Writers choice thinking and study skills grade 8

The following questions can help you define a problem and find a solution.. The following questions can help you set a goal.. Write on a separate sheet of paper.. Like detectives, doctor

Grade 8

Defining Problems 1

Setting Goals 2

Observing 3

Formulating Questions 4

Using Prior Knowledge 5

Comparing and Contrasting 6

Classifying 7

Using Graphic Organizers 8

Identifying Characteristics 9

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships 10

Using Organizational Patterns 11

Using Metaphors 12

Identifying Main Ideas 13

Identifying Errors in Logic 14

Inferring 15

Predicting 16

Elaborating 17

Summarizing 18

Drawing Conclusions 19

Using Criteria 20

Making Decisions 21

Thinking Creatively 22

Using a Library I 23

Using a Library II 24

Using a Dictionary I 25

Using a Dictionary II 26

Using a Dictionary III 27

Using a Thesaurus I 28

Using a Thesaurus II 29

Studying I 30

Studying II 31

Managing Study Time 32

Listening 33

Taking Notes While Listening 34

Taking Notes from Books 35

Outlining from Books 36

Taking Notes from Films and Videos 37

Solving Problems 38

Learning from Graphics I 39

Learning from Graphics II 40

Taking Tests I 41

Taking Tests II 42

Answers 43

Your shoelace breaks as you are walking from one classroom to another Your shoelacebreaks during a basketball game as you are leading a fast break The first situation is an

inconvenience, but the second is a problem—something (a broken shoelace, in this

case) that keeps you from getting what you want to have or from doing what you want

to do (scoring an easy basket before an opponent can stop you)

Problems can be hard to define A person who often turns in assignments late has aproblem But is the problem having too many chores around the house, spending toomuch time watching TV, or forgetting to put homework into the school bag? Defining

a problem clearly can help lead you to a good solution

Knowing how to define problems can help you with your school work, too Clearlydefining a problem in math will help you find the right solution Clearly defining aproblem you are exploring in a history essay can help you write a well-thought-outpaper The following questions can help you define a problem and find a solution

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prob-lem, and suggest a possible solution

party, you and your friend discover that you both bought the same birthdaygift

honor, and you want to do it, but you worry that you will forget the musicwhen you get on stage

to this problem Write down possible solutions that come to mind after answering thefive questions If you or your friend has already solved the problem, include your solution

• What makes the situation a problem?

• Does this problem need to be solved? Why?

• When should this problem be solved?

• How can this problem be solved?

Making the track team, learning a new song on the guitar, buying a special pair of

shoes, getting an A on the next history test—all of these are goals you may have set for

yourself at some point Having a goal allows you to direct your actions toward a

spe-cific purpose For example, homework can be easier if you set goals for yourself You

could study until your favorite television show comes on Or take a break for every two

paragraphs of a paper that you write You achieve a sense of satisfaction when you

reach a goal

The most important part of setting goals is making sure that they are realistic If you

set a goal to write a three-page paper in one night, you may finish the paper, but it

probably won’t be very well written You may decide to become a ballet dancer, but

don’t expect to become the best dancer in the group within six months You should

always challenge yourself, but only you know whether your goal is realistic When you

set a goal, it is important to think clearly and to plan well The following questions can

help you set a goal

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goal is realistic or not If it is not realistic, tell why, and explain how the goal could be

changed to make it attainable Write on a separate sheet of paper

1. Write a novel in Russian

2. Learn how to ride a horse

3. Learn fifty new words each day

4.Write a poem, and have it published

5.Buy a pet guinea pig

6. Run in a marathon

7. Invent a new form of environmentally safe energy

8. Learn how to play guitar

9. Knit a sweater for your grandfather’s birthday next week

10. Volunteer time for a local charity

the goal Be sure to include the amount of time you think it will take to reach that goal

• What exactly do I want to accomplish?

• Is this goal realistic?

• How much time will it take to reach my goal?

• How can I best accomplish my goal?

