood swings,

sudden changes in body tamparature, and other discomforts caused by lower natural jevals of these hormones as they enfar midiile age m@ Knowras hormone replacement therapy (HAT), the treatment was also believed fo prevent weakening of the bones At

least ong study has linked HAT witha heightened risk at heart disease-and certain types of cancer HAT may 2lso increase Ihe likelihood that htond clots—dangarnus because thay could travel through fie hioodstream and block major filood vassels—will form Some:

proponents.of HAT have: ieeageras thelr enitiusiasm inthe tace of this new evidence; recommending It only to patients whose: symploms irtertaré witht

their abiities-to live normal lives: a

Human growth hormone may also be given to patients whe are-secreting

abnormally’ low amounis on their own, Because ‘ol the complicated

eligeis growth harmuos hasan the body, sunt treatments are generally tesiricted to childven who would te pathologically:

small in stature without IL Growth homone affects not just physical

size but also the digestion of food and the aging pracess Researchers antl family physicians tend.lo agree that itis foolhardy lo disperse ILin cases:(n

which the:risks are nob clearly outweighed by the benefits !

THE PRINCETON REVIEW TOEFL iBT PRACTICE TEST Ml 403

28 The word if in the passage refers to

Hormones in the Body

Up to the beginning of the twentieth century, the nervous system was thought to control all communication within the body and the resulting integration of behavior Scientists had determined that nerves ran, essentially, on electrical impulses These impulses were thought to be the for thought, emotion, movement, and internal processes such as digestion However, experiments by William Bayliss and Ernest Starling

on the chemical secretin, which is produced in the small intestine when food enters the stomach, eventually challenged that view From the smatl intestine, secretin travels through the bloodstream to the pancreas

There, fl stimulates the release of digestive chemicals In this fashion, the

intestinal cells that produce secretin ultimately regulate the production of different chemicals in a different organ, the pancreas

Such a coordination of processes had been thought to require control -

by the nervous system; Baytiss‘and Starling showed that it could occur through chemicals alone This discovery Starling to coin the term hormone to refer to secretin, taking i e Greek word hormon, meaning “to excite” or “to set in motion.” A hormone is a chemical produced by one tissue to make things happen elsewhere

As more hormones were discovered, they were categorized, primarily according to the process by which they operated on the body Some glands (which make up the endocrine system) secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream Such glands include the thyroid and the pituitary The exocrine system consists of organs-and glands that produce substances that are used outside the bloodstream, primarily for digestion The pancreas is one such organ, although it secretes some chemicals into the

blood and thus is also part of the endocfine system

Much has been learned about hormones since their discovery Some

play such Kéy roles in regulating bodily ior that their

Ụ appetite, calm aggression, and change the attitude of a parent toward a child, Certain hormones accelerate the development of the body, regulating growth and form; others may even define an individual's personality characteristics The quantities and proportions of hormones produced changes with age, so scientists have given a greal deal of study to shifts In the endocrine system aver time in the hopes of alleviating ailments associated with aging

In fact, some hormone therapies are already very common mA combination of estragen and progesterane has heen prescribed for decades to women who want to reduce mond swings, suddan changes in body temperature, and other discomforts caused by lower natural levels of those hormones as they enter middie age m Known as hormone replacement therapy (HRT), the treatment was also believed to prevent weakening of the bones Ml At least one study has linked HRT with a heightened risk of heart disease and certain types of cancer HRT may also Increase the likelihood that blood clots—dangerous because they could travel through the bloodstream and block major blood vessels—will form Some proponents of HRT have fetiaeyag their enthusiasm in the face of this new evidence, recommending it only to’ patients whose symptoms interfere with their abilities to live normal lives, i

Human growth hormone may also be given to patients who are secreting abnormally low amounts on their own Because of the complicatad effects growth hormone has on the body, such treatments are generally restricted to children who would be pathologically small in stature without it Growth hormone affects not just physical size but also the digestion of food and the aging process Researchers and family physicians tend to agree that it is foolhardy to dispense it in cases

in which the risks are-not clearly outweighed by the benefits

404 Mi CRACKING THE TOEFL