Writers Choice Grammar and Composition (Thinking and Study Skills)

contents: Defining Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Setting Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Observing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Formulating Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Using Prior Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Using a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Using Reference Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Taking Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Outlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Classifying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Using Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Identifying Attributes and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Using CauseandEffect Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Using Organizational Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Using Metaphorical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Identifying Main Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Identifying Logical Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Inferring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Predicting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Elaborating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Restructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Drawing Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Establishing, Verifying,

Setting Goals 2

Observing 3

Formulating Questions 4

Using Prior Knowledge 5

Using a Library 6

Using Reference Books 7

Taking Notes 8

Outlining 9

Comparing and Contrasting 10

Classifying 11

Using Graphic Organizers 12

Identifying Attributes and Components 13

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships 14

Using Organizational Patterns 15

Using Metaphorical Relationships 16

Identifying Main Ideas 17

Identifying Logical Errors 18

Inferring 19

Predicting 20

Elaborating 21

Summarizing 22

Restructuring 23

Drawing Conclusions 24

Establishing, Verifying, and Assessing Criteria 25

Using Metacognition 26

Solving Problems I 27

Solving Problems II 28

Making Decisions I 29

Making Decisions II 30

Using Creative Thinking I 31

Using Creative Thinking II 32

Listening 33

Managing Study Time 35

Studying 36

Learning from Graphics I 37

Learning from Graphics II 38

Taking Tests I 39

Taking Tests II 40

Answers 41

People spend much time and energy in solving problems Often, however, they fail to noticethat a problem exists, or they may try to solve a problem that does not exist At other times,two or more people might look at the same situation and discover different problems in it.

The first step in solving a problem is to define it For example, Tammy is not achieving thegrades everyone thinks she should be achieving, especially on her writing assignments Sheneeds to improve her grade-point average to be admitted to the college of her choice Should

she sign up for an elective course in which she can easily earn an A but will not improve her writing skill? Or should she take a tough composition course in which students rarely earn A’s

but usually become excellent writers? Tammy’s decision depends on how she defines herproblem

The questions in the box are useful in defining problems

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city On a separate sheet of paper, define the problem by answering the questions in the box

Your answers will depend upon how you decide to define and limit the problem you arewilling to tackle

Note that the passage describes more than one problem Within a larger problem affectingmillions of people, a smaller one exists for a smaller number of people Before solving one ofthese problems, the solvers must define the problem they will attempt to solve

In the United States garbage trucks collect about 133 million tons of garbage each year Youcould build a mile-high mountain with the yearly trash from New York City alone Burninggarbage and trash pollutes the air Dumping it in the ocean pollutes the ocean Burying it in

a landfill uses up land and may allow poisonous wastes to seep into the ground and fromthere into rivers, lakes, and other water supplies

Existing landfills are filling up, and most people don’t want to allow new ones in theircommunity Yet every year the list of disposable items grows—dishes, diapers, razors,batteries, hospital supplies, and more

One state passed a law in 1989 to help ease the demand on landfills The law requires eachtown or city to reduce its solid waste by 25 percent before 1995 and by 50 percent before

2000 Otherwise, the community will face heavy fines

answering the questions in the box

Defining Problems

1 What is the exact problem? 4 Why is it a problem?

2 Whose problem is it? 5 Why must it be solved?

3 What are some examples of the problem? 6 When must the problem be solved?

When you set a goal, you decide what you want to achieve or attain You may, for example,

want to win a race, finish a book, or learn to surf Perhaps you have a long-term goal, such as

becoming a doctor Setting goals gives you direction and purpose

Certain goals are common to most students They want to pass their tests They want to finish

their assignments and satisfy teachers so they can achieve good grades Sometimes students set

goals for completing their assignments For example, one student might decide to finish

studying a chapter before she takes a break Another might decide to work until he has

completed an outline

However, students are not necessarily setting their own learning goals when they complete

assignments given to them or attempt to pass a test about what a teacher considers important