The murmur of the crowd fills my ears as I lean back in my seat and feel the warmth of the sun in a cloudless sky soak into my skin The fans are happy The home team is ahead by three runs in the bottom of the sixth inning, and they are well on their way to winning their division A family two rows down is on its second round of hot dogs The spicy sweet smell

of the meat drifts up to me, making my stomach grumble I savor another bite of my tard-covered soft pretzel.

mus-Observing can help you turn any experience into a writing opportunity But observingtakes practice Writer Julia Alvarez plays word-association games to keep her senses andher observational skills sharp (See page 110 in your textbook.) You can keep yourobservational skills sharp by taking five minutes during the day to focus on what yoursenses are picking up Remember to use all five senses—sight, touch, smell, hearing,and taste Describe your impressions in detail

Writers are not the only careful observers Scientists observe reactions in experiments

Doctors observe the symptoms of their patients Teachers observe their students Youcan learn about the world around you by observing people, sports, animals, art, places,and even objects

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the stands during a baseball game?

you are Carefully observe your area, and list at least one fact that you observe witheach of your five senses

Write a note of welcome describing an area you enjoy near your house, such as apark or playground, a shopping area, or a video arcade Use descriptions thatappeal to several senses

Have you ever played twenty questions? One person in a group thinks of an animal, a

plant, or an object The rest of the group then asks the person questions about his or

her chosen item The person can answer only yes or no If the group can’t guess the

identity of the item within twenty questions, the person wins Playing the game well

requires learning how to ask the right questions

Many people ask questions for a living Detectives must know the right questions to

ask witnesses or suspects Doctors must ask questions to determine what is wrong with

a patient Journalists ask a series of questions to fully report any news story Most of

these questions begin with the words who, what, when, where, why, and how This list

of questions is also called the five Ws and H

Like detectives, doctors, and journalists, students can use these questions to complete a

math problem, write a paper for English or social studies, or understand an

experi-ment in science The following questions are ones formulated by a student writing a

report on the history of aviation

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the following topics, and write six different questions for each of them

your supervisor before setting out for your first day on the job

• Who built the first airplane?

• What was the first airplane like? When was it built? Where was it built?

• How fast did the early planes fly?

• How were the early planes powered?

• What kinds of problems developed with the early airplanes?

• When were passengers first transported on airplanes?

• Where was the first commercial airport?

Are you studying a new language? Much of it will be difficult and new, but yourknowledge of your native language may help you tremendously You already know thatverbs have tenses and nouns can be plural or singular You will not have to learn thatimportant information again as you did when you were a young child Your priorknowledge will help you master this new task Similarly, a musician who knows how toplay the clarinet can use her or his prior knowledge in learning to play the saxophone.

A downhill skier can use prior knowledge to learn to ski cross-country

Using what you already know is part of the process of learning Once you have assessedyour prior knowledge, you can move on to the next step—acquiring new knowledge

The questions in the box below can help you identify and apply prior knowledge

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things you already know about each activity that will help you perform or learn to form the activity The questions in the box can help you recognize prior knowledgethat relates to the activity

that explains how prior knowledge would help you perform the activity

• What is familiar about this situation?

• How is the situation like something I already know?

• What skills or information do I have that can help me?

• How can I use what I know in this situation?

You need to earn some extra money Should you get a paper route or baby-sit for

chil-dren in your neighborhood? Both jobs have pros and cons To help you decide which is

right for you, try comparing and contrasting the two jobs You can use the following

guidelines to help you

The most important part of comparing and contrasting two items is selecting the

char-acteristics you will examine Make sure that the charchar-acteristics you select for

compar-ing and contrastcompar-ing apply to both items Without common ground on which to build

your comparison, you can’t learn how the items relate to each other For example, the

question “When would you need to complete your tasks for each job?” would work

well for a comparison-contrast Having a paper route would mean getting up very

early in the morning, while baby-sitting might mean staying up late at night

Remember that comparing and contrasting are not simply means to judge the worth of

one item in relation to another You can also use comparing and contrasting to draw

conclusions or to make informed judgements Many people use comparison-contrast

when deciding whom to vote for Comparison and contrast also can be used to

describe something For example, “My bike is as big as Mom’s, and it has more gears

than Dad’s.”

