Thinking and study skills grade 11

Contents: Defining Problems . 1 Setting Goals . . 2 Observing 3 Formulating Questions . . 4 Using Prior Knowledge . . 5 Using a Library 6 Using Reference Books . . 7 Taking Notes . . 8 Outlining . 9 Comparing and Contrasting 10 Classifying. . . 11 Using Graphic Organizers . . 12 Identifying Attributes and Components . 13 Using CauseandEffect Relationships . 14 Using Organizational Patterns . . . 15 Using Metaphorical Relationships 16 Identifying Main Ideas . 17 Identifying Logical Errors. . . 18 Inferring 19 Predicting . . . 20 Elaborating . . 21 Summarizing 22 Restructuring 23 Drawing Conclusions . . 24 Establishing, Verifying, and Assessing Criteria.. 25 Using Metacognition . . 26 Solving Problems I 27 Solving Problems II . . . 28 Making Decisions I29 Making Decisions II . . . 30 Using Creative Thinking I . . 31 Using Creative Thinking II. . 32 Listening 33 Taking Notes While Listening34 Managing Study Time . 35 Studying 36 Learning from Graphics I. . . 37 Learning from Graphics II . . 38 Taking Tests I 39 Taking Tests II 40 Answers . 41

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Permission is granted to

reproduce the material contained herein on the condition that such materials be reproduced only for

classroom use; be provided to students, teachers, and families without charge; and be used solely in

conjunction with the program Any other reproduction, for sale or other use, is expressly prohibited.

Send all inquiries to:

Setting Goals 2

Observing 3

Formulating Questions 4

Using Prior Knowledge 5

Using a Library 6

Using Reference Books 7

Taking Notes 8

Outlining 9

Comparing and Contrasting 10

Classifying 11

Using Graphic Organizers 12

Identifying Attributes and Components 13

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships 14

Using Organizational Patterns 15

Using Metaphorical Relationships 16

Identifying Main Ideas 17

Identifying Logical Errors 18

Inferring 19

Predicting 20

Elaborating 21

Summarizing 22

Restructuring 23

Drawing Conclusions 24

Establishing, Verifying, and Assessing Criteria 25

Using Metacognition 26

Solving Problems I 27

Solving Problems II 28

Making Decisions I 29

Making Decisions II 30

Using Creative Thinking I 31

Using Creative Thinking II 32

Listening 33

Managing Study Time 35

Studying 36

Learning from Graphics I 37

Learning from Graphics II 38

Taking Tests I 39

Taking Tests II 40

Answers 41

You face problems every day Some problems are simple, or easily defined You can work on themimmediately and usually solve them fairly easily For example, math problems are well defined:

you know that if you follow a predetermined sequence of steps properly, you will solve the mathproblems correctly Likewise, many daily chores are well defined: you know exactly what to dowhen it’s time to clean your room

Many problems are not well defined, though When you are faced with an undefined problem, youmust define it more clearly before you can even evaluate possible solutions For example, supposeyou had to cancel a meeting with your friend Jennie one day last week because you suddenly had

to look after your younger brother that afternoon Since then, Jennie has seemed to avoid you

This is certainly a problem but not a very well-defined one You know that Jennie seems angry,but you’re not immediately sure why or what you can do to help her Trying to define yourproblem can help you to determine what course of action you should follow

Here are three different ways you might define your problem If Jennie is angry with me, howcan I apologize and repair our friendship? If Jennie is angry about something else, how can Iget her to discuss it so she’ll feel better? No matter what’s made her angry, how can I let Jennieknow I’m ready to help her?

Each definition suggests a different possible solution The first definition might lead you toexplain to Jennie what happened the afternoon you canceled the plans Using the second defin-ition, you might try to remember any setbacks Jennie experienced lately Using the third defini-tion, you might decide to send Jennie a note expressing your hope for a continued, strongfriendship

You should examine as many definitions as possible when working on a problem It’s alsoimportant to think about whether your definition is too loose or too tightly focused A gooddefinition will help you think of promising solutions and will not limit your approach to yourproblem

On a separate sheet of paper, write a sentence or two defining the problem in each situation,and explain how that definition might lead to one or more successful solutions

include working longer hours This afternoon your track coach announces that practiceswill be one half-hour longer until the team’s performance improves, and the practiceschedule overlaps your scheduled work hours

one of you is always late for school

every morning when he barks to be let in

Does the problem involve

• only you or other people as well?

