Writers choice thinking and study skills grade 7

Make a list of three short-term goals for yourself things you would like to accomplish thisweek.. Questions can help you figure out exactly what you know and what you need to know.. You

Grade 7

Defining Problems 1

Setting Goals 2

Observing 3

Formulating Questions 4

Using Prior Knowledge 5

Comparing and Contrasting 6

Classifying 7

Using Graphic Organizers 8

Identifying Characteristics 9

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships 10

Using Organizational Patterns 11

Using Metaphors 12

Identifying Main Ideas 13

Identifying Errors in Logic 14

Inferring 15

Predicting 16

Elaborating 17

Summarizing 18

Drawing Conclusions 19

Using Criteria 20

Making Decisions 21

Thinking Creatively 22

Using a Library I 23

Using a Library II 24

Using a Dictionary I 25

Using a Dictionary II 26

Using a Dictionary III 27

Using a Thesaurus I 28

Using a Thesaurus II 29

Studying I 30

Studying II 31

Managing Study Time 32

Taking Notes from Books 35

Outlining from Books 36

Taking Notes from Films and Videos 37

Solving Problems 38

Learning from Graphics I 39

Learning from Graphics II 40

Taking Tests I 41

Taking Tests II 42

Answers 43

“What’s your problem?”

You’ve probably heard people say it, but what do they mean by it? They may mean

“Why are you acting as if you don’t know what you’re doing?” If you really do have a

problem, you may not know what you’re doing, because problems cause you to stop

and wonder what to do next For example, you might get up in the morning and find

that your toothbrush is missing Now what am I supposed to do? you wonder You have

a problem You discover that your brother used your toothbrush to clean the hamstercage Now you have a new problem So you search the bathroom and find a new tooth-brush Problem solved!

What makes a problem a problem? If a situation makes you unable to meet a goal(brushing your teeth, for example), you have a problem What if you don’t have timefor breakfast? In that case, you might have other problems, such as lack of energy and ahard time paying attention to things Use the steps in the box to decide whether a situa-tion is a problem

A.Read each sentence below Decide whether the situation described is a problem If it is, write

P (for “problem”) next to the sentence If it does not present a problem, write N (for “no

problem”) Be prepared to explain your answers

_ 1. I left my homework assignment at school

_ 2. Marie leaves for school every day at 7:45 A.M. _ 3. Today Marie missed the bus

_ 4. Todd’s bicycle is broken

_ 5. The art students are painting a mural on the south wall

_ 6. Some students listen to music while they exercise

_ 7. Our city is becoming more and more polluted

_ 8. Jason’s friends are pressuring him to be in their band

_ 9. Charlene baby-sits every weekend

_10. Jimmy has cut math class all week

B.Choose three of the problem situations you identified in Part A Explain why each situationmight be a problem and suggest a solution for each (Think about the goal or goals thateach problem prevents someone from reaching.)

1 Defining Problems

● Look: What is the situation?

● Ask: What is the exact problem?

● Think: How does the situation prevent you (or someone else) from meeting a goal?

How to Find a Problem in a Situation

A goal is something you work toward Making good grades, saving enough money to

buy a CD player, and helping more around the house are examples of goals Setting

goals and doing your best to meet them give you a sense of purpose When you

accomplish a goal, you feel good about yourself The sense of accomplishment is the

main reward for meeting a goal

Some goals are more difficult to achieve than others For example, a goal to learn

French takes a great deal of time and effort to accomplish Learning French is an

example of a long-term goal On the other hand, a goal to write a book report over the

weekend seems easier to accomplish because it is a short-term goal The box below lists

examples of long- and short-term goals

A.Decide whether each goal below is a short-term goal or a long-term goal Write an S for

short term and an L for long term.

_ 1. Jamal promised to rake the leaves this Saturday

_ 2. Pam’s mother wants to be the head of her department someday

_ 3. I will have that report on your desk tomorrow

_ 4. The city government is working to reduce air pollution

_ 5. Frankie plans to become a lawyer

_ 6. When I finish my homework, we’ll go to the mall

_ 7. Let’s go to the movies tonight

_ 8. Wait a minute; I want to finish reading this article

_ 9. The Walkers are saving money to buy a house

_10. T J practices for four hours each day because he wants to be an Olympic athlete

B. Make a list of three short-term goals for yourself (things you would like to accomplish thisweek) Write down one long-term goal, and explain how you plan to accomplish it

2 Setting Goals

learn to dance improve eating habits become an expert in neighborhood history

learn to type make a quilt

Short-Term Goals

do the dishes finish math homework take sister to library

join a club clean bedroom stop watching so much TV

Long-Term Goals

Railroad crossings used to have signs that read, “Stop—Look—Listen.” People usedtheir vision and their hearing to check for oncoming trains They did not need toknow the train schedule to know if a train was coming They simply looked and listened for a train In other situations, people observe by smelling, tasting, and touching A hamburger smells good, so you taste it It tastes good, so you eat it A kitten’s fur feels soft to the touch, so you stroke it a few times.