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could use to compare and contrast the items

which you compare and contrast the two items

Guidelines for Comparing and Contrasting

• To compare is to examine in order to identify similarities.

Some clue words: both, equal to, alike, same as, similar, also

Example: Both paper delivery and baby-sitting would bring in money.

• To contrast is to examine in order to identify differences.

Some clue words: but, by contrast, different, more than, less than, unlike

Example: Paper delivery would be an everyday job, unlike baby sitting, which

would be less regular.

Imagine that you are the manager of a discount store that will be opening in one week.

The merchandise will be delivered tomorrow, and you must decide where to put thing Your store has seven main sections: clothing, cosmetics, electronics, kitchenware,linens, toys, and hardware When the pots and pans are delivered, where will you putthem? What about the televisions, the dolls, and the towels? Obviously, you will sortthe products and put them in the appropriate sections—pots and pans in kitchenware,televisions in electronics, dolls in toys, and towels in linens You will classify the prod-ucts by grouping them in categories

every-Classifying is a common way to organize information It involves sorting and groupingitems according to general or specific common features such as size, color, or use

Nearly everything can be classified: animals, ideas, stars, trees, cities Classifying helps

us manage large amounts of information

Many items can be classified or sorted in more than one way When you are faced with

a large list or group of items, think about the different sets of common features thatare present—size and color; age and interests; speed, style, and gas mileage The boxshows two examples of sorting by different categories

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that do not use a ball Then sort them into three further categories: team sports, on-one sports, and individual sports

Then classify your list into two or more categories

Classifying and Reclassifying Sweaters by color: red, green, blue, black, white

by size: small, medium, large

by style: pullover, cardigan

by material: cotton, wool, acrylic, silk

Books by type: prose, poetry, fiction, nonfiction

by subject: history, mystery, cooking, pets

by author: James Herriot, Alice Walker, Agatha Christie

Graphic organizers can help you arrange information so that it is easy to understand at

a glance Charts, diagrams, and maps allow you to explain processes, compare items,

and show locations quickly and easily Visual formats let you see your facts and ideas as

you do research for a report, study for a test, plan your schedule, or try to solve a

prob-lem To keep track of important dates in the Civil War, try arranging the dates in a

time line To show how a bill is made into a law, draw a flow chart The chart below

shows how one busy student scheduled her class assignments and extracurricular

activ-ities for one week

You can use many different kinds of graphic organizers depending on how you want to

arrange your information

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identify which graphic organizer would work best for each topic listed below

years

own Use the information to create a graphic organizer

Types of Graphic Organizers

Diagrams show structures, physical arrangements, or processes.

Time lines show the sequence of events and dates.

Maps show geographic information.

Graphs use lines or symbols to show a relationship between two or more things.

Circle graphs show how parts of something relate to one another and to the whole.

Bar graphs compare quantities, such as urban versus rural population.

Line graphs show trends in numbers over time.

Tables use a grid to clearly show an orderly arrangement of information.

review novel,read science

stay overnight

at Laura’s

history paperdue, read novelfor English

soccerpractice

go to Laura’shouse

choir andsoccer practice

soccer game see movie

with Laura

math quiz Spanish test history paper

due

science labdue

novel quiz,science

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Characteristics are elements of an object or idea that allow you to distinguish it fromother objects or ideas Below are some characteristics that can be used to distinguishdifferent dogs.