The best learning takes place when students set their own learning goals The following box

shows one procedure for setting learning goals The K-W-L strategy allows you to set goals

before a learning activity and monitor your progress

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your opinion, a realistic study goal Write U if the item is an unrealistic study goal Give one

reason to support each of your opinions

strategy, list five things that you know about the topic Then list five things that you would like

to know about it

K (Know) Think about what you already know about the topic

W (Want to Know) Decide what you want to know about the topic

L (Learned) After the learning activity, asses (evaluate) what you have learned

Set additional goals for what you still want to know

animal communication air or water pollution allergies

Have you ever studied a painting and wondered how the artist “saw” all of the color and detaildisplayed in the picture? Have you ever read a description of a character in a story andwondered how the author “saw” all the details that brought the character to life for you? Goodartists and good writers are masters of observation Artists are trained to see things in theobjects or people they draw or paint that most other people do not ordinarily see Writersobserve people, places, and things carefully and draw on these observations when they write.

Other people are good at observing, too Experienced bird watchers can identify a bird by thecolor of its wing tips or the shape of its beak Psychologists are good at observing people’sbehavior They can tell by watching when a person is angry, worried, or uncomfortable

Observing requires careful attention You can learn things about yourself, other people, art,sports, nature, places, objects, and so on by watching carefully and taking notice of what yousee Depending upon what you are observing, you might also bring other senses into play—

hearing, touching, smelling, or tasting

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author observed

might, for example, be a classmate, the room you are in, a display on the wall, a single desk, orthe view out a window Observe your chosen subject carefully, and list at least ten observablefacts about it

neighborhood Carefully observe one of these, and then describe it to your pen pal in a letter

Examples of Observation

1 Observing a Speaker

The speaker is quite a bit older than most of the audience She stands in front of a small woodenstand held up by a narrow metal post She appears to know the material very well She uses notesbut looks down at them only occasionally She appears quite comfortable in front of an audienceand is evidently quite experienced at speaking She speaks with an air of authority, sometimesmoving from one foot to the other and gesturing often with her hands

2 Observing Nature

The path twines between two overhanging bushes and then suddenly plunges down onto anarrow, sandy beach stretching between a thick forest and the wide lake Rocks, small plants,seaweed, and twigs dot the beach The presence of many small animals is also evident Ants,beetles, flies, mosquitoes, spiders, frogs, and lizards repeat the everyday duties that make up theirlives, ignoring the world around them Some of the grains of sand sparkle in the sun, creating anintricate pattern with the splotches of shade from the trees

Before going on a field trip, you would probably ask several questions: What time are we

leaving? What time will we get back? How are we getting there? What should I wear? How

much does it cost? Should I bring money? A lunch? Formulating such questions helps you

prepare for and learn more about the field trip Formulating questions is a helpful way to learn

about other subjects, too

Before you read a novel, you might ask questions such as, What is this book about? Will I like

this book? When and where does the story take place? What kinds of characters are in the

story? What will happen to the main character? How does the story end?

Scientists are good at asking questions They ask such things as, What makes the weather turn

colder in winter? Why do leaves change color in autumn? How does copper conduct

electricity? Formulating such questions is essential to the work of a scientist The scientist first

formulates questions and then searches for answers

Newspaper reporters must formulate good questions in order to get a news story Following

are some questions a reporter asked a lifeguard who had just rescued a drowning girl from a

lake These questions will help the reporter answer the who, what, when, where, why, and how

questions that every good news story answers

Who are you? Who is the girl?

What happened? What training have you had?

When did you first know that the girl was in trouble?

Where do you work as a lifeguard? Where in the lake was the girl swimming?

Why do you think the girl got into trouble? Why were you able to rescue her?

How did you pull the girl from the water? How long have you been a lifeguard?

