Writers choice thinking and study skills grade 9

On a separate sheet of paper, write at least four questions for each heading.. On a separate sheet of paper, take notes as you read.. Write your categories and the items on a separate sh

Setting Goals 2

Observing 3

Formulating Questions 4

Using Prior Knowledge 5

Using a Library 6

Using Reference Books 7

Taking Notes 8

Outlining 9

Comparing and Contrasting 10

Classifying 11

Using Graphic Organizers 12

Identifying Attributes and Components 13

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships 14

Using Organizational Patterns 15

Using Metaphorical Relationships 16

Identifying Main Ideas 17

Identifying Logical Errors 18

Inferring 19

Predicting 20

Elaborating 21

Summarizing 22

Restructuring 23

Drawing Conclusions 24

Establishing, Verifying, and Assessing Criteria 25

Using Metacognition 26

Solving Problems I 27

Solving Problems II 28

Making Decisions I 29

Making Decisions II 30

Using Creative Thinking I 31

Using Creative Thinking II 32

Taking Notes While Listening 34

Managing Study Time 35

Studying 36

Learning from Graphics I 37

Learning from Graphics II 38

Taking Tests I 39

Taking Tests II 40

Answers 41

The fiction you read is often based on a problem A good short story, for example, may contain

a problem that a character in the story has to solve The problem creates suspense Will thecharacter be successful in solving the problem? You read the story to find out how the maincharacter’s problem will be resolved

Do you recognize a problem when you’re faced with one? Many people think they always knowwhen they are facing a problem But sometimes it takes people a while to realize they have aproblem and to understand what the problem is A hiker, for example, may hike for severalmiles before realizing she is on the wrong trail Then her problem is to figure out where she is

in relation to where she thinks she is or where she wants to be

To solve a problem, you must first define it When a driver takes his car to a mechanic, forexample, the mechanic must check the car to determine what the problem is Once theproblem has been defined, a solution can be found

Perhaps taking tests is a problem for you Before you can solve your problem, you must learnexactly what the problem is Do you have poor study habits? Do you become too jittery before

a test? Do you have trouble understanding what the test is asking you to do? After you defineyour problem, you can look for a solution

Processes such as playing a game or paddling a canoe also contain problems When playingchess, your problem is to capture the other player’s king before the other player captures yours

When canoeing, your problem is keeping the canoe upright and moving forward in the water

See whether you can identify problems in the processes listed in the following box

A.Read each sentence below On a separate sheet of paper, write P if the sentence contains a problem Write N if the sentence (by itself, without further information) does not define a

problem Be prepared to explain your answers

1. Kathi’s dog is lost 6. Carmen wants to learn to ride a unicycle

2. Conrad can’t find his shoes 7. Martin must take a test

3. Mary ate pancakes for breakfast 8. The table is painted red

4. Paul is hungry 9. Teresa can speak five languages

5. Charlene can ride a bicycle 10. Terry wants to visit Mexico, but he cannot speak

Spanish

B.Choose a process—one of those listed in the box above or one of your own Define aproblem you could face when performing that process Identify the goal or end result of theprocess, and then identify the obstacle or obstacles that could prevent you from reaching yourgoal Then tell how you would solve the problem

Some Processes That May Contain Problems

traveling playing chess learning to drive a car making sugar-free cookies canoeing getting a date painting a picture using a computer

Read the following New Year’s resolutions.

I will spend more time with my younger sister

I will study for two hours every night

I will eat more healthy foods

I will get eight hours of sleep every night

I will find a job

If you have ever made a New Year’s resolution, then you have experience in setting goals A

goal is an objective or an end that you pursue Setting a goal means stating a plan or an aim It

is a way for you to say that you plan to work toward and attain that goal in the future

Some people set goals for personal growth An example might be learning to relax Others set

outward goals, such as getting an education or winning a tournament Adults often set goals

for their businesses or families

Setting goals can be a good way of getting things accomplished If you don’t set a goal, will you

ever improve your test-taking skills? Will you ever write that letter you’ve been planning to

write? Will you ever talk to your parents about a certain problem you face?

A Read each sentence On the line following each sentence, write yes if the sentence states a

goal Write no if the sentence does not contain a goal Be prepared to explain your answers.