Observing is more than simply using your eyes, ears, nose, taste buds, and sense oftouch In fact, people without sight often detect more than people with sight dobecause they have trained themselves to notice things You may see that a room is full

of people, but do you notice how many people? Are they mostly adults or mostly children? How are they dressed? Do they seem happy? Anxious? Hurried? Observing

is a matter of noticing as much as you possibly can

A.One by one, imagine you are in each of the following situations On a separate sheet, writedown as many details as possible To get started, ask yourself questions such as “What do Isee?” and “What do I hear?” Don’t forget to observe and record your own feelings

1. You are in your first-period class

2. You are in a raging thunderstorm

3. You are in a sailboat on a lake

4. You are sprinting as fast as you can

B. Write a paragraph describing your visit to a park If possible, visit a park near your house

or school, and record your observations Try to use all of your senses in gathering tion Review the questions in the box above as a guide Use a separate piece of paper

● How big is the park?

● What is the weather like?

● What sounds do you hear?

● What shade of green is the grass?

● How does the grass smell?

● How many kinds of trees are in the park?

● What does the bark of a tree feel like?

● What are people in the park doing?

● Are people enjoying themselves?

● How do you feel about being in the park?

Some Ways of Observing a Park

You may have heard the saying “The only dumb question is the one you don’t ask.” The

greatest thinkers in the world gained their knowledge because they asked questions

Not all questions lead to answers, but they can help you look at something in a new

way One question usually leads to another as you explore your topic

Asking questions can help when you are tackling a problem, reading a chapter in a

textbook, or writing a paper Questions can help you figure out exactly what you know

and what you need to know They can help you plan for solving a problem or doing

an assignment The examples in the box are questions someone might ask in two

situations

A.Below are four headings for a report on refugees For each heading, formulate one or two

questions that would be helpful in organizing your research on the topic

A. Who are the refugees?

You are asked to write a review of your favorite movie

You want to learn to get along better with your brother or sister

4 Formulating Questions

Helpful Questions

Assignment: Write a report on the Florida

Everglades.

1. Where are the Everglades?

2. How large are the Everglades?

3. What animals and plants thrive in the

Everglades?

Problem: You need money to buy a pair of in-line skates.

1. How much money do I need?

2. What can I do to earn money?

3. How long will it take to earn the money?

You use prior knowledge every day Otherwise you wouldn’t know how to read orcount You wouldn’t know how to find your way to school You wouldn’t recognizeyour friends Every time you learn something new, your brain stores that informationfor future use As your store of prior knowledge builds, learning new skills becomeseasier For example, if you know how to count, you can learn to add, subtract, multiply,and divide Once you have mastered those skills, you can learn algebra, geometry, andcalculus Imagine trying to learn algebra without understanding addition and multipli-cation!

You know more than you think When you are faced with an unfamiliar topic, task, orassignment, ask yourself, “What do I already know about this?” You will be surprisedonce you start listing the things you know The box shows some examples of tasks oractivities that can benefit from prior knowledge

A.Write at least one thing you already know about each of the following topics

3. how a bicycle works 8. a state next to yours

4. endangered species 9. your school or public library

5. how to build a house 10. bricks

B. Choose one of the topics from Part A, and write a paragraph about it To begin, list thing you know about the topic, even if you are not sure your knowledge is correct Next,look up the topic in an encyclopedia or other source and gather the information needed towrite your paragraph

5 Using Prior Knowledge

You have saved your money to buy a pair of shoes You have seen some shoes you like

at both The Shoe Box and Shoes Galore, but you can’t decide where to buy your shoes

One way to help decide is to compare and contrast the two stores When you compare,

you look for similarities, or ways things are the same or equal When you contrast, you

look for differences

First, you must decide on the characteristics to compare and contrast Your first

con-cern is cost You would like the shoes to be stylish, and you would like a wide selection

of shoes to choose from Finally, you would like the store’s clerks to be friendly and

helpful How are the stores alike and different?

Shoes at The Shoe Box are more expensive than at Shoes Galore (different)

Both carry the latest styles (same)

Selection of shoes at The Shoe Box is equal to selection at Shoes Galore (same)

Sales clerks at The Shoe Box are snobbish and rude, but at Shoes Galore they are always

cheerful and willing to help (different)

Notice the key words that helped you compare and contrast: more than, both, equal to,

and but These and other key words are listed in the box.

A.Decide whether each of the following statements is comparing (finding similarities) or

con-trasting (finding differences) Write compare or contrast following the statement.