When you are faced with a large project or task, you can sometimes feel overwhelmed by the

amount of work you have to do If you work on your project without a clear plan, you might

find yourself floundering because of a lack of focus Setting goals for any project can help you

work more efficiently and reliably toward completion Here’s an example of setting a goal you

could apply to anything you wish to achieve

State a clear, concrete goal in writing.For example, suppose you hope to get an A on your

French midterm exam After defining this goal clearly, you would write this sentence into your

learning log or your French notebook

Identify any external limitationsthat will make further efforts useless For example, the

French midterm is next Friday; so you have to be prepared by then

Understand the scope of the taskto be accomplished For example, make sure that you

know what topics will be covered in the exam

Break the task down into smaller, short-term goals.For example, the test will cover

vocab-ulary words, irregular verb conjugations, and adjective formations, all of which you must learn

by next Friday

Establish time limits or a schedulefor achieving your short-term goals For example, you

could plan to study the vocabulary words the previous Friday, the irregular verbs on Sunday,

and the adjective formations on Tuesday

Periodically assess your progressto be sure you are actually achieving your goals For

exam-ple, you could administer self-tests on each topic or item the day after you study it, and review

everything the day before the exam Periodic reviews will let you make sure you have learned

everything adequately or show you what you still need to study

You may wish to copy these six steps for setting goals into your learning log Follow these six

steps in order whenever you set goals for yourself

Select a personal or school-related goal and, on the lines below, describe the procedure you

would follow to achieve it

Observing is a key component of good writing Read any good piece of writing, and you willfind that the observed details about people, places, and situations that the writer added to thebasic facts of the story are what brings it to life, what makes it stand out in your mind.

Becoming a skilled observer is one step toward becoming a good writer

Stephen Crane’s description of the sea, below, is based on precise, detailed observations Thedescription relies primarily on the sense of sight, but it is so vivid that the reader can almostfeel the seesaw motion as the boat rides the waves and hear the roar of the ocean and even thewater sloshing in the bottom of the little boat

Observing is more than just seeing Try to use all your senses when you observe an object orscene: see it, touch it, taste it (if you can), smell it, and listen to it

Also, remember that observation is an active skill, not a passive skill Observation is not justwatching, not just listening or touching Observation is more than simply being present andnoticing what’s going on Observing well often means being aware of yourself and your reac-tions as you interact with an object, situation, or person Sometimes, trying to “look over yourown shoulder,” or imagining yourself to be someone else with a different viewpoint, will helpyou hone your observation skills

between classes Observe the place and scene carefully On a separate sheet of paper or inyour notebook, jot down the location, time, and any other similar specifics Now note asmany sensory details of the scene as you can, using as many senses as you can When youfeel you have captured the scene, review your list of details and write the first paragraph ortwo of a short story set in the location you observed

or your family Try to make your description and any action you include as detailed andvivid as possible

None of them knew the color of the sky Their eyes glanced level, and were fastened upon thewaves that swept toward them These waves were of the hue of slate, save for the tops, whichwere of foaming white, and all of the men knew the colors of the sea The horizon narrowed andwidened, and dipped and rose, and at all times its edge was jagged with waves that seemed thrust

up in points like rocks

Many a man ought to have a bathtub larger than the boat which here rode upon the sea Thesewaves were most wrongfully and barbarously abrupt and tall, and each froth top was a problem insmall-boat navigation

The cook squatted in the bottom, and looked with both eyes at the six inches of gunwhale whichseparated him from the ocean His sleeves were rolled over his fat forearms, and the two flaps ofhis unbuttoned vest dangled as he bent to bail out the boat

Stephen Crane, “The Open Boat”

Literature Model

Formulating questions helps you clarify issues and explore topics Asking the right questions in

the right way can help you discover the most important points of an issue and lead you to new

information and new ideas If you don’t understand a particular point or a concept,

formulat-ing and askformulat-ing questions about it can help you to obtain the information you need

There are four types of questions you can formulate: personal, creative, analytical, and

infor-mational You will find that you can usually apply more than one type of question to a

particu-lar problem, and you will frequently be able to apply all the types of questions to a problem

You can use the following types of questions when you begin to study a new topic or as a tool

for further study of a topic

Decide which types of questions to use for each of the following situations On a separate sheet

of paper, write five questions you would ask for each situation With a partner discuss whether

you have asked the most appropriate questions

thesis statement

short autobiography

and a better layout

Personal questions can help you decide what’s important to you:

Do I want to take the job at the pizza parlor or the job at the cery store?

gro-Creative questions help you to think about things differently:

What do I think working at the pizza parlor or at the grocery storewill be like?

Analytical questions help you to find out how things work or

what things do: Will I learn more skills that are interesting to me atone job rather than at the other?

Informational questions beginning with who, what, where,

when, and why help you to see whether any information is

miss-ing: Will I be able to take every other weekend off at one job or atthe other?