Characteristics of Dogs

Within the category or group of dogs, there are breeds that have similar characteristics

For example, the characteristic weight of Great Danes can range from 120 pounds to

170 pounds Each individual dog, of course, has a specific set of characteristics Below

is a chart that compares the characteristics of Ted the Great Dane and Biff the ture poodle

minia-■ Activities

character-istics, (cats, games, or cars, for example) Make a list of at least five characteristics thatcould distinguish individuals within each category

of characteristics, similar to the one above Think of two individuals within your gory For example, if your category is flowers, two individuals might be daisy and dan-delion Then, for each individual, fill in the characteristics

9 Identifying Characteristics

Characteristics Ted the Great Dane Biff the Miniature Poodle

heightweightcolor of coatcolor of eyeskind of hairlength of tailkind of earsjob

personality

thirty inches at the shoulder

145 poundstan with black maskbrown

short and straightlong

pointy and standing uppet

laid-back and lovable

eleven inches at the shoulder

20 poundswhitebrownshort and curlymediumsoft and floppypet

smart and energetic

• Because this is the final game of the season, tickets to tonight’s game sold out early.

This sentence states a cause-and-effect relationship The first fact, that the season’sfinal game plays tonight, causes the second fact, that tickets sold out early Ticketsselling out early is the effect

• Maria forgot to set her alarm clock, so her brother ate his own breakfast and hers.

This example does not show a true cause-and-effect relationship Maria’s ting to set her alarm clock cannot directly cause her brother to eat more than hisshare of breakfast People often assume mistakenly that a cause-and-effect rela-tionship exists simply because one event follows another This is not always thecase

forget-• The thinning of our ozone layer leads to increased risk of skin cancer This example

does state a cause-and-effect relationship that many scientists accept as true Canyou point out which event is the cause? What is its effect?

The first two examples above make use of transition words Cause-and-effect

relation-ships are often signaled by transition terms The box below contains many common

transition terms

Cause-and-effect relationships can exist without the presence of a transition term in

the sentence; therefore, do not expect transitions in every case Similarly, the presence

of a transition does not guarantee a cause-and-effect relationship As you can see in the

second example above, the transition term so does not indicate cause and effect The

best way to positively determine a cause-and-effect relationship is to ask yourself,

“Does one event come about only because of the other?”

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shows a cause-and-effect relationship or not Then circle each cause statement, and

underline each effect statement

terms; in others show relationships without using transition terms

10 Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Transition Terms That Signal Cause and Effect

Whenever you want your writing to present information in an ordered and logical way,

it is helpful to use an organizational pattern An account of something that happened

to you on your way home from school could be organized in time order—what pened first, second, third, and so on A description of a new library might be mostclearly conveyed by organizing the details spatially, for example, by describing closeobjects first, then those that are farther away An article favoring a new neighborhoodrecycling program could present the issues in order of importance

hap-When organizing information, use a pattern that suits both the information you’representing and the manner in which you are writing It would be logical to organizethe events of a story in time order However, a comparison-and-contrast organizationalpattern probably would not be an effective way to organize the story You may need toexperiment with several different methods of organization before you find the one thatmakes the most sense Below is a list of various organizational patterns along with sug-gested kinds of writing where each pattern might make sense

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best for each of the following presentations

her

pat-tern of organization, and determine whether the information could be successfullyorganized in a different pattern

11 Using Organizational Patterns

Organizational Pattern Kind of Writing

Time order Order of importance Spatial order

Comparison and contrast Problem-solution

Cause and effect

Reports, stories, narratives, descriptions of historical events Reports to persuade or inform; descriptions of people, things, or events Descriptions of scenes

Reports about two or more persons, places, or things Narratives and reports that describe problems and offer solutions Narratives, reports and processes, persuasive articles

In practically everything you read and hear, you find metaphors “She is a songbird.”

“His anger was a lightning bolt.” “He’s a tiger under the backboards.” Metaphors are

comparisons in which two unlike things or ideas are linked in order to create a

mean-ingful effect A metaphor makes a comparison without using like or as or other words

that state a comparison A metaphor says that one thing is another thing “You’re a

goldfinch in that bright yellow dress.”

Metaphors compare two dissimilar things to create a vivid impression For example,

anger has very little resemblance to a bolt of lightning The comparison emphasizes the

suddenness and intensity of the person’s anger, and it creates a more vivid impression

than a nonmetaphorical statement with a similar meaning, such as “His anger was

sud-den and intense.”