1. This space mission was much more successful than the last one _

2. Ramon pays close attention in class By contrast, Delia is always daydreaming

3. The snowfall this winter is equal to the snowfall in 1989 _

4. I like Barbara and Elaine; both girls are fun _

5. Your attitude is different from your brother’s.

B. You have seen that comparing and constrasting can help you make a decision (in this case,about which shoe store to choose) Write down three other purposes for which you can usecomparing and contrasting

6 Comparing and Contrasting

Key Words: Comparing

Key Words: Contrasting

by contrast different

People often need to organize information Classifying—sorting and grouping itemsaccording to common features—is one way to organize information Common featurescan be general or specific For example, one way to group students is by grade level—

seventh-graders, eighth-graders, and so on To get more specific, you could divide dents in each grade level according to hair color or homeroom teachers or some otherfeature You probably have noticed in your classes that many topics are classified Inscience, plants and animals are sorted into smaller and smaller categories Languagesare grouped according to their origins Literature is grouped in several ways: by type ofwriting or by subject matter, for example

A.Identify the common feature of each group below Write the name of the feature Note thatitems 6 through 10 each contain two or more items that do not fit After identifying thecommon feature of the group, cross out the items that don’t belong in the group

1. pencil, pen, crayon, marker, chalk

2. cloudy, breezy, cool, sunny, hot, rainy

3. river, lake, ocean, bay, pond, stream, canal

4. books, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, letters, signs, poems

5. anger, happiness, frustration, loneliness, joy, sadness, pride

6. eagles, geese, parakeets, rabbits, toads, sparrows, spiders, blue jays

7. California, South Dakota, Los Angeles, Mississipi, Illinois, Maine, Detroit

8. Jesse Jackson; Abraham Lincoln; John Kennedy; Paul Revere; Thomas Jefferson; BillClinton

9. box, purse, trunk, desk, basket, window, bookbag, backpack, rooftop, suitcase

10.Russia, France, Australia, Shanghai, Egypt, Mexico, London

B. Choose one of the following categories and list as many items as you can that fit into thecategory Remember that all of the items must share a common feature and that featuremust be the one identified by the category You may have to do some research

small mammals methods of transportation landforms fruit prime numbers less than 25 government officials

7 Classifying

You classify things all the time without thinking about it Here are some common expressions that classify.

“Mr Arnold is my favorite teacher.” (Teachers are a group to which Mr Arnold belongs.)

“I think that dog is a German shepherd.” (A German shepherd is a breed of dog.)

“I like action-adventure movies.” (Action-adventure movies are one type of movie.)

“My most difficult subjects this year are geography and social studies.” (Geography and social studies are two kinds of subjects.)

When you are writing a report, studying for a test, or trying to solve a problem,

orga-nizing your facts or ideas graphically—in a picture—can help Sometimes you can

actually draw a picture; other times you arrange key words in a visual format that helps

you understand and remember a process, the order of events, or relationships between

two or more things You are probably already familiar with several types of graphic

organizers Maps help show where one place is in relation to another Time lines show

the progression of events through time Tables organize lists of numbers or facts

Cluster diagrams can be used to show structures or to organize ideas

The cluster diagram below shows how one student organized information for a report

on Iceland The graphic organizer clearly shows that the student chose four main

top-ics and then divided two of those main toptop-ics into subtoptop-ics

A.Decide what type of graphic organizer would be the best choice for each paragraph or

description below Choose from the following: cluster diagram, map, time line, or table

1. The average monthly temperatures for 1999 were January, 40º; February, 41º; March,

45º; April, 55º; May, 60º; June, 68º; July, 79º; August, 79º; September, 68º; October, 65º;

November, 57º; December, 44º The average monthly temperatures for 2000 wereJanuary, 38º; February, 40º; March, 47º; April, 49º; May, 60º; June, 69º; July, 77º; August,76º; September, 70º; October, 64º; November, 55º; December, 49º

2. Leon wants to improve his grade in math He has decided to daydream less in class,

watch less TV, and act less like a smart aleck He needs to do more homework, take hisstudies more seriously, ask for help more often, and pay more attention in class Leonwould like to write down his plan in an easy-to-read format

3. Women in the United States fought a long battle to win the vote They first demanded

suffrage, or the right to vote, at a women’s rights convention in 1848 In 1869 theWyoming Territory became the first place to allow women to vote By 1900 three otherstates (Colorado, Utah, and Idaho) had given women the right to vote By 1914 sevenmore states had joined the movement Finally in 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment tothe Constitution granted suffrage to all adult female citizens

B. Choose one of the topics in Part A, and create the appropriate graphic organizer

8 Using Graphic Organizers

What do you like about your best friend? What qualities do you look for in a pizza?