When you use prior knowledge, you try to understand a concept or process in terms of a similar concept or process that you have already seen or experienced You might need to useprior knowledge during a conversation, while reading, or even when you are thinking.

For example, perhaps your history teacher has assigned a research project in which each student prepares an oral presentation on a particular topic You have been assigned “TheEnfranchisement of Women in the United States,” and you’re trying to figure out where tobegin Because your class has already studied the enfranchisement of African Americans in theUnited States, you think you might be able to use this knowledge as a starting point

You might choose to begin your research by making a chart similar to the one below, listingfacts you know about African-American suffrage and trying to find matching facts aboutwomen’s suffrage Such a chart will certainly help you to organize your factual material Itmight also help you to see interesting relationships among the facts you’ve gathered, and itmay provide a framework on which to base further research Whenever you encounter a concept or process that you don’t understand, try deciphering it by using prior knowledge

Read the following passage On a separate sheet of paper, write down what is happening in thepassage Describe the prior knowledge that you used to arrive at your conclusions

When Colin Sherrard opened his eyes after the crash, he could not imagine where he was Heseemed to be lying, trapped in some kind of vehicle, on the summit of a rounded hill, which slopedsteeply away in all directions Its surface was seared and blackened, as if a great fire had swept over

it Above him was a jet-black sky, crowded with stars; one of them hung like a tiny, brilliant sun lowdown on the horizon

Could it be the sun? Was he so far from Earth? No—that was impossible Some nagging memorytold him that the sun was very close—hideously close—not so distant that it had shrunk to a star.And with that thought, full consciousness returned Sherrard knew exactly where he was, and theknowledge was so terrible that he almost fainted again

Arthur C Clarke, “Summertime on Icarus”

Literature Model

Causes

Major Events and

in voting laws without federal approval

• Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, 1848

• National Woman Suffrage Associationand American Woman Suffrage Asso-ciation formed, 1869

• 19th Amendment introduced in1878

• Wyoming first territory to grant women’s suffrage, 1869

• 19th Amendment ratified, 1920Greater emphasis on equality; women more educated and politically active

Libraries are filled with many types of media: books, government pamphlets, audiotapes and

videotapes, microfilmed documents, maps, and more Every library maintains a card catalog or a

computerized catalog that lists each item owned, and that identifies each item with a number A

library may use either the Library of Congress or the Dewey decimal classification system Being

familiar with these two numbering schemes will help you find information quickly in any library

library has in addition to its books (for example, periodicals, videotapes, microfiches, art

prints, CDs, DVDs, and so on) Think of an event that happened in the United States

within the past twenty years, and research it, using at least two resources that are not books

Using the materials you chose, write a paragraph summarizing the event and list the two

sources

col-lections the library may have Write a paragraph listing each special collection, and

describ-ing the collection Tell what subject the collection covers (for example, the Civil War), or

whether the collection contains a special type of material (for example, the letters of a town

founder)

your library offers any special series, and attend one of the events Write a paragraph

sum-marizing the event Write a second paragraph about the reason the library may offer such

special events Describe a special event you would like to attend that your library does not

General worksPhilosophyReligionSocial sciencesLanguageSciencesTechnologyArtsLiteratureHistory and geography

Examples of Subcategories

Encyclopedias, bibliographiesEthics, psychology

Theology, mythologyLaw, political science, educationDictionaries, foreign languagesChemistry, astronomy, mathematicsMedicine, engineering, agriculturePainting, music, theater, sportsPoetry, plays, essays

Ancient history, biography, travel

Dewey Decimal System

Library of Congress Classification System Category

HistoryGeography andanthropologySocial sciencesPolitical sciences

Major Category

Category Letters

KLMNPQ

LawEducationalMusicFine artsLanguage and literature

Science

Major Category

Category Letters

RSTUVZ

MedicineAgricultureTechnologyMilitary scienceNaval scienceBibliography andlibrary science

Major Category

Every time you write a report or try to find an answer to a question, you must use referencebooks There are specialized reference resources on almost every subject imaginable Yourschool and public libraries maintain a selection of general and specialized reference works.

Research these topics, and write one or two sentences about each, giving the source of yourinformation

Dictionaries arrange words alphabetically

and include word definitions andpronunciations

Encyclopedias are multivolume works

containing alphabetically arranged articlescovering all branches of knowledge

Biographical Works contain brief histories of

living or deceased persons and are usuallyorganized by the particular field in whichthese persons are best known

Yearbooks and Almanacs contain

information and statistics for the past year

Atlases contain maps, charts, plates, or

tables illustrating any subject

Gazetteers are geographical dictionaries.