When you use a metaphor, be careful to find a meaningful relationship that is based on

recognizable common features Ask yourself what is the similarity between the two

unlike things you are comparing Ask a friend what the metaphor suggests to him or

her If readers do not see the sense of your metaphor, look for another comparison A

nonsensical metaphor will confuse the reader, but a true one can give your reader the

exact image you want to communicate

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images taken together provide new meaning?

below with a comparison from column B, or you may prefer to choose your own

metaphors

The archaeological site a federal disaster area

His patriotic speech a layer cake built during thousands of years

The hot summer day a book that records ancient life

Every piece of good writing contains a main idea The main idea answers the question

“What is this writing about?” Writers of newspaper and magazine articles, essays, andnonfiction books all have main ideas in mind as they write Every chapter in the text-books you read has a main idea Titles and headings usually reveal the main idea

Individual paragraphs are built around a main idea that focuses the content of theparagraph The rest of the sentences in the paragraph explain, give details about, orsupport the main idea The main idea often is stated in a topic sentence Topic sen-tences may appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph The best way tofind the topic sentence is to ask yourself, “What is this paragraph about?” Then lookfor a sentence that expresses that idea That is your topic sentence

Sometimes main ideas are implied rather than stated If you do not find a topic tence, quite likely the main idea is implied A well-written paragraph may not need tohave its main idea stated

sen-■ Activities

sen-tence or main idea of each one

The rest of the water—the runoff—seeks the lowest point The runoff travels ually downhill in rivulets—tiny flowing streams—which eventually come together

grad-as larger streams Farther downhill, grad-as more and more streams combine, the waterforms rivers that run toward lakes and seas Runoff is the most important source ofwater for rivers and lakes

news-paper on a regular basis will provide you with a wealth of news You also canlearn more about the world around you by watching local or national TV newsprograms You can even catch bits and pieces of news without setting aside time

to do so If you listen to a radio with headphones on your way to and fromschool, you’re likely to hear some news By glancing at the headlines when youpass a newstand, you get an idea of what the big events are

a main-idea statement and statements that support the main idea Exchange your graphs with a partner, so that he or she can identify the main-idea statement of yourparagraph while you identify the main-idea statement of your partner’s paragraph

13 Identifying Main Ideas

Steps for Identifying the Main Idea of a Paragraph

1. Read the paragraph carefully.

2. Determine the specific topic of the paragraph, and write it down in a few words or in a sentence.

3. Look for the same idea in a topic sentence If there is no topic sentence, the main idea may be implied

4. Reread the paragraph to see whether the other sentences support the main idea.

Errors in logic result from faulty thinking Being aware of errors in logic is especially

important when you read or listen to something that is trying to persuade you Every

time you turn on the television or radio, you are bombarded with advertising messages

that try to persuade you to buy products Many of these ads use techniques designed to

catch you off guard or to confuse you with faulty thinking

For example, you may hear an ad with the message “Wear Hamster basketball shoes—

you’ll be unstoppable.” The Hamster shoes ad conveys a faulty cause-and-effect

relation-ship The ad implies that wearing the shoes (cause) will make you a superior basketball

player (effect) In truth, shoes are a small part of being a good player The ad contains an

error in logic Nonetheless, some people believe the claims of such advertisements

To avoid making these errors in logic when you argue a point or write to persuade

oth-ers, check your statements and facts against the list above

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the environment

trade your sentences for those of a classmate, and try to identify each other’s errors

in logic

14 Identifying Errors in Logic

Be Aware of These Errors in Logic

Faulty cause-and-effect relationship An effect seems to result from an inappropriate

cause: “I didn’t finish the book because the weather was so nice.”

Hasty generalizations Forming an opinion about an issue, based on just one example out

of the thousands of possibilities: “I saw a play once, and I hated it Plays are boring and silly.”

Either/or reasoning Reducing a complex issue to a choice between one of two extreme

posi-tions: “Anyone who opposes these raises for our police force is promoting crime in the streets.”