What is good or bad about your bike? To answer these questions, you must identify thecharacteristics, or qualities, of your friend, a good pizza, and your bike You might havethought of the following characteristics:

Friend: dependable, fun, self-confident, generousPizza: lots of cheese, fresh, hot, thin crust

Bike: fast, comfortable seat, good brakes, room for rack or pouchCharacteristics are the qualities that describe or are associated with an object or idea

Identifying characteristics can help you organize information If you are classifyinganimals into groups, for example, you will need to identify characteristics of animals,such as coat, size, tail, and feathers Identifying characteristics also can help you make adecision Suppose you want to buy a portable tape player You will be interested incharacteristics such as sound quality, durability, weight, price, and size

A.Each item below names an object or idea and lists some characteristics Cross out the oneword in each list that is not a characteristic of the named object or idea

1. library: shelves, books, fast speed, reference desk, card file, quiet

2. shirt: favorite color, long sleeves, brand name, loose style, noisy

3. basketball: court, dribble, paddle, foul, teams, points

4. computer: printout, old-fashioned, diskette, screen, printer, keyboard

5. stereo: dynamic range, volume, tuner, speakers, silent, bass expander

6. Fourth of July: festive, fireworks, picnic, warm weather, turkey, holiday

7. air pollution: dirty, dried up, damaging to health, brown cloud, automobile exhaust

8. skyscraper: elevators, post office, window washer, offices, steel, glass

B. Choose something or someone from your life, and list as many characteristics of the person

or thing as you can Suggested topics include a friend, a car, a textbook, your favorite spot,your pet, or your shoes Use a separate piece of paper

9 Identifying Characteristics

● Size How big or little, thin or fat, tall or short is the object?

● Shape Is it round, square, rectangular, irregular?

● Composition What is it made of?

● Texture Is it bristly, smooth, rough, slimy?

● Color What color is it?

● Performance Does it move, shake, bark, sing? How fast, slow, loud, soft?

Some Characteristics to Identify

A cause-and-effect statement makes a connection between a result (or results) and an

event (or events) that caused it For example: “I left my book out in the rain, and now

it’s soaked.” The soaked book is the result (effect) of leaving it out in the rain (cause)

Another way to say the same thing is “My book is soaked because I left it out in the

rain.” The wording is different, but the cause (leaving the book out) and the effect (the

soaked book) are the same

When you read and write cause-and-effect statements, be sure that the stated effect (E)

is truly a result of the stated cause (C) Ask, “Did E happen because of C?” One clue is

to look for words such as because, as a result, so, and the reason Not all

cause-and-effect relationships are signaled by these words, however, so make the E-C question

your main test

A.The left column lists effects, or results The right column lists causes Find a cause to matcheach effect Then write a sentence stating the cause-and-effect relationship of each matchedpair

3. fields very soggy in the spring ate too many cookies

4. people left homeless listening to extremely loud music

5. finished the book in a week lots of winter rain and snow

B. Find three cause-and-effect statements in your textbooks, newspapers, magazines, or other

reading material Use the question “Did E happen because of C ?” to identify the effect and

the cause in each statement List the effects and the causes in two columns, as in Part A

10 Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships

In these examples the effect (E) and the cause (C) are identified.

[Tina missed the test] because [she was late for school.] (“Because” is a clue.)

[She stayed up late the night before] and was [too tired to get up in the morning.] (This

statement contains no clue words, but the relationship exists.)

[She missed the bus.] As a result, [she had to walk to school.] (“As a result” is a clue.)

Looking for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Information that is organized into patterns is easy to remember, understand, andretrieve Libraries organize books according to a numbering system Dictionariesarrange words alphabetically Your class schedule is organized from first period to lastperiod These patterns are logical They make sense, and that’s why they are useful.

You can organize your writing into several different patterns The pattern should belogical for the kind of writing you are doing For narratives, time order—when thingshappened—is often best For factual reports, comparison and contrast may be best

The box identifies several patterns of organization and the types of writing for whichthey are best suited

2. Florida and Arizona are in the southern portion of the United States Both have warmtemperatures and therefore attract retired people Here the similarities end Florida isabout half the size of Arizona but has about four times the population Florida alsoreceives about four times more rainfall than Arizona Landlocked Arizona is in the high,dry mountains of the desert Florida lies in the low coastal plain, and much of it is sur-rounded by ocean

3. This classroom is a monument to Ugly The walls and ceiling are a sickening green Onewall has a scratched old chalkboard that was installed about a hundred years ago Nearthe door are some bulletin boards with faded pictures from magazines The dentedmetal cabinets in the back are so wobbly that I swear they are going to fall over one ofthese days

B. Write about an event that happened to you recently Use time order to tell the story

11 Using Organizational Patterns

Time order (clue words: first, second, next, then)

stories, narratives, descriptions of events

Order of importance (clue words: first, second, next, finally)

factual reports; descriptions of things, people, or events

Spatial order (clue words: left, right, front, back, ahead, behind)

descriptions of places

Comparison and contrast (clue words: both, similar, different, on the other hand)

factual reports about two or more objects or processes

Four Patterns of Organization

A metaphor is a description that links two unrelated things or ideas by a form of

com-parison The images created by metaphors add depth to descriptions, so writers use

metaphors to make their work more vivid and interesting You could say “The lake was

shining,” but that statement, though true, can be made more vivid: “The lake was a

glittering mirror.” A reader can easily imagine sunlight reflecting off the still surface of

the lake

Metaphors may also compare things with less obvious similarity For example: The

audience was putty in the magician’s hands The angry crowd was a boiling cauldron.