Random House, Webster's College Dicionary, Webster's Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary

World Book Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, Columbia Encyclopedia

Contemporary Authors, Current Biography, The International Who’s Who, American Authors 1600–1900, European Authors 100–1900, World Authors, Cyclopedia of World Authors

Information Please Almanac, World Almanac and Book of Facts, Official Associated Press Almanac

Hammond Ambassador World Atlas, bridge Atlas of Astronomy, Historical Atlas

Cam-of the United States Chambers World Gazetteer, Webster’s New Geographical Dictionary

General Reference Works

You are already familiar with taking notes in classes You probably don’t have as much practice,

though, in taking notes from source materials when you’re preparing a research paper or

pre-sentation This quick review will help sharpen your note-taking skills Read the passage below,

and then examine the note card that follows it

When you write note cards, use one card for each topic The note card below covers only

atten-dance You should write down important details, cause-and-effect relationships, and the like on

your note cards When you write note cards, make sure to do a thorough job

Also, writing down any questions you have will help you articulate any problem more fully, so

that you can seek specific answers For example, instead of thinking, “I don’t really understand

this point,” you might write: “Exactly what is the purpose of Space Camp/Space Academy?”

Reread the passage above Choose two topics, and write note cards for them on a separate sheet

of paper Exchange note cards with a partner, and discuss your notes Do they successfully

reflect the topics and important details?

Since 1982, more than 90,000 young people from all 50 states and an ever-growing number of

nations have been introduced to the programs of Space Camp/Space Academy

For the temporarily earthbound dreamer, Space Camp/Space Academy provides opportunities for

students in fourth grade through high school to explore all fields of space science and engineering,

from designing rockets to building a space station They participate in simulated space activities,

using space shuttle orbiter and mission control mock-ups specially designed for each age group

Some “fly” the orbiter Some don space suits and walk in “space.” Others direct and monitor a

flight from mission control They learn the space program, but also the importance of teamwork

and the responsibilities of leadership

Everyone who participates in Space Camp/Space Academy learns how to build and launch a small

rocket In addition, everyone becomes familiar with equipment used to train astronauts, and

every-one takes part in a simulated space mission There are also films and lectures in the history of the

space program, future space projects, and career paths in the fields of space science, space

engi-neering, and space flight All of these common activities, however, are geared to the various age

groups and therefore differ somewhat in their complexity and variety

Peter Cobun, “A Camp for Space Science,” World Book 1991 Science Year

You probably already make outlines when you write essays and research papers However, youmight not outline when you study Outlining can help you understand new or complicatedideas and can help you organize your notes and spend your study time wisely.

The next time you read a chapter in your textbook, try outlining as you read To outline achapter, first write the chapter title; then write the chapter’s headings and subheadings Beforebeginning to read, glance at your skeleton outline Does it bring to mind any overall impres-sion about the chapter? Does it lead you to ask any questions about the chapter’s content? Jotdown any impressions or questions you may have

Now begin to read the chapter thoroughly As you read, refer frequently to your skeleton line List the chapter’s main points, vocabulary words, important concepts, or any questionsyou may have at the appropriate item in your outline Also keep in mind any impressions orquestions you initially noted See whether the chapter answers your questions or bears outyour initial impression

out-After you’ve finished reading the chapter, see whether your outline is complete Does it seem toskip any important points you remembered reading in the book? Do you still have any ques-tions about the material? Finish filling in your outline immediately, while the information andyour questions are fresh in your mind Once you have a completed, reliable outline, you canuse it to review the chapter when you are studying for an exam

You can use this method to outline material of any length For instance, if a short article doesn’t have headings, simply write its main idea(s) and supporting details

details

by your teacher On a separate sheet of paper, outline it as discussed above

Skeleton Outline: chapter title, main headings, subheadings Add: main points, vocabulary words, important concepts, questions Complete: recall, answer questions, fill in missed information

The Pacific Ocean is encircled by a “Ring of Fire”; the world’s largest ocean is bounded by about 60percent of the world’s active volcanoes Within the past fifteen years the Ring of Fire has lived up toits name: Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines and Mount Unzen in Japan erupted in 1991; Augustinevolcano in Alaska erupted in 1986; and Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia erupted in 1985 With eacheruption, lives were lost and property destroyed The Ring of Fire is a fire we can never put out butmust learn to live with

Model

Comparing and contrasting can help you organize and understand complicated information

by letting you see the similarities and differences between two objects, processes, or ideas