Unqualified authority Basing an argument on the knowledge or opinion of someone not

qualified to give information on the subject being addressed: “I know who will win the dency, because my younger brother told me.”

presi-Red herring A red herring is something that distracts from the real issue: “When the teacher

asked Ricky for his math paper, Ricky complimented her on the dress she was wearing.”

When you infer, you make an assumption about what is happening or will happen,based on your prior knowledge, logic, or other clues You are inferring when youdecide that a smiling person is happy, a quiet person is sad, a wilting plant needs water,

or a bleeding cat has been fighting Inferring can help you draw a conclusion, make aprediction, relate causes and effects, or evaluate a situation To make a logical infer-ence, follow these steps:

Even when the inferring process leads you to what is apparently a logical inference,inferences do not always turn out to be correct You could have inferred that a storewas closed for a holiday, only to find out later that the store was closed because theowner was injured in an accident

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infer-ence about each one

leftovers she had brought home from the restaurant where she had eaten thenight before In the middle of the night, you wake up feeling sick

of the class with the remaining paper in his hand “I would like to read aloud

an outstanding paper,” he says You are the only student in the class whosepaper was not returned

into the basement to examine the furnace, he noticed that the burners were notworking

was wrong Make a new inference based on the stated facts and the assumption thatyour first inference was incorrect

1. Begin with the facts known about the current situation.

2. Recall personal experiences or generalizations that could fill gaps in your knowledge of the situation

3. Make an inference, using all the information you have.

4. Revise your inference as necessary to accommodate new information.

Many people read novels or watch movies because they like to get caught up in the

unfold-ing of a story Many people make predictions about the endunfold-ings of stories Mysteries in

par-ticular are designed to appeal to people who enjoy trying to predict events

People also use predicting in everyday interactions with other people Our predictions

usually grow from a combination of our past experiences, facts we know, and our

emo-tions In choosing a gift for a friend, for example, you think about things she enjoys

doing, such as playing computer games (past experience) You might also know that

she doesn’t subscribe to a computer magazine (known fact), and you are confident she

would enjoy a magazine you know about (emotion) The cost of the subscription falls

within your budget for the gift, so you make the decision Whenever we decide on a

gift for someone we know well, we are predicting that the recipient will be pleased

The questions in the box can help you make reasonable predictions

Some of your predictions may turn out to be incorrect However, as any scientist knows,

a prediction doesn’t need to be correct to be useful If a scientific prediction turns out to

be inaccurate, scientists can evaluate why they were mistaken and use this information to

help them make further predictions—and to design further experiments to test those

new predictions The following guidelines can help you make predictions

■ Making Predictions

can improve your future predictions

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run-ning in the bathtub

your paper on Thursday night

home on an icy sidewalk

two, write a prediction about the story—about what will happen next, how a character

will act, or how the story will conclude Read the rest of the story to determine how

accurate your prediction is What led you to make that prediction?

• What is the situation?

• What has happened in the past that is the same or similar?

• Based on past events and the facts of the present situation, what is likely to happen next?

Elaborating involves using examples, explanations, questions, comparisons, and pastexperiences to make a description clearer or more vivid When you elaborate, you mightsay, “This experience is just like that time Kim wouldn’t speak to me and I felt so lonely”

rather than simply “I feel lonely.” You might also write, “Louisa May Alcott’s books werepopular because they depicted the thoughts of young people so well” rather than

“Louisa May Alcott’s books were popular.” You might write a report comparing andcontrasting kinds of pets Whenever you expand on a subject, you are elaborating

Brainstorming and freewriting are ways of elaborating When you let your mind roamaround a subject, and you write down associations and ideas, you are elaborating

When you need to solve a problem or think of a topic for a report, elaborating can be auseful aid in generating ideas

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use all five kinds of elaboration as you work

explore, a news item, or some other topic of your choice Explore the topic, using some

of the methods of elaboration you have learned

Some Types of Elaboration Examples Many people suffer major illnesses after stressful events such as the death of a

family member, the experience of a natural disaster, or the loss of a job.