Notice that a metaphor does not use a comparison word such as like or as It states a

relationship directly The audience was putty The crowd was a boiling cauldron.

Metaphors go beyond plain description, often appealing to one or more of your senses

A.Read the sentences below Identify each metaphor, and explain its meaning

1. My brother Ramon is a tiger when he plays football

2. When Randa cleans her car, she is a tornado

3. That math test was a monster

4. The dancer is a reed swaying in a gentle breeze

5. My desk is a jungle

B. Complete each item by creating a metaphor

1. My friend is

2. The playing field was _

3. At first the orchestra was _

4. The storm is _

5. Her eyes are

12 Using Metaphors

Her hair is a hayrack (Her hair is so dry that it looks like hay.)

When he is angry, he is an erupting volcano (His fury is like the fury of

a volcanic eruption.)

Description Through Metaphors

In nonfiction writing, book titles and chapter titles usually give you the main idea to

be explored in the book or chapter In most cases, you can tell right away what thebook or chapter is about with titles such as “Making the Most of Your Money” or “TheAmerican Colonies.” Paragraphs, on the other hand, do not have titles, so you mustsearch for the main idea in the content Each paragraph should have a main idea andsupporting details Usually the main idea is stated in a topic sentence, which appears atthe beginning or end, or sometimes in the middle, of the paragraph Sometimes aparagraph is constructed so that the sentences support a main idea that is not stated

The steps in the box will help you identify the main idea of a paragraph

A.Read the following paragraph Write the topic sentence or main idea

Since George Washington’s time, some presidents have gradually expanded the powers of the presidency For example, the power of veto, a power to reject legislation, was little used until the time of Andrew Jackson Lincoln used his power as commander in chief to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared slaves free in part of the South Presidents carried out military actions during wars in Korea and Vietnam by assuming almost indepen- dent power.

B. Choose a paragraph in your science or health book Analyze the paragraph, using theprocess in the box to find the main idea

13 Identifying Main Ideas

● Read the paragraph carefully.

● Ask yourself, “What is this paragraph about?”

● Write down in a few words or a sentence what you think the paragraph is about (Be specific: not “mammals” but “characteristics of mammals.”)

● Determine whether that same idea is stated in a topic sentence (If not, the main idea may be unstated.)

● Decide whether all the other sentences support the main idea.

How to Find the Main Idea

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

14 Identifying Errors in Logic

Errors in logic are the result of faulty thinking They can occur when people attempt to

persuade others to adopt a viewpoint or buy a product You are most likely to

encounter logical errors in advertisements and political campaigns, but they also

appear whenever people express their opinions or try to talk others into (or out of)

something Some common logical errors are described in the box

A.On a separate sheet of paper, identify the errors in logic in the following statements Write

no error if the statement does not contain an error in logic.

1. “We won our first game! Our team is the best!”

2. “If you don’t buy this bike now, you will miss out on the deal of a lifetime.”

3. “You can trust him because his sister is honest

4. “You won’t have time to do your homework if you watch that program.”

5. “Pam is a lousy jumper Girls just aren’t good jumpers.”

6. “America has long been the strongest nation, and America will continue to be the

strongest nation.”

7. “I think it’s okay to stay up all night if you’ve already finished your homework.”

8. “My friend said he is sure the band will break up after its West Coast tour.”

9. “The city government won’t repair those potholes It refused to build us a playgroundlast year.”

10.“Close the door, or you’ll let the dog get out.”

B. Explain why the logical errors in Part A are examples of faulty thinking Be specific

Faulty cause-and-effect relationship An effect is said to result from an incorrect cause.

“Buy this toothpaste and you will be irresistible.”

Irrelevant information An example is used that has nothing to do with the issue.

“You can’t borrow my earphones because you can’t even ride a bike.”

Hasty generalization One example is used to make a generalization about a group.

“I can’t stand that kid from City Junior High All students at City are rude.”

Unqualified authority The opinion of a nonexpert is offered.

“My ten-year-old sister said she thinks we’ll have a cold winter.”

Either/or reasoning Opposing views are pictured as two extreme positions.

“Either you go with me, or you’re not my friend.”

Watch Out for These Logical Errors

Your teachers probably have told you not to make assumptions, but you make them allthe time We all do If you see people running out of a building and smoke comingfrom behind the building, you might assume that the building is on fire This kind of

assumption is called an inference You have combined information about the current situation with your prior knowledge to infer that the building is burning.