Comparing and contrasting can help you study or organize your thoughts when you’re faced

with large amounts of information

The first step in making a compare-and-contrast chart is deciding which categories of

infor-mation to include The categories you select are often determined by the purpose of your

chart Sometimes you will already know which information you need, as when you’re trying to

keep World Wars I and II straight while studying for a history exam Your textbook states all

the facts you need to know (dates, leaders, major battles, and so on), so you just need to list

them in your chart in order to understand and memorize them easily

Other times, as when you’re preparing a research paper on two authors, you may not even be

sure which information you want to compare and contrast You’ll want to begin by listing

sim-ple, factual information (such as birth and death dates, titles of books written, and so on) in

your chart But you’ll also need to glean information, such as major themes in each author’s

works, from your source materials Finding and entering in your chart information about one

author may help you to realize that you need to look for similar information about the other

author

Your compare-and-contrast chart can also help you see information in new ways For example,

if you’ve done some research on a topic but haven’t come up with a theme statement yet, a

compare-and-contrast chart can help you see new relationships that may lead you to a

good idea

viruses

and Barbara Brandon, described on pages 4–6 and 48–50 of your textbook You might

select topics such as these for your chart: Where They Get Ideas, Favorite Method of

Drafting, How Many Revisions, How Audience Considered

Many people confuse bacteria and viruses: they are similar, but distinct Bacteria are single-celled

organisms without nuclei; they are surrounded by a tough protective layer called the cell wall

Bacteria reproduce by means of binary fission in a supportive environment Viruses are nothing

more than a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coating They reproduce inside a host cell

by taking control of the host’s protein-making process

Model

Dates July 28, 1914–Nov 11, 1918 Sept 1, 1939–Sept 2, 1945Allied

Coalitions

EnemyCoalitions

Central powers: Germany, Turkey,

Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria

Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and

Japan

Allies: Great Britain, France, Russia,

Belgium, Italy, Japan, the United States, and others

Allies: Great Britain, France, the

Soviet Union, the United States, and others

Classifying is grouping similar items together, whether you group ideas mentally or groupobjects physically (see “Identifying Attributes and Components” on page 13 of this booklet).

Classifying objects or ideas can help you decide which ideas or items are most important, soyou can focus on them

Any classification scheme will have a reason, a purpose, or a result Whenever you classify, youneed to keep the final product of your classification scheme in mind Are you classifying infor-mation you need to study for a test? You might classify the material according to the amount oftime that was spent on it in class or according to how difficult you find it You would spend themost time studying the most often discussed or most difficult material Are you classifyingcareers you might enjoy? You could decide to classify careers according to those you thinkyou’ll like best or those for which you think you’ll be most qualified

To classify, you must examine objects or ideas and decide what their most important features

or characteristics are For example, suppose you need to select source materials for a researchpaper on global warming Your library search has so far turned up the five items listed below,and classifying them will help you organize your research time and patterns efficiently

● A newspaper article discussing global warming for a general audience

● A scientist’s report showing worldwide heating and cooling patterns over the last two millennia

● A report from the government listing statistics on current CO2emissions and projectedemissions over the next decade

● A report by a consortium of manufacturers stating that installation of pollution-controldevices would impose an unbearable financial burden on factories

● A citizens’ task force pamphlet discussing ways to help combat global warmingYou need to classify all these items according to their usefulness and their importance in proving your point As discussed above, you might even devise more than one classificationscheme for these materials For example, you might classify the sources according to how easyyou think they’ll be to read In this case, you might rank them in this order: pamphlet, newspa-per article, manufacturers’ report, scientist’s report, and governmental report

You might classify the items according to the quantity of hard statistics that you think theycontain In this case, you might classify the sources in this order: governmental report, manu-facturers’ report, scientist’s report, newspaper article, and pamphlet

a health club according to whether it’s muscle-building equipment, muscle-toning ment, aerobic exercise equipment, and so on

above, and write them on a separate sheet of paper

enjoy-ment On a separate sheet of paper, list the works’ names, and classify each according to itsformat (novel, play, and so on), the country in which it was written, the era in which it waswritten (Renaissance, Victorian, and so on), the type of work (drama, comedy, and so on),and any other classification criteria you can determine