The following box contains some subjects you might formulate questions about

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your questions on a separate sheet of paper

know more about Then formulate ten questions about the subject, writing them on a separate

sheet of paper

least five questions you would ask the parents before they leave

An experienced rock climber faced a steep ledge Carefully she examined the cracks, grooves,and small shelves that could be used as handholds and footholds Using what she already knewabout rock climbing, the climber selected a route and began climbing When she reached adifficult ledge along her route, she paused Could jamming her left shoe into such a smallgroove hold her weight on the rock? The climber had much climbing experience She knewthat she could balance on the groove until she found another foothold farther up the steepledge Her plan worked Using techniques she had learned earlier, she moved quickly up theledge until she reached the top.

Most people would not think that they could stand in the groove of a rock But this climberhad prior knowledge; she had climbed rocks many times before She knew it could be done,and she knew she could do it Using prior knowledge helped her successfully and efficientlybypass the steep ledge

People use prior knowledge daily A car driver, for example, knows how his car handles intraffic He knows how fast he must accelerate to enter the freeway He can estimate how long itwill take him to drive from home to work His prior knowledge gives him an advantage oversomeone who has not driven a car often or who has not driven the same route daily

You yourself use prior knowledge every day without even thinking about it You probablyknow how to go from your home to your school, a friend’s house, a movie theater, a shoppingmall or supermarket, or any other place that you visit frequently You learned the directions along time ago, and now your prior knowledge enables you to travel to such places without eventhinking about your route

You also use prior knowledge when you write Without prior knowledge of how to hold apencil and how to form letters, you could not write at all Without prior knowledge you wouldnot know how to prewrite or write a draft or write an expository or persuasive article And ifyou had no prior knowledge, you would have few things to write about

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of paper, make a list of all the things you already know about that activity

the activity you selected for Part A

Possible Topics for Using Prior Knowledge

swimming riding a bicycle ice-skating playing softball (or another sport)snowmobiling baking cookies reading a book walking to school

using crutches raking leaves baby-sitting doing math problems

A library is an essential resource for a student or a researcher Libraries are most useful to

people who know how to find the information they want For example, if you wanted to learn

about the artist Vincent van Gogh, you could check first in a general encyclopedia in the

reference section of the library Next, you could try the card catalog or computer catalog to see

whether the library has any books about Vincent van Gogh You could also look in the catalog

under Artists for other books that might contain information about van Gogh Magazine

articles about the painter would be available in the periodicals section of the library

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locating the following items of information? Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper

novel about baseball?

what could you do to begin?

Basic Library Resources

card or computer catalog Lists nonfiction books by author, title, and subject and fiction

books by author and title only Unit 23 of your text will tell youmore about library catalogs and about using call numbers tolocate books in the library

reference section Contains dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, atlases, and other

general and specialized reference worksnewspapers and Contains newspapers (with microfilm or microfiche of back issues),

periodicals section magazines, and journals, many of them indexed in the Readers’

Guide to Periodical Literature

audio-visual section Contains records, CDs, audio tapes, videocassettes, slides and

filmstrips, and other nonbook materials

You probably are familiar with such reference works as general dictionaries and encyclopedias.

There are also hundreds of specialized dictionaries and encyclopedias These are works limited

to a particular field of knowledge, such as art, science, or history, or works that contain aspecific kind of information, such as quotations or biographies Such works may be in a singlevolume or in many volumes

If you are seeking information in a specific field or are looking for a particular kind ofinformation, these specialized sources may be the best ones to use A few examples of them areshown in the box

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source for finding each of the following items of information

the references named in the box or similar works Write each answer and the title of the sourceyou used to find it

Some Specialized Reference Books

Concise Dictionary of American History—brief articles about topics in American history Dictionary of Foreign Terms in the English Language—translations of foreign words and phrases often

used in English writing

Encyclopedia of World Art—entries on artists, art movements, and other art-related topics Familiar Quotations—quotations by famous people, indexed by subject and key words Halliwell’s Filmgoer’s Companion—dictionary-style entries on films, actors, directors, and other movie-