Explanations Many immigrants came to America seeking new jobs and hoping for a better life Comparisons and contrasts The pronghorn, wildebeest, and lion can run surprisingly fast,

but none can beat the cheetah’s amazing seventy miles per hour.

Recalled events Remember when we were small and we made forts out of cardboard

boxes? I’ll never forget that feeling of adventure

Analogies He’s only criticizing the drama club because he didn’t qualify to join It’s like the

fox and the grapes.

“I read a great book over the weekend!” said Kira.

“Really? What was it about?” asked Tai.

Later, Tai fought back a yawn and looked at his watch Kira had been describing every scene

of the book for nearly forty-five minutes He was sorry he had asked about the book at all.

Obviously, Kira didn’t know how to summarize.

A summary is a brief account that includes only main points and the most important

details of a story, event, film, program, or incident You summarize information when

you do research or study for a test You sometimes read plot summaries on the back

cover of a book or on the back of a videotape package If you miss a club meeting, a

newsletter will provide a meeting summary

Since summaries are such a common part of life, the ability to summarize is a valuable

skill Use the questions in the box to help you develop summaries

■ Activities

Determine the main idea, and eliminate details that are not essential to the story Write

your summary on a separate sheet of paper

An attempt by Russian space officials to flash a beam of sunlight across Europe before

dawn was thwarted by cloud cover Reports from Switzerland stated that thick cloud cover prevented any of the sunbeams from lighting up the night By using a giant mirror in space, officials hoped to light up parts of several European countries for seven minutes The space mirror is a sixty-five-foot-diameter reflective plastic sheet that was unfurled from a Russian spacecraft The mirror was constructed by a small optics company The mirror was intended

to reflect sunlight back to earth and, in defiance of nature, to illuminate the night with light This idea was the brainchild of a special team of Russian agricultural scientists inter-

sun-ested in establishing alternative light sources to moderate the lengthy darkness during the winter months.

Officials in the cities the sunbeam was intended to fall upon were not notified of the

Russian experiment Russian authorities did not believe the seven minutes of light would

cause any alarm.

content

Summarizing Questions

1. What is the main idea? (Try to state it in one sentence.)

2. What are the major details?

3. Does each detail support the main idea?

4. Does each detail present new information?

5. Have you eliminated details that are repetitious or unnecessary?

Frank saw Leila, his new girlfriend, at the store with a good-looking young man Theywere talking and laughing together as if they knew and liked each other Leila sawFrank and smiled and waved Frank, jealous and humiliated, turned and ran away.

Frank’s conclusion that Leila’s companion was her new boyfriend was not based onfacts The young man could have been Leila’s brother Frank’s situation shows thatdrawing a conclusion without knowing all the facts can be tricky

Whether you are reading a book, reading or listening to the news, or analyzing a tion in your life, try to look at all the angles Ask questions Gather more facts Thenyou can attempt to draw a conclusion

situa-■ Activities

On a separate sheet of paper, write yes if the conclusion is supported or no if it is not

supported For weak conclusions, tell what additional facts are needed

confi-dent of her answers Later, Mark showed her an answer sheet he said he hadfound in a wastebasket near the teacher’s desk Nearly all the answers differedfrom Jenny’s “I’ve flunked the test,” she thought

spe-cial spaghetti, but he decided to give it a try “I’m making dinner tonight,” heannounced, and he thought they looked a bit worried All through dinner hekept hearing, “I’ll have more” and “Could I have another helping?” Soon thepot was empty “I guess they liked it,” Cameron said to himself

moving in the sky Their descriptions were so vivid that investigators from theU.S Air Force came to interview them If the air force is interested, Nikkithought, it must be true that the people saw UFOs

and explain the conclusion

Steps for Drawing a Conclusion

1 Examine the facts.

Leila is with a handsome young man.

2 Ask what more needs to be known.

Who is the young man? Is he Leila’s boyfriend? Brother? Cousin?

3 Gather more facts if necessary, and organize them.

Ask Leila to introduce her companion Find out what his relationship to Leila is.

4 Draw a conclusion.

The young man is not a rival.