You’ve probably seen and created graphic organizers, which are pictures or diagrams that

con-vey information A time line is a type of graphic organizer Time lines, such as the one shown

below, show a sequence of events through time For example, a time line could show the major

events in a person’s life, battles during a war, milestones in technological development during

this century, and so on

To create a time line, follow these steps

1. Identify the person, object, or idea that will be the subject of your time line If necessary,

research your subject in order to identify the milestones or major events that take place

during the time period

2. Identify the most relevant beginning and end dates or times for the person, object, or idea

that you will represent Also identify the units of time that are most relevant for your time

line For example, a time line of a chemical experiment might be measured in seconds,

while a time line of a geological process might be measured in billions of years

3. Draw a line or bar (a horizontal bar is shown in the example above) Divide the line or

bar into sections of equal length to match the unit of time that you decided to use in the

previous step For example, the time line above shows three sections of equal length for

the years 1804, 1805, and 1806

4. Enter dates of the major events you selected along your time line in relative proportion to

the time at which they occur For example, the time line above lists the November 1805

date very near the end of the 1805 section, while it lists the June 1806 date in the middle

of the 1806 section Don’t forget to title your time line

On a separate sheet of paper, draw a graphic organizer for each example described below

Early humans developed a number of tools and practices during the Paleolithic, or Old Stone

Age They started making simple shelters and pebble tools, the earliest tools, approximately

two million years ago Humans started creating specialized tools, such as hand axes and

chop-ping tools, approximately one and one-half million years ago Humans also gained the ability

to make fire approximately one and one-half million years ago Humans invented the bow and

arrow, spear thrower, blade tools, and sewing approximately 10,000 years ago Humans also

began to bury their dead and paint caves approximately 10,000 years ago Humans began to

domesticate plants and animals and to farm between 8,000 and 7,500 years ago

you consider important on your time line

Time Line of Lewis and Clark Expedition

May

Expeditionsets out from

May Lewis sights

Rocky Mountains

March

Expedition heads for home

September

Expeditionarrives in St.Louis

Suppose you want to buy a personal computer If you are going to make a wise purchase, youneed to know as much about the available models of personal computers as you can You need

to identify which computer and peripherals you’re going to need and how you need thoseperipherals to perform In other words, you will need to identify the components of your com-puter system and the attributes each component will have

A component is a part or an element of an object or an idea For example, any personal puter may have numerous components: central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, printer,internal diskette drive, external diskette drive, CD-ROM drive, and so on

com-Each component has a number of attributes (characteristics or features) The most importantcharacteristic, or attribute, of certain components (the processing unit and the disk drives, forexample) is speed Before you select these components, you will want to know how quicklythey can file or find your data Other components will have other attributes; for example, themonitor you select will be a certain size and may or may not be able to display graphics

or colors

Ideas, as well as objects, have attributes and components, and being able to identify and analyze them can often be helpful For example, suppose your teacher had asked the class tocritique each presentation of a short speech or oral report You would need to identify themajor parts of the presentation and determine whether each part was delivered well You mightarrange your ideas into a chart similar to the one shown below

Components of Presentation Edmond’s Presentation

Introduction

Engaging delivery; weak ideaBody

• Supporting details

• Visuals (slides and handouts)

Strong, tied directly to main ideaNicely drawn, but data not substantial

Many of your writing assignments, whether in history, science or literature, will require you to

use cause-and-effect relationships For instance, when you read a novel, you may try to analyze

the actions that caused a character to act in certain ways

Sometimes a single effect may have more than one cause For example, two people who are not

watching where they are walking in a hall or other confined space bump into each other

One cause may also produce multiple effects For example, when a water pipe breaks in an

apartment building, some apartments are flooded, and all the tenants must go without water

until the plumbing can be repaired

A causal chain (when one cause leads to an effect that, in turn, causes another event) is the

most complicated type of cause-and-effect relationship For example, not studying well for a

single math exam will net you a single C minus, but you will have to study and achieve high

grades on the rest of your math exams to earn a B in math by the end of the school year.

pos-sible causes of each situation, two to three pospos-sible effects of each situation, and a causal

chain involving each situation

yester-day, and five hundred thousand gallons of oil spilled

get another flight so that I could attend my grandmother’s ninetieth birthday party

sto-ries Write your four causal chains on a separate sheet of paper

Several causes,

one effect

One cause,several effects

A causal chain

The way you choose to present information, whether you are speaking or writing, influencesthe way your audience reacts to the information To create an effective presentation that willinterest and convince your audience, you must first be sure to organize your information well.