Jane Goodall, who spent many years studying the chimpanzees in Gombe, Africa, noticed that

baby chimps continue to live with their mothers from year to year Once she watched a chimp

being attacked by a wild pig while another chimp threw rocks and beat the pig with sticks until

it let go From this she learned that chimpanzee family members are protective of one another

Perhaps Jane Goodall’s greatest discovery was that chimps use tools She once watched and

took notes as a chimpanzee stuck a long piece of grass into a termite hole and then pulled out

the grass and ate all the termites that were hanging onto it, as if it were a spoon Before that

time people had thought that humans were the only animals that used tools

Goodall’s notes helped her remember what she saw and enabled her to compare her

observations from various years It was because she took careful notes on everything she

observed that she was able to write about her findings and publish articles in science journals

Taking notes is a good way to collect information Magazine and newspaper writers take notes

when they interview someone They also jot down ideas and observations for articles they

might write in the future Personal journals exemplify another form of taking notes Many

people find that putting their thoughts and reflections into writing helps them learn more

about themselves Writers often keep personal journals in which they write about themselves

They use their notes as resources for their writing activities

Learning good note-taking skills can help you develop good study habits Taking good notes

will help you read and remember what you read Your notes also will give you something to

review before you take a test

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on the important facts about Jane Goodall’s research Use the tips on taking notes in Units 7

and 27 of your textbook

Jane Goodall Look only at your notes, not at the two paragraphs at the top of this sheet

Pointers on Taking Notes

1 Look for main ideas They will help you identify key points and the relationship between main

ideas and supporting details

2 Choose a format or an organizing principle for your notes The main idea may suggest such a

principle So may the writer’s pattern of organization You may classify, note comparisons or contrasts, or relate causes to effects, problems to solutions, or main ideas to details

3 Sentences need not be complete Write only enough key words and phrases to communicate the

information and establish relationships

4 Highlight particularly important ideas with stars or underlining.

5 Think about the information, and make a note of any remaining questions you may have.

Outlining is a good way to organize material Many writers organize their ideas into an outlinebefore they begin to write Public speakers often organize their notes into an outline and thenuse their outline in place of notes when they speak.

Outlining is a good way to take notes on a book, especially a textbook Good outlining skillscan help students read and remember what they read An outline also provides something toreview before taking a test

Before reading and outlining a chapter, it’s a good idea to page through the chapter and readthe headings and subheadings Also study any illustrations This preview will give you an idea

of what your outline will look like

To outline a textbook chapter, write down each subhead Then list the main idea of eachparagraph in that section Under each main idea, you may also list any important details thatyou wish to remember

Study the outline below Notice how the information is numbered and indented

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from one of your textbooks

Pitcher Plants

I. Characteristics of Pitcher Plants

A Have leaves shaped like pitchers

B Attract insects, small animals into pitcher

C. Digest animal life

II Kinds of pitcher plants

A Sarracenia purpurea (northern or purple pitcher plant)

1. Found along Atlantic Ocean coast or midwestern U.S

2. Is evergreen

3. Is green with red veins and velvety flowers

B. Nepenthes rajah (King Monkey Cup)

1. Found in tropical regions of Asia and Australia

2 Large; can capture animals as large as rats

C Darlingtonia california (cobra lily)

1. Found in Oregon and northern California

2 Has “fish tail” that looks like cobra’s fangs

D Sarracenia psittacina (parrot pitcher)