Inferences do not always turn out to be accurate For example, you may learn that thesmoke was from burning leaves and that the people were running to catch a bus Inthat case, you discard your inference, but that doesn’t mean it was a bad inference

Based on what you observed, plus your prior knowledge, a fire seemed likely

A.Read the following situations, and make an inference about each one

1. Damon and D J are on their way to the game, and they wonder if there will be enoughseats in the small gymnasium for everyone As they approach the school, they see severalpeople standing in line outside the door The game was supposed to have started tenminutes ago

2. You run out of the house and race to the bus stop The usual crowd of students is notthere

3. In sixth grade, Rhonda and Denice were best friends They didn’t see each other all mer, and Denice couldn’t wait to see Rhonda on the first day of school at City JuniorHigh As soon as she spotted Rhonda, Denice walked over and said, “Hi!” Without aword, Rhonda turned and walked away

sum-4. During her campaign, the senator promised that her office door would always be open

“I’ll listen to any problem and help if I can,” she said Since her election, she can never bereached by telephone, and letters from her constituents are answered by form letters.Several people who tried to visit her in person were quickly told by the secretary, “Thesenator can’t see you; she has meetings all day today and tomorrow.”

B. Choose one of the situations from Part A Imagine that your inference was wrong, and thesituation is actually very different Staying within the bounds of logic, describe the “new”situation, and explain how it affects your original inference

“You will make better grades if you study harder.”

“I’ll bet Hector makes the team.”

“Analysts predict an economic downturn.”

These types of comments are part of our everyday lives We constantly predict

out-comes Our predictions usually are based on a combination of past experiences and

known facts

Because predictions involve future events, they frequently prove to be incorrect

Nothing is wrong with that In fact, most scientific inquiry is based on predictions

(called hypotheses) that turn out to be wrong A wrong prediction simply sends the

predictor back to the drawing board to look at the situation in a different way

Use the questions in the box to help you make objective predictions

A.Based on the facts stated, make a prediction about what will happen next in each of the lowing situations

fol-1. In the movie, two children huddled together in the dark room as footsteps in the hall

came closer Just outside the door, the feet stopped With a sickening creak, the dooropened slowly Suddenly the children were hit with the bright beam of a flashlight

2. Tanya, Summer, and Barbara were chosen to perform a dance routine in the talent show.Every time they rehearsed, Tanya left early She didn’t show up for the last two rehearsals,when Summer and Barbara were refining the moves Still, Tanya insisted on performing

in the talent show

3. The landlord promised six months ago that he would fix the broken step Two months

ago, Mr Johnson called the landlord to remind him about the step This time the lord promised to fix it within one month Yesterday Mr Johnson called again, and thelandlord promised to fix it today

land-B. Select a story to read On the basis of the title and the first paragraph or so, predict in ing what will happen in the story Use the questions in the box above to help you predict

writ-Then read the story, and check how accurate your prediction was If it was incorrect,

explain which factors misled you to that prediction

16 Predicting

What is happening here?

What has happened in the past that was the same or similar?

Based on past events and the facts of this situation, what is likely to happen next?

Process for Making Objective Predictions

You asked your mom if she would let you out of your responsibility to walk the dogthis week “What’s your reason?” she asked “I just don’t think I’ll have time,” youreplied When she responded that that was a pretty weak excuse, you began to elabo-rate “Well, on Monday and Tuesday I have to go to Sarah’s house to work on a scienceproject And on Wednesday and Thursday we have a long soccer practice to get readyfor Friday’s game.” Once your mother understood the situation better, she agreed that you wouldn’t have time to walk the dog By elaborating, you made your reasonmore clear.

Elaborating can be used for other purposes besides explaining a problem It’s a veryeffective tool for describing a scene, reporting a conversation, defending your ideas, orotherwise increasing someone’s understanding Four types of elaborating are listed inthe box

A.Identify which type or types of elaboration are used in each of the items below Use the list

of elaborations in the box Some items use more than one type of elaboration

1. The budget deficit is not as bad as it looks If you recall, our situation was far worse in

1996 and in 1999

2. Many lakes and rivers are being damaged by pollutants such as trash and chemicals

3. Tourists like to visit New Orleans because the city has lots of atmosphere, good food,and good jazz

4. Moths and butterflies are alike in several ways For example, both have wings, both have

a keen sense of smell, and both have a four-stage life cycle

5. Students say they shouldn’t have homework Why? Because they already work hardenough during school hours, and homework conflicts with their TV watching

6. Don’t you get it? It’s like that time we convinced Derek that Kim’s mother was a talentscout He was so embarrassed when he found out, and we laughed our heads off

7. There are many ways to be a good friend For one thing, a good friend is supportive andencouraging In addition, a good friend is always willing to listen Finally, a good friendalways laughs at your jokes!