Selecting and using an appropriate organizational pattern will help you do this Here are threeorganizational patterns that can help you sort details into a clear, convincing order

Each organizational pattern allows you to point out specific features that you feel give the bestoverall impression of your material

organizational patterns described above Write one description in order of impression,detailing what you notice as you enter the room; one description in order of importance,detailing what is most valuable or interesting to you in the room; and one in spatial order,detailing how objects are arranged in the room

Order of impression organizes details in the order

in which they are noticed or experienced

Order of importance organizes details by their

Liberty holds aloft the glowing torch of freedom in her right hand A crown whose seven spikesstand for the seven seas and the seven continents graces her head Her left arm cradles a book onwhich is inscribed the date 1776 She tramples underfoot the broken chains of tyranny

Lady Liberty stands on an enormous pedestal of reinforced concrete and decorative granitecladding, and a concrete and granite plaza surrounds the pedestal The pedestal and the plazatogether constituted the largest reinforced concrete structure in the world at the time they werebuilt The statue and a few small outbuildings are the only structures on tiny Liberty Island

Model

A metaphor is a word or phrase that equates, identifies, or explains one thing or concept with

another thing or concept A metaphor does not use the word like or as For example, the

phrase “the evening of my life” is a metaphor that equates the narrator’s lifetime with the

pas-sage of a single day Since evening is near the end of a day, the evening of the narrator’s life can

be equated with advanced age

Metaphors can certainly help to enliven a piece of writing, but they can also help you to

understand concepts and remember ideas more easily For example, sometimes the circulatory

system within the human body is equated to a system of roads

Using this metaphor, the arteries becomes major expressways connecting with the secondary

roads, or veins These secondary roads, in turn, connect to side streets, or capillaries This

metaphor explains the circulatory system, which you cannot see firsthand, in terms of a similar

system that you already know about and can see every day

You may find that creating your own metaphorical relationships can sometimes help you to

understand concepts you’re having difficulty with For instance, perhaps you have difficulty

understanding how storms develop Thinking of a storm as an argument might help You can

think of the differences in air temperature and pressure at different latitudes that cause storms

as differences of opinions among friends The storm that results from different air

tempera-tures and pressures coming in contact with one another becomes the argument that results

from the differences of opinion

of metaphorical similarities such as the one above List as many similarities between the

two processes as you can

and create a chart comparing it to some similar concept you already understand

program, a disease or illness, or a mathematical equation in terms of another object or idea

Write the relationship on a separate sheet of paper and explain the details of the metaphor

major arteries veins and most arteries capillaries

expressways secondary roads side streets

Circulatory System Road Network

Formulating a sentence that states your main idea clearly and concisely can help you organizeyour notes and thoughts when you’re writing an essay Likewise, being able to state the mainidea of the essay or novel you’re reading can help you to read with more comprehension andattention.

Sometimes you can find a sentence that describes the main idea of the work you’re reading

This is usual in a news story or essay, when the writer wants the reader to follow and evaluatethe evidence presented For example, a news article might begin with the sentence “UnitedStates voters are disgruntled with incumbent representatives.” This tells you that the articlemay discuss topics such as problems the voters feel aren’t being solved, differences betweenvoters’ wishes and incumbents’ positions, and the like

Other times, you won’t find a single sentence that describes the main idea; you’ll need to build

a main idea out of clues and points the writing makes This is typical of fiction, when thewriter wants the reader to experience the pleasure of discovery while reading You’ll build your

statement of main idea as you read the novel or short story For example, as you read The Great Gatsby, you may devise this main idea: “Jay Gatsby loves and tries to win the love of

Daisy Buchanan, but she remains indifferent; Gatsby is killed trying to protect Daisy after sheaccidentally kills another woman.”

Whether you’re reading or writing, you can come up with a statement of a main idea in one oftwo ways You can review supporting details and information that lead you to develop a mainidea If you already have a main idea, you can study the supporting details you find to seewhether they support your main idea Both methods frequently reinforce each other: detailslead you to formulate a main idea, which in turn leads you to conclusions or to finding other,stronger details

A main idea is a powerful tool, whether you’re using it as a study aid or as a writing focus If youreview an essay or novel with your main-idea statement in mind, you will find it easier to graspand remember the material If you reread your main idea often as you write an essay, you willoften find that your writing reflects and supports your idea and doesn’t wander off the track

magazine On a separate sheet of paper, write the main idea of the article Exchange a copy

of the article and your summary of the main idea with a partner Evaluate your partner’ssummary for clarity and accuracy while your partner does the same for your summary

You may love to visit, but would you really like to live there? First, realize that you don’t have to give

up your U.S citizenship if you live in a foreign country, and you don’t have to live there year-round In

fact, many retirees live in one place for less than six months at a time and thereby avoid tax and otherresidency requirements; they leave for a few weeks and come back to start another six-month sojourn

And many smart travelers go off season (from October to May for resorts and vice versa for winter spas) and save as much as 30 percent on hotels, restaurants, sightseeing, and transportation Also, if

you’re staying for more than two months in any one place, try to lease or rent an apartment by ing through the chamber of commerce or the hotel where you may stay for a few days

check-Peter A Dickinson, Travel and Retirement Edens Abroad

Literature Model

Logical errors are flaws in arguments Any argument, opinion, or conclusion that contains a

logical error is false Being able to detect logical errors can help you decide which viewpoints

or arguments are correct and which are erroneous—and can help you avoid making mistakes