1. Opening looks similar to a parrot’s beak

2. Has transparent “windows” out of which prey try unsuccessfully to fly

Suppose you had to decide whether to eat a fast-food hamburger, french fries, and a malt or a

large homemade salad, homemade bread, and milk To help yourself make the decision, you

could compare and contrast the two meals

To compare means to examine in order to identify similarities To contrast means to examine

in order to identify differences It is possible to compare things that are very similar (tulips and

roses) or to compare things that are very different (a tiger and a poodle) For any comparison

to be possible, however, you must find significant ways in which the two (or more than two)

things can be compared and contrasted Tulips and roses are both flowers; so you could

compare them on the basis of such floral characteristics as color, odor, and size and shape of

flower

Comparing and contrasting may or may not involve evaluating the worth of the things being

compared or deciding which one is better No judgments need be made; however, you might

use the information gathered by comparing and contrasting to make judgments or to draw

conclusions

■ Activities

contrast the items in any two of the following groups of things.

and contrasted That is, decide which is better than the other or others Explain your choices

Comparing and Contrasting Two Items

Step 1 Ask: What is being compared and contrasted?

a fast-food hamburger meal and a homemade salad meal

Step 2 Ask: How do the two things compare (how are they alike)?

1 Both are full meals that I would enjoy eating.

2 Both meals cost about the same amount of money.

Step 3 Ask: How do the two things contrast (how are they different)?

1 The hamburger meal has more calories, more cholesterol.

2 The hamburger meal involves going out to eat.

3 The salad meal includes more vegetables, more vitamins, and more fiber.

4 The salad meal takes time to prepare.

To classify means to arrange in, or assign to, classes or categories Students, for example, aredivided into various grades based on their age and level of educational development You andyour classmates have been put into the category of tenth-graders You can also be classified bysuch things as gender, hair color, or height.

Whenever you describe or define something, you generally begin by classifying it—putting it

into a class or category “A pencil is a writing tool made of ” “Mumps is a disease that ”

Anything can be classified in one way or another Expository writing, for example, is classifiedinto six different kinds in the chart on page 221 of your textbook Details can be classified asrelevant or irrelevant to a certain topic All animals are classified into categories of varioustypes, some of them broad categories, such as vertebrates (animals with backbones) andinvertebrates (animals without backbones), and other more specific categories, such as those inthe box below

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divided into eight parts, each part headed by the name of one of the categories Classify thefollowing list of animals by writing their names in the proper part of your chart

Name your group at the top of a sheet of paper Then divide the members of the group intoclasses, and list some examples of each class

Some Categories of Animals Mollusks are “soft bodied,” and although most of them have shells, they do not have backbones Crustaceans, often called “shellfish,” are animals without backbones that have a hard outer covering Insects have six legs, three parts to their jointed bodies (head, thorax, and abdomen), and usually two

sets of wings

Birds are a class of animals with backbones They all have feathers and wings, although some of them

cannot fly

Reptiles are coldblooded, egg-laying animals with backbones and a covering of scales or hard plates.

Some live partly in water, but they breathe through lungs

Amphibians have backbones, are coldblooded, and have smooth, moist skin without scales They lay

their eggs in water, but the hatched young later develop lungs

Fish have backbones, live in water, breathe with gills instead of lungs, have fins instead of arms or

legs, and are usually covered with scales

Mammals are animals with backbones Their most distinguishing characteristic is that they have milk

glands with which to feed their young

Some information is easier to read when it is presented in graphic, or pictorial, form For

example, information containing a great many figures is easier to absorb if you see it in graphs

or tables The stages of a butterfly’s life cycle can be read more quickly in a flow chart diagram

Dates in the process of building St Peter’s dome show best on a time line The box shows some

of the major types of graphic organizers

You can create graphic organizers for your own use Some people use them to take notes If

you are trying to show steps in a process, your notes may be easier to study later if you show

the information on a flow chart The use of graphic organizers helps you relate facts and ideas

and allows you to take in and relate the information more quickly when you study your notes

in the future

You can also use graphic organizers to present information in a report People can grasp

certain types of information better if it is organized visually Tables and graphs present

numbers and quantities effectively Circle graphs (pie charts) are good for showing how two or

more parts of something are related Line graphs show comparisons and trends in numbers

and quantities over a period of time Diagrams show structures or processes Maps show

distribution over a geographical area

■ Activities

them used Then, on a separate sheet of paper, tell which type of graphic organizer would be

best for presenting each of the following types of information

art galleries in 1999

least five different types of graphic organizers and the kind of information each presents

Graphic Organizers

circlegraphs

linegraphs

bargraphs

Granite is a crystalline rock formed from hardened lava It is made up of minerals of variouscolors: quartz (transparent), feldspar (dull pink or gray), mica, and hornblende (dark colored).