Roger plans to write about the three most important inventions in history Of the

many, many inventions, how will Roger choose only three? He will establish criteria, or

standards for making judgments Roger begins compiling a list of criteria for

impor-tant inventions:

• Each invention must have changed people’s lives significantly.

• Each invention must have been a major technological advance.

• Each invention must have had a widespread impact

• Each invention must have had long-term effects

Roger’s job is still going to be difficult, but his list of criteria will help For example, the

mechanical pencil sharpener probably does not meet the criteria, but the telephone

does You use criteria on a regular basis in your life For example, you look for certain

qualities in the clothing you buy You watch certain television programs because they

meet your standards for comedy, drama, or action When you use criteria in your

stud-ies—for choosing a topic to write about or for developing an opinion about an issue,

for example—be careful to use appropriate criteria Look again at Roger’s criteria for

inventions Are they appropriate? Since the main characteristics of inventions are

change and technological advance, these criteria probably are appropriate They will

help Roger judge each invention according to meaningful standards

■Activities

topic, the purpose of the report, and the criteria you would select Then study the list,

and cross out any criterion that is inappropriate

Title: When Should a Law Be Changed?

Criteria:

20 Using Criteria

Guidelines for Using Criteria

• Decide what you want to know about a topic.

• List some criteria (standards) for judging the topic (It must be .It must have .)

• Check the list, and remove any criteria that do not relate directly to what you want to know.

Situations often force you into making decisions Some decisions are easy to make Forexample, if you were standing on a railroad track and a train were approaching, youwould probably make your decision pretty quickly Other situations require morethought Should you get braces? Is this the year to try out for the basketball team?

Should you commit yourself to that baby-sitting job every Saturday?

Learning to make decisions requires practice With practice, you’ll be able to act when

a decision is needed, and you’ll feel comfortable that your decision is the best one youcould make at the time The next time you’re faced with a decision, ask yourself thequestions in the box

■ Activities

separate sheet of paper, list all your options and what you think might be the quences of each option Then explain the decision you would make

need extra help You are pleased that your teacher asked you, but the tutoringmight interfere with rehearsals for a show you are in You recently won a cov-eted part in a local musical show, and the rehearsals are time consuming andphysically tiring It’s all you can do to keep up with your schoolwork right now

the North and the South have reached a crisis level Several states have alreadywithdrawn from the Union Lincoln vows to keep the country together Thenthe Confederates attack Fort Sumter The situation forces Lincoln to make adecision Should he defend the fort and start a war, or should he give in to theConfederacy? He asks for your advice

rea-sons for your decision

Guidelines for Making a Decision

1. What are the facts?

2. Do I need more information before I can make an informed decision?

3. What are my options?

4. What are the consequences of each option?

5. When must I decide?

Creative thinkers see things in a unique way They don’t wait for other people to

approve of their ideas Creative thinking requires looking at a situation without

pre-conceived notions It involves looking for fresh ways of thinking about familiar things

Creative thinkers let their minds explore possibilities, even possibilities that seem crazy,

impractical, or unworkable Of course, they consult others, but they do their own

thinking Many useful inventions, works of art, and significant discoveries came about

because someone had an idea and followed it through Many inventions were created

by someone who saw a need or tried to solve a problem Can you identify any of the

creations that resulted from the situations described below?

to some men he admired

easy-to-apply bandage might be useful to many people

sub-stance In the end the substance seemed to have no practical use, but it became

an irresistible toy

children The company produced a booklet with an illustrated poem about areindeer The poem was later set to music

Did you recognize which well-known creations grew from imaginative responses to

these situations? They are (1) the monument at Mount Rushmore, (2) adhesive

ban-dage strips, (3) Silly Putty, and (4) “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.” Use the ideas in

the box to stimulate your creative thinking

■ Activities

the following problems Write down and explain all your ideas for solutions

junior high school students

problem by using creative thinking? Write your ideas on a separate sheet of paper

Thinking Creatively

Ask, "Why not?" Be open to new ideas Use your imagination.