8. Skateboarding gives me a feeling of freedom, as if I’m floating above the ground and noone can touch me I feel graceful and strong, like a dancer and a kung fu master in one

B. Using one or more methods of elaboration, elaborate on one of the following topics

why school should be abolished horror movies your favorite food

a person you admire your future your city or town

17 Elaborating

Some Types of Elaboration

When you tell someone about a movie you saw or a book you read, you summarize the

plot You don’t describe every action or repeat every word; rather, you give the main

idea and the most important details If your friends and family groan every time they

hear you say, “Hey, let me tell you about a great movie I saw,” you probably are not

summarizing well

Summarizing is a skill you will use all your life Readers summarize to make sure they

have understood the main ideas of a chapter Business people use summaries to make

long reports manageable Newspaper reporters summarize the most important points

In “Tien Nu,” a Chinese folk tale, a statue of Buddha cannot be made without a servant

girl’s humble contribution Buddhist monks, wanting to make a statue of their religious

leader, Buddha, seek gifts of gold and silver from the townspeople The metals will be

melted down to make the statue When a young monk receives a tray of gold and silver

objects from a rich couple, their servant girl, Tien Nu, offers a small coin, her only

posses-sion Tien Nu means “girl from Heaven.” The young monk laughs at her and refuses her

gift.

The gold and silver gathered by the monks is melted down and poured into a cast When

the cast is removed, the statue is ugly and distorted Once more they melt the metals and

pour a new cast The senior monk supervises every step Again the statue is ugly and

dis-torted The senior monk knows something wrong has been done When he hears about

Tien Nu, the senior monk instructs the young monk to ask Tien Nu’s forgiveness and to

accept her coin Tien Nu is delighted to offer her gift This time when the metals are

melted down and poured into the cast, a fine statue emerges In Buddha’s hand, held

over his heart, is Tien Nu’s little coin.

B. Write a summary of a story you have read or a movie you have seen recently

1. Tell what the story is about in one sentence.

2. Find and list the main details of the plot.

a. Does each detail move the plot along?

b. Does each detail present new information?

3. Read your summary Does it tell the story in as few words as possible?

Steps in Summarizing a Story

Things are not always the way they seem You may have watched a film or televisionshow and concluded that the man in the blue jacket stole the money or that the high-school girl would never prove her innocence You may have seen two of your friendswhispering to each other and concluded that one was revealing a secret you had justshared You really don’t know what they are saying, and you may have jumped to aconclusion before you had all the information you needed.

Using the steps in the box will help you draw valid conclusions Even after followingthese steps, you may still have a conclusion that is invalid Learning to analyze the facts,however, increases your chance of making a valid conclusion

A Examine each conclusion below to determine if it is supposed by the facts On a separate

sheet, write yes if the conclusion is correct and no if it is incorrect.

1. The two wrestlers are evenly matched in weight Jorge has won every match this seasonand is a top wrestler in his class Mick is a brilliant wrestler about half the time; the rest

of the time he loses badly I’m sure Jorge will win this match

2. During the past month, Delia has noticed that small things—pens, barrettes, paperbacks,cassette tapes—have been missing from her apartment She met Naomi and startedinviting her over about a month ago Naomi must be stealing Delia’s things

3. For months Josie had begged her parents to get her a puppy They steadfastly refused,saying a puppy was too much responsibility On her birthday, Josie came home fromschool and opened the front door She immediately heard a whimpering sound, whichseemed to be coming from a big box in the kitchen Next to the box was a bowl of puppyfood “A puppy!” Josie yelled

4. Our petition calls for the resignation of two arts council members who are using grantmoney to take trips and eat at fancy restaurants We have seen them eating at the Ritz,and they have turned in receipts for numerous trips to the state capital

B. Choose one of the incorrect conclusions from Part A Why is the conclusion not correct?What information is missing? What other conclusions are possible? Write your answer on aseparate sheet of paper

19 Drawing Conclusions

1. Carefully examine the facts.

2. Ask what more needs to be known, and then gather those facts.

3. Organize all of the information.

4. Consider all the possible conclusions that could be drawn from the information.

5. Choose the most likely conclusion.

Steps in Drawing a Conclusion

Criteria are standards for making judgments For example, one criterion for choosing a

friend might be honesty; other criteria might include reliability, a sense of humor, and

a caring attitude Some criteria for selecting a pair of shoes might be style, fit, comfort,

cost, and color Those are reliable standards for judging shoes On the other hand, you

would not judge shoes according to how well they fit your friend or whether your

teacher liked the color

Your life experiences teach you how to judge many things, but selecting objective,

appropriate criteria to judge study topics may require some applied learning For

example, in preparing a report about healthful foods, your first step would be to select

criteria for determining which foods are healthful You might come up with a list like

this one:

1. The foods must be low in fat content

2. The foods must be high in carbohydrates

3. The foods must be low in sugar

4. The foods must be as fresh and natural as possible

The list contains criteria that are appropriate for judging foods You may have thought

of another possible criterion, such as “The foods must taste boring.” This criterion is

inappropriate because it is based on a personal prejudice, which is not an objective

standard

A.One student made the following list of criteria for a report on senators Think about the

topic, the purpose of the report, and the criteria that you might select Read the list, and

cross out any inappropriate criteria

Title: What Makes a Good Senator?