The attributes of granite include its crystalline structure, its hardness, and the fact that it is

made up of minerals The components of granite are the various minerals themselves: quartz,

feldspar, mica, and hornblende Digging deeper, the components would be the individual

elements (silicon, oxygen, and so on) that make up each mineral

Attributes are inherent characteristics of an object, a person, a place, or a process Components

are the ingredients, elements, or factors that make up the object, person, place, or process Thebox contains some additional examples of attributes and components

List as many of its attributes and components as you can

your community persuasive writing a job, hobby, or sport

Your Textbook

Components: text, illustrations, chapters, index, bindingAttributes: educational, readable, portable, colorful

The United States Government

Components: legislative, executive, and judicial branchesAttributes: republicanism, democracy, checks and balances

A Computer

Components: keyboard, mouse, screen, hard disk, programAttributes: functional, speedy, versatile

As the sun shines on the earth’s surface, the surface begins to warm This is an example of a

cause-and-effect relationship The first event, the sun’s shining on the earth, causes the second

event, the warming of the earth’s surface

After the moon rose at 5:00 P M , the air began to cool This example does not show a true

cause-and-effect relationship The moon cannot cause the earth to cool People often make errors

when they assume that a cause-and-effect relationship exists simply because one event follows

another

Some scientists believe that the earth’s average temperature is rising, not only because of the

greenhouse effect, but because the earth is still coming out of the last ice age This statement

connects an effect with two causes Many effects have more than one cause

The greenhouse effect can lead to warmer temperatures and higher water levels in the ocean This

statement connects one cause with two effects Many causes create multiple effects

Explanations of causes and effects may use transition words such as those in the box However,

the presence of these words does not necessarily mean that a valid cause-and-effect

relationship exists A writer or speaker may use them in stating a faulty cause-and-effect

connection

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relationship the sentence states Use the following marks

CE One cause is connected with one effect

CCE Two causes are connected to one effect

CEE One cause is connected to two effects

sun’s heat

temperatures to rise on the earth

buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that results from the burning of fossil fuels

carbon dioxide

relationships If any of your sentences have multiple causes or multiple effects, mark them as

above

Transition Words in Cause-and-Effect Statements

An organizational pattern is the format or way in which something is organized Whenorganizing, you can choose to follow any one of several different organizational patterns Forexample, dishes in a cupboard could be organized by color, design, kind (cups, bowls, plates)

or by use (most used in front or breakfast dishes on one shelf and dinner dishes on another)

Lists of friends could be organized by closest to less close or in alphabetical order

Good writing follows distinct organizational patterns A popular organizational pattern fornarrative writing is to tell the details in the order in which they happened Most popularfiction, biographies, and autobiographies are organized in this manner

Journalists often organize articles by putting the most important details first As the articlecontinues, the details become less and less important Journalists refer to this organizationalpattern as an inverted pyramid They use this pattern so that their first paragraph or two willgrab a reader’s attention and give the reader the heart of the story Another reason for usingthe inverted pyramid is to allow the editor to cut easily from the end to fit the story, into alimited amount of space without losing any of the most important details

Paragraphs usually follow an organizational pattern that consists of a main idea andsupporting details Variations on this organizational pattern for paragraphs include stating themain idea first, stating the main idea last, or having the reader infer the main idea