Cause/effect errors state a conclusion which isn’t backed up by the facts: the cause doesn’t

really lead to the effect that takes place Take the statement “George argued with his sister

yes-terday; so he fell during basketball practice today.” George’s argument probably had little to do

with his fall An untied shoelace or a shove by another player might have caused George to lose

his footing

Circular reasoning means that an argument appears to lead to a conclusion, but merely

restates the point For example, the statement “Celia makes good cookies because she is a good

baker” is circular Saying that she makes good cookies is merely another way of saying that she

is a good baker

Either/or errors offer limited or false outcomes to a situation Either/or errors usually describe

a situation that hasn’t happened yet The statement “If Jim doesn’t win the lottery, he’ll never

be well-off ” includes an either/or error Not winning the lottery doesn’t necessarily mean Jim

will be poor: Jim may have a good job and good saving habits

statement is true If the statement contains a logical error, name the logical error: CE for a

cause/effect error, CR for circular reasoning, or EO for an either/or error.

morning

ones

credit cards

errors, two demonstrating circular reasoning, and two demonstrating either/or errors

n in g

Either

Or

An inference is a logical conclusion you arrive at after examining information, or evidence, thatyou have seen or heard For example, you might notice that an acquaintance is wearing a newoutfit, and you know that his birthday was last week You could infer that he received clothes as

a birthday gift Making inferences can help you to “read between the lines” or to understand thecause of an occurrence more clearly Below are three steps to making an inference

Here’s an everyday situation: Your next-door neighbors have just finished repainting theirhouse, and now you see them digging a hole in their backyard with a backhoe Your neighbors’

three children as well as some of the other neighborhood children are watching from a dow of the house What inference can you make about this situation?

win-Begin by asking yourself, “What do I know about the situation?” You know what you’ve seen:

your neighbors are digging a hole in their backyard

Next, ask yourself, “How does the situation match what I already know?” You know that yourneighbors are continually fixing up their house and yard, and the neighborhood children arewelcome to visit and play with their children

Finally, ask yourself, “What inference can I make?” You might infer that your neighbors areputting in a swimming pool

Beware, however, of inferring hastily, without considering other possibilities Perhaps yourneighbors are planning to fix their septic system, put in an underground sprinkler system, oreven plant a tree or two With only the information you have, you can’t be sure what yourneighbors are planning to do

paper With a partner, compare and discuss the inferences you made

jacket today

Brown go to bed; in the morning, the thermostat is set at seventy degrees

usual

Exchange papers with a partner, and discuss the inferences that you make

What You Know + Prior Knowledge = Inference

1 Identify what you know about the situation.

2 Match your knowledge of the object or situation

against information you already know

3 Make the inference by combining the new

infor-mation with your prior knowledge

A prediction is a statement about what might happen in the future There are two ways of

pre-dicting: making wild guesses and making inferences based on evidence about possible future

events or outcomes As you may suppose, the second type of prediction is likely to be more

accurate Since a prediction is merely an inference about the future, you base a prediction on

your knowledge of what has already happened There are three steps involved in predicting an

outcome

Apply this three-step process to an everyday situation: Bill is taking his driving test on Monday,

but he has not memorized the rules of the road and still can’t parallel park

The first step is to ask yourself, “What do I know about the current situation?” You know that

Bill’s exam is Monday, and you know that he has not studied or practiced a great deal

Next, ask yourself, “How does the situation match what I already know about the driving test?”

You know that people who aren’t prepared usually fail the test

The last step is to ask yourself, “How do I think this situation will turn out?” You can predict

that Bill won’t get his license because he isn’t prepared

If you learn new information, you might revise your prediction If you learn that Bill is

study-ing the rules of the road and practicstudy-ing parallel parkstudy-ing, you might predict that he will pass his

test Sometimes, despite the reliability of your prior knowledge and the apparent accuracy of

your prediction, you will predict the wrong outcome An unforeseen event may sometimes

occur that affects the outcome of the situation

list-ing each of the three steps shown above in your answers

homework, and he has to do his own homework

Paul, but he and his brother have been getting along well lately

a home game this Friday night

prediction about a situation Exchange papers with a partner, and discuss the predictions

you both make

Past Experience

Identify relevant prior

knowl-edge of the situation

Present Situation

Identify what you know aboutthe current situation

Prediction About the Future

Combine previous and presentknowledge to make an infer-ence about the future