Criteria:1. The senator must have a good haircut

2. The senator must want to perform a public service

3. The senator must be interested in the concerns of the people he or she represents

4. The senator must be rich

5. The senator must be able to accomplish tasks

6. The senator must be able to argue his or her ideas persuasively

7. The senator must know more than anyone else

8. The senator must be honest and hardworking

B. Explain why you eliminated each of the inappropriate criteria in Part A

20 Using Criteria

● Decide what you want to know about a topic.

● List some standards (criteria) for judging the topic (“It must be ” “It must have ”)

Guidelines for Using Criteria

Most people are required to make decisions every day Your teachers decide when togive tests, business managers decide when to expand or cut back staff, and governmentofficials decide when to repair roads or put emergency plans into action Some peoplemake a profession of decision making—judges, referees, and umpires, for example.

Your day-to-day decisions may not affect an entire city or a school, but they are tant Every time you are faced with a dilemma and you make a firm decision, youstrengthen your character Making one decision and acting on it gives you confidence

impor-to make the next decision Throughout your life, you will be called on impor-to make sands of decisions You can decide now to become a skilled decision maker

A.Imagine that you must make a decision in each of the following situations On a separatesheet of paper, list all of the options and the consequences of each option Write your deci-sion and your explanation of why you made that decision

1. Your friends want you to join them in a prank on a classmate The prank is harmless,but the intended object of the prank is very sensitive and may have hurt feelings Youwant your friends to like you and think you are fun, but you are not sure the prank is agood idea

2. You have a very good job in a computer software company You are respected and earn agood salary, but you find the work a little boring Recently you met an executive from alarger firm The executive offered you a job that would be far more interesting to you,but at a lower salary and in a lower position in the company You think the new jobwould be better for you in the long run, but you wonder if you should give up the highersalary and position in your current job

B. Write down a recent decision you made List the steps you took to arrive at the decision.How might you change the decision?

21 Making Decisions

1. Examine the facts (School starts in one hour.)

2. Consider the options (Get up, or sleep in?)

3. Weigh the consequences of each option (Get up: get to school on time Sleep in: get another tardy point and miss first-period test.)

4. If necessary, set a deadline (I will decide in five minutes.)

5. Make the decision (I had better get up!)

Steps in Making a Decision

One day in 1853, a diner at the Moon Lake Lodge resort in Saratoga Springs, New

York, returned the French fries cooked by the chef, George Crum The diner

com-plained that the fries were too thick and soggy Insulted, Mr Crum sliced some

pota-toes very thin, fried them in oil for about thirty minutes, and then salted them heavily

“See if he thinks these are too thick and soggy!” the chef said The customer was

delighted, and Mr Crum’s “Saratoga chips” became a great sensation

Although he was acting in anger, George Crum was thinking creatively when he made

the first potato chips Like most inventors, he had a problem, and he came up with a

creative solution

Creative thinking involves looking at something in a new way Creative thinkers get rid

of preconceived notions and let their minds explore possibilities—even wild,

unheard-of possibilities The world’s great artists, writers, inventors, and explorers unheard-often became

great by thinking of something no one else had thought of before

A Read the following scenarios to determine which ones describe creative thinking

1. The students were given sheets of paper and instructed to describe their vacations Jamiecut her sheet and folded the pieces into two origami figures As she handed in the foldedfigures, she told the teacher, “I took a course in Japanese culture during my vacation.”

2. Modern composer John Cage composed one piece of music that required a pianist

to pluck the strings inside the piano rather than play the keys on the keyboard

Another piece required the performer to tune and retune a radio according to a set ofinstructions

3. Brad, a business manager, attended a workshop called “Stimulating Creativity in the

Workplace.” The participants played games, wrote instant poetry, brainstormed, andengaged in other similar activities Later Brad explained the workshop to people in his office

B. Put a notebook or piece of paper and a pen or pencil in front of you Close your eyes, and

think of this term: silence Let your mind wander around the idea of silence for a few

minutes, and then begin writing everything that comes to mind about silence After aboutten minutes, go back and read what you have written Use your creative thoughts to com-

pose a poem titled “Ode to Silence.”

22 Thinking Creatively

1. Be observant Notice everything around you.

2. Take notes Try to freewrite, brainstorm, or make cluster diagrams Writing things down

often stimulates creativity You might end up writing more.

3. Daydream sometimes (but not when you need to pay attention).

How to Think Creatively