The box names several frequently used organizational patterns found in writing Try to think

of instances in which you might use each of them

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would work best for each of the following writing assignments

instrument, telling jokes, and so on) Then revise your list, using whatever organizationalpattern best fits it

important to least important

Some Organizational Patterns in Writing

alphabetical order main idea/details order of importancecomparison and contrast problem/solution classification

Metaphors are comparisons in which two unlike things or ideas are linked in order to create a

meaningful, and sometimes startling, effect When William Least Heat-Moon writes (on page

35 of your text) of the “rough, nasty wind that bullied me about the slick road,” he is using a

metaphor He is comparing the terrible wind that pushes his little truck around the road to the

actions of a bully The metaphor makes it clear that Heat-Moon is not fond of the storm that

strands him on a mountain road

In City Notebook, McCandlish Phillips (page 137 of your text) writes of a very different wind,

one that “stirs up scraps and creates a funnel of newspaper that swirls up in a mad ballet.” To

Phillips the wind is not a bully but something more like a ballet master, arranging a wild dance

of swirling newspaper scraps

Metaphors can make writing more vivid They can make comparisons much stronger Before

using metaphors, however, a writer must search for and recognize metaphorical relationships—

that is, the relationship between the actual thing being written of and the thing to which it is

being compared Some examples of such relationships are identified in the box

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right best fits each situation Establish the metaphorical relationships by identifying the items

that share common characteristics Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper

He has a heart of stone (His behavior is hard, or unfeeling, as a stone is hard.)

The rain drummed against the ambulance (The sound of the rain beating on the ambulance was like

the pounding of a drummer.)

Schools are marketplaces for ideas (Schools deal with ideas, as a market deals in products.)

sometimes become targets of gloating,

taunts, and gossip

the expense of the self-esteem of others

scandal in the administration, is unable to

find other employment

conflict after a smaller nation launches a

daring surprise attack

understanding a situation better

him with a terrible resolve

Quiescent lie by dawn-shed light

down and heaped with blame

lame

Any piece of good writing contains a main idea Depending on the kind of writing, this mainidea may be given another name, for example, principal focus, theme, thesis, topic, message,purpose, subject A reader can identify the main idea of an entire piece of writing as well as themain idea of each paragraph in that piece of writing In either case, the writer established, orhad in mind, the main ideas before writing.

The main idea of a paragraph states the principal focus of that paragraph The rest of thesentences in the paragraph explain, give details about, or support the main idea The main ideamay be stated in a topic sentence, often at the beginning of the paragraph, but possibly at theend or in the middle, or implied rather than directly stated

Use these steps to identify the main idea of a paragraph:

happen if this sentence were not in the paragraph? Would the rest of the sentences tietogether and make sense?” If the answer to your question is no, you probably have foundthe sentence that contains the main idea

“Do they describe, explain, or give details about what I have identified as the main idea?”

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The rain forest is an unusual place, full of exotic plants and animals Many of the world’smedicines are made from rain-forest products Rain forests also provide the earth with much

of the plant life it needs to remove carbon dioxide from the air and restore oxygen For thesereasons it is important that the earth’s rain forests be preserved

determine each paragraph’s main idea

Identifying the main idea is helpful when:

1 finding a writing topic and determining purpose and audience

2 writing and organizing a paragraph

3 composing a plot summary

4 stating a thesis

5 analyzing an essay question on a test

Logical errors are errors resulting from faulty thinking If you concluded, for example, that

every school in the country had the exact same characteristics as your school, you would be

guilty of a logical error You would be making a generalization based on just one example out

of the many thousands of schools in the country

Being aware of logical errors is especially important when you read something or listen to

someone who is trying to persuade you It is equally important when you are trying to argue a

point or persuade someone to agree with your opinions You should certainly watch for logical

errors in your persuasive writing Asking the following questions as you write and revise your

writing will help you identify logical errors

■ Activity

statement does contain a logical error, identify the item or items from the box above that

describe the error (There may be more than one error.) If the statement does not contain a

logical error, write no error Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

discussion.”

never write when it rains.”

candy wrapper in the park.”

possibility because subatomic particles are too small to work with.”

studied acting in college; so it’s not surprising that Magda has talent.”

logical errors listed in the box Describe clearly the logical error and how it could have been

avoided

• Did I include any irrelevant information (that is, information that is not needed or that does not

support a main idea or argument)?