1. Marla has played the piano since the third grade. _

2. Elroy wants to become a lifeguard

3. Connie wants to become friends with Jane _

4. LaDonna wants to go to the prom

5. Sam is the school’s best chess player. _

6. Kerri can read only five pages in an hour. _

7. Cindy is determined to learn to read faster _

8. Tuan wishes to get an A in French class

9. Martin hopes to improve his grades. _

10. Jackie does not get along with her younger sister. _

B.Set some goals for yourself List five goals that you would like to attain List only goals that

you think you could attain within the next year Then tell how you plan to achieve each goal

Some Goals Students Set

make the basketball team make new friends learn to play the piano

travel abroad get an A in science be on time

become a cheerleader find a summer job learn to speak German

learn to drive improve study habits graduate

Have you ever been listening to the radio or watching a television show when the program wassuddenly interrupted by a storm warning? You may have been annoyed to have your programinterrupted, but you probably realized that the warning could be important to many peopleand could perhaps even save lives.

The weather forecasts you see on television have probably helped you understand howmeteorologists can predict storms They do so by using prior knowledge of the conditions thatcan create a dangerous storm But before meterologists can make such predictions, they mustcarefully observe the movement of air masses, temperatures, and other weather characteristics

Observation is essential to the information-gathering process You have certainly used yourobserving skills in science classes To discover how sunlight affects plant growth, for example,you might have set up an experiment in which you grew two similar plants, one on a

windowsill where it would get plenty of sunlight and another in a dark corner You thenobserved the two plants daily, carefully noting any differences in their growth

Observation is a vital part of scientific work Once enough information is gathered throughobservation, connections can be made among facts The information becomes the basis forscientific hypotheses, inferences, and predictions

Observation is also important in your everyday life Your senses are constantly bombarded byinformation Through observation you make meaningful patterns of these sensations Thefollowing box contains examples of how you can gain useful information from observingthrough your five senses

A.Suppose you needed to write a description of each of the following events On a separatesheet of paper, list the senses that you would use to gain the information for your description

List the senses in order of their importance for each description

1. A particularly good meal at a favorite restaurant

2. Your visit to a botanical garden

3. An exciting basketball game your school team won

4. A horror movie you saw last night

5. Your first swimming lesson

B.Recall a particularly vivid experience you have had It might be similar to one of those listedabove Write a letter to a friend describing your experience Try to appeal to the appropriatesenses to make the experience come alive for your friend

Sight: You see a red light and know that you must not cross a street.

Sound: You hear a loud crash in the next room and go to see what has fallen.

Smell: You smell smoke and suspect that something is on fire.

Taste: Something tastes bad in your sandwich You wonder whether you should finish it.

Touch: You feel a chill and decide to put on a sweater.

Much of human knowledge exists because someone asked questions Where does the sun go at

night? What is on the other side of the ocean? How can we prevent smallpox? Questions can

help you learn You gain much of your information from reading, so reading with questions in

your mind will help you learn more from what you read

How do you formulate questions before reading the content? Titles, headings, boldfaced terms,

and graphic aids such as photos, drawings, maps, charts, and graphs can provide a preview of

what the selection covers You can also gain some information by skimming before you read

If your reading selection has headings, the easiest way to formulate questions is to make them

out of the headings You may, for example, ask who, what, when, where, why, or how questions

based on a heading The box shows some examples of questions made from a heading

You may also use prior knowledge to formulate questions List what you knew about the topic

before examining the material and what you have learned from looking at the titles, headings,

boldfaced terms, and graphic aids Then list what you want or need to learn

Post-reading questions are also important Think about the material you have just read, and

formulate questions based on it How does the material explain something you did not

understand before? How can you apply it to other subjects and to your life? How could a

problem raised in the reading selection be solved? What might have caused a situation the

writer described? Formulating good questions will help you think about what you have read

and help you look for the answers

A.Use the headings below to formulate questions you would use to organize a course on

American culture that you would teach to new immigrants On a separate sheet of paper, write

at least four questions for each heading

1. Americans in Space

2. Energy Problems in America

3. The Legislative Branch of Government

4. The American Language

B.Imagine that your teacher will give a test tomorrow The test will cover the physiology, life

cycle, habitat, and behavior of an animal called a roggle You have never heard of a roggle No

reading material is available, and your teacher is not offering information However, your

The New Immigrants

Who are the new immigrants?

What is causing the new immigrants to come to America?

When did the new immigrants begin to arrive?

Where are the new immigrants coming from?

How do the new immigrants get here?

Imagine that you are studying substances that are lighter than air An older friend has beenhelping you study One day he ties a small helium-filled balloon to each of your arms and tellsyou to climb up on a chair, step off, and float When you hesitate, he explains that the balloonswill keep you in the air “Trust me!” he says, looking into your eyes with a big smile.

You already know that giant balloons can lift people into the air However, you have held twosmall helium-filled balloons in your hand, and they had not lifted you off the ground Yourprior knowledge contradicts what your friend is telling you

Your prior knowledge constantly helps you evaluate new information You know what cloudsare and what rain is This knowledge helps you when you study the conditions that cause rain

When you first study electricity, you may have some experience of it because you use electricappliances

The items in the box suggest some ways in which you can use prior knowledge in learning

When you read, you do not gain all of your understanding from the words on the page Youadd your prior knowledge to the written words and construct a meaning that uses both theprior knowledge and the new information For example, you probably find it easier to readabout dogs, which are familiar to you, than to read about protozoa, which cannot be seenwithout a microscope

One way to dredge up your prior knowledge about a topic is to brainstorm for the words andideas that come to your mind when you think about the topic Or you may make a clusterdiagram Then ask yourself what made you think of these associations

Once you recall your prior knowledge about a topic, you can use your knowledge to formulatequestions about what you will be reading or learning You can make predictions about whatyou will learn

Read the following description of the characters in “Everyday Use,” a short story by AliceWalker The mother in the story must decide to whom to give a pair of quilts that she hadmade with her sister and mother Use your own prior knowledge to help you understand theliterary characters and predict who will receive the quilts Explain how you arrived at yourprediction on a separate sheet of paper

Maggie and her mother live in the country where they work hard on their small farm Maggie isplain, shy and down to earth She is strongly attached to her home and family If she had the quiltsshe would put them to everyday use Dee, Maggie’s sister, goes to college in the city She is

outspoken and demanding She has recently come to appreciate her African-American heritage andwants to display the quilts as samples of folk art Although the quilts were promised to Maggie, shetells her mother that Dee can have them She says that she can remember her grandmother without

• To help understand new information

• To evaluate new information

• To make inferences based on new information

• To understand the behavior of characters in literature

Where would you look if you wanted to find out about each of the following?

1. A recent movie review

2. A popular musician’s latest album

3. Something about metatarsalgia, a condition your doctor said you might be suffering from

4. Which books by a favorite author you can borrow from your library

All of this information can be found in library resources But where in the library would you

begin to look? To find the information above, you could begin in the following places

newspapers

library has by a particular author

Get together with a partner to play a “Where in the library?” game Take turns answering each

of the following questions Determine which section of the library listed in the box above

would contain the source that you could use to answer the question Write your responses on a

separate sheet of paper Then challenge each other by posing some questions of your own

1. In what year did baseball player Mark McGwire break Roger Maris’s home run record?

2. How does a short story by Edgar Allan Poe differ from the movie based on the short story?

3. Which is the correct spelling, diphtheria or diptheria?

4. Which magazine(s) might be interested in publishing short stories or poetry written by high

school students?

5. What are Humphrey Bogart’s last words in the movie Casablanca?

Basic Library Resources

by author and title only Unit 23 of your Writer’s Choice textbook

will tell you more about library catalogs and about using call numbers to locate books in the library

general and specialized reference works

filmstrips, and other nonbook materials

What reference book would you look for if you wanted to find the following items ofinformation?

1. Where Fargo, North Dakota, is in relation to where you live

2. A less common word to use in place of quickly

3. The zip code of an address in another city

4. The names of the gold medalists in figure skating at the 1992 winter Olympics

5. The pronunciation and meaning of limonene

6. Some general information about carnivorous plantsReference books are books that contain specific information organized so that a person canfind it easily An encyclopedia, for example, lists various topics in alphabetical order To learnabout the Anasazi, an ancient Native American society, you could pull the first volume of anencyclopedia and look for an article titled “Anasazi.”

The box shows some types of basic reference books you should become familiar with

A.Tell which type of reference book listed in the box would be the best source to use to findinformation about the six items at the top of this page Write your answers on a separate sheet

of paper

B.Write the names of two specific examples of each of the following types of references For

instance, one encyclopedia is World Book Encyclopedia (Try to list two others.) Use the library

if you need help

1 dictionary _

2. encyclopedia _

3. thesaurus

4. directory

Some Basic References

and foreign-language dictionaries

branch of knowledge, such as an encyclopedia of art and artists

data about a great variety of topics, such as populations, political figures,sports records, and current events

There are a number of formats you can use to take notes In taking notes from a textbook, for

example, you might begin with the book’s headings and build on them to create an outline of a

chapter or a section Another method is to summarize or paraphrase the material Depending

upon the kind of material you are taking notes from, you may find it useful to include graphic

organizers such as Venn diagrams or time lines

A.Following are two paragraphs a magazine writer wrote for a travel article on San Diego

Take notes on a separate sheet of paper to reduce the two paragraphs to their most important

points

San Diego lies at the southwest corner of the United States, just across the border from Tijuana,

Mexico The city, one of the fastest-growing in the country, has become the seventh-largest city of

the United States, with a population of just over one million Visitors to San Diego will find that its

climate is one of the most pleasant in the state Sunny days and cooling ocean winds maintain an

average summer temperature of seventy degrees Winters are only slightly cooler, but never really

cold, and rainfall averages about ten inches a year

There is plenty to see and do outdoors while enjoying San Diego’s temperate climate Tourists shouldnot miss a visit to one of the city’s lovely parks, such as Balboa Park—1,400 beautiful acres that arehome to the world-famous San Diego Zoo The even larger Mission Bay Park offers swimming,

boating, water-skiing, and fishing, as well as a chance to see dolphins and killer whales perform at

Sea World aquarium Another spot popular with tourists is Seaport Village, with its specialty shops,award-winning restaurants, and entertainment Gaslamp Quarter, a historic district filled with art

galleries, antique shops, restaurants, and a theater is another must-see for visitors

B.Read the section of your textbook entitled “Conquest and Conversion” on pages 786–787

On a separate sheet of paper, take notes as you read Make your notes brief enough to use as a

quick review of the section but long enough to cover the important ideas

Pointers on Taking Notes

1 Look for main ideas They will help you identify key points and the relationship between main

ideas and supporting details

2 Select a format or organizing principle for your notes The main idea may suggest such a

principle So may the writer’s pattern of organization You may classify, note comparisons or contrasts, relate causes to effects, problems to solutions, or main ideas to details

3 Sentences need not be complete Write only enough key words and phrases to communicate

the information

4 Highlight particularly important ideas with stars or underlining.

5 Think about the information, and make a note of any remaining questions you may have.

Outlining is an effective way to take notes on your reading Outlining as or after you read helpsyou reinforce what you learned and relate items of information Before beginning to outline atextbook chapter, look at its headings and subheadings They will suggest an organizingprinciple and major topics or subtopics.

If an outline is to be presented to someone else, then correct format will be important You canlearn more about the proper format of an outline on pages 330–331 of your textbook Thefollowing box contains some additional tips

A On a separate sheet of paper, outline the following material on solar energy

Uses of Solar Energy Heating Water The most common use of solar heating systems is to heat water Panels of

black metal or plastic absorb the sun’s heat, which then warms water, which circulates throughthe panels In certain parts of the world, most people already heat water by solar energy Israeluses solar energy to heat 65 percent of the water used in its homes In Cyprus 90 percent ofhomes use solar systems to heat water

Passive Solar Design Builders can design a house to take advantage of the sunlight Large

windows facing south can catch sunlight and direct it to inside walls that absorb heat Windowblinds and movable sheets of insulation will control the amount of heat let in, and air ductsand fans can circulate the warm air

Concentrating Sunlight for High Temperature Use Powering machines or generating

electricity requires large amounts of energy To produce this energy, sunlight must be collectedfrom a very large area and then be focused onto a small area, using some form of reflector ormirror To achieve high temperatures, today’s solar systems use flat or curved reflectors tocollect the sun’s rays The mirrors then focus the rays onto liquid in tubes

Solar Cells The sun’s energy can also be captured and stored Solar cells convert sunlight

directly into electrical energy Such cells offer exciting possibilities as energy sources One cellgenerates very little power, but thousands of solar cells can generate enough power to meet theelectricity needs of a small town

Because so much land is needed to hold the many solar cells and because the materials used tomake them are costly, solar cells are expensive The electricity generated by solar cells costsseveral times more than that generated by standard means The use of solar cells, however, isfast becoming more economical

B.Choose an article or a chapter from a book of nonfiction Outline it on a separate sheet

of paper

1 Look for relationships among facts, and classify them into major topics Use these topics for

major headings

2 Within the major topics, sort facts into subgroups Use the subgroups as subtopics.

3 Divide and subdivide subtopics as appropriate.

Comparing is examining two or more items or ideas to identify similarities among them.

Contrasting is examining materials to identify differences A strategy for comparing and

contrasting: (1) Identify attributes, or characteristics, to compare and contrast (2) Arrange

them side by side (3) Identify them as similar or different This process has been used below to

compare and contrast the political platforms of two candidates

wants to balance budget wants to balance budget same

wants to raise taxes opposes tax increases different

wants to strengthen military wants to cut military spending different

wants more funds for education wants more funds for education same

You can often tell when writers are comparing or contrasting because they use words to signal

comparisons or contrasts The box shows some of these signals

In writing comparisons you can organize them subject by subject or feature by feature If you

were writing a subject-by-subject comparison of candidates A and B, you would first describe

candidate A completely and then describe candidate B To write a feature-by-feature

comparison, you describe the budget policies of both candidates, then the policies of the two

on taxes, on military spending, on education, and so on

A.Read the sentences below Decide whether each contains a comparison or a contrast On a

separate sheet of paper, write comparison or contrast Write N if neither is stated.

1. Both candidates have master’s degrees

2. One candidate’s degree is in public administration, the other’s is in international relations

3. A degree in public administration is excellent preparation for public office

4. Unlike most candidates, these two have never held elective office

B.Compare and contrast two persons, items, or ideas of your choice For example, you could

compare a rock singer with a blues singer, a novel with a play, movies with television, or

democracy with tyranny Organize the similarities and differences as the comparison of the

candidates’ platforms was organized Then write a feature-by-feature comparison

Comparison Signals

Contrast Signals

If you wanted to explain to someone what a cocker spaniel is, what would you say first?

Probably you would say it is a dog, and then you would begin to describe it If you wanted totell someone what a daisy is, you would probably first identify it as a flower When peopledefine or describe something, they usually begin by classifying it Dictionaries do the same thing

To classify means to sort items into classes or categories according to common features

Some of the terms people use in discussing classification are class, category, kind, type, group, and variety.

A set of items can be grouped in various ways, depending on the categories created To classify

a group of items, you must create categories that serve your purpose For example, whenpeople go to a pet store to buy a dog, they usually name a category that lets the salespersonknow which dogs to show them However, different shoppers classify dogs differently according

to their priorities “I want a small dog,” says one Another announces, “I need a short-haireddog.” “Do you have a German shepherd puppy?” asks another “I want a gentle male dog,” saysthe next customer In each case, the salesperson would choose from a different group of dogs

If possible, when classifying, define your categories so that each item fits into only one class

Base the categories on common features In defining a category, you must decide whichcommon features to use as the criteria For example, think about the following nine animals

If you wished to group the animals into categories, you would not know which animals togroup together until you decided which feature should be the basis of the categories Theanimals could be classified in any of the following ways

Get together with three or four other students and hold a classifying contest The winner is theone who can invent the most categories for each of the following places Each category shouldcontain three or more items Write your categories and the items on a separate sheet of paper

California Seattle Boston San Francisco PhiladelphiaLas Vegas Atlanta Florida New Jersey Los Angeles

a black Doberman pinscher a tan chicken a black crow

a white Arabian stallion a black mare a white poodle

a tan palomino mare a white swan a tan collie

as dogs, horses, and birds as mammals and birds

as black, white, and tan animals as large and small animals

What if you wanted to compare several poems? The scores of two football teams? The amount

of tax money spent on highway repair each year over a ten-year period? How could you best

show the workings of a quartz watch or the elements of a short story?

Often the best way to organize such material is to use some type of graphic organizer A

graphic organizer is exactly what the name implies—a graphic, or pictorial, means of

organizing information The cluster diagram in the box is an example of a graphic organizer It

pictorially provides information on types of graphic organizers

A Use the clustering diagram format to organize the following information graphically

There are four basic kinds of landforms: mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains Plains

themselves can be divided into two types: coastal plains (those along a seacoast) and interior

plains (plains far from any coast)

B Choose a story that you have read recently and are familiar with Copy the chart below onto

a separate sheet of paper Fill in the title of the story and the four columns of the chart

Title of Story: Author:

Characters Problem Events Resolution

C.Make a graph to show the scores of a school team in each game for several weeks or

throughout a past season