• Have I provided insufficient support (or proof) for an argument?

• Did I include any hasty generalizations (for example, making a generalization about a whole

class of people on the basis of the example of one person)?

• Have I included information or arguments that are the result of faulty cause-and-effect

relationships (for example, assuming that because one event followed another, the first event caused the second to occur)

• Did I base an argument on the ideas of someone who is an unqualified authority on the subject

(for example, citing the star of a science fiction movie as an authority on the space program)?

Often people go beyond known facts to infer what may logically be true For example, you areinferring when you decide that a smiling person is happy, a wilting plant needs water, asmoking house is on fire, or a bleeding cat has been fighting.

Inferring is the process of using known facts to hypothesize what might be true You may, forexample, make an inference to draw a conclusion, make a prediction, relate causes and effects,

or evaluate a situation Inferences are drawn by connecting new information with priorknowledge and experience

People often make inferences based on the information available at the moment and thenmodify them when new information surfaces You may have heard people say, “I thought youdidn’t like me, because you never called,” or “I thought this movie would be good, becauseeveryone was talking about it.” Those people obviously have learned that their previousinferences had to be revised or discarded

■ Activities

about each situation by applying the steps listed in the box

untangle themselves, one player remains lying on the field

participant You arrive just as the competition has ended Your best friend runs towardyou grinning, a gold cup in her hand

her Arriving early for the 8:00 show, you must wait for the 6:00 show to end Everyminute or so, you hear hysterical laughter from the audience inside

smoke is thick and heavy, but you do not see any flames Then you notice that all thesmoke is coming from the kitchen windows

the article and the name and date of the publication Then answer these questions

inferences based?

opinion piece or about the writer’s bias?

Steps for Making Logical Inferences

1 Begin with the known facts pertaining to the situation at hand.

2 Recall personal experiences or generalizations that could fill in gaps in information.

3 Make an inference.

Charlene’s parents had recently bought skis for themselves, and they had said that they wished

Charlene could join them for a skiing trip during her Christmas vacation from college When

Charlene arrived home, she saw a very long box with her name on it under the Christmas tree

She predicted that she was going to get skis as a Christmas present

A prediction is a statement of anticipation Based on knowledge of how similar situations have

worked out in the past, a predictor states the outcome of an event or a situation before the

outcome occurs A prediction can be found to be correct, partially correct, or incorrect It also

can be changed as new information is acquired

Making an incorrect prediction is not a sign of failure Scientists often use predictions to help

them in their research They gain useful information from their research whether or not their

predictions turn out to be correct You, too, can learn from making wrong predictions

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Maxine’s, a restaurant near a lake, recently hired several students as waiters for the summer

The restaurant has taken on extra help because business picks up in the summer, when

many people come to enjoy the lake Most of the restaurant’s business comes from people

who work at a nearby factory that employs 10,000 workers The factory has just announced

that it plans on reducing its work force by 25 percent within the next month

Explain your prediction and how you made it

prediction and how you made it

affect the general public

The Dow Jones averages dropped more today than in any previous fall since the stock

market crash of 1929, which resulted in a decade of depression Stockbrokers reported that

customers called in record numbers to request that their stocks be sold Business leaders

throughout the nation have voiced concern that the public will lose confidence in the

economy The president has announced a special television address to the nation tonight to

speak about the grave situation on Wall Street

To make a prediction

1 Examine the situation and the known facts.

2 Think about your prior knowledge of what has happened in similar situations.

3 Make a prediction.

4 If a prediction turns out to be wrong, think about why it was wrong so you can improve your

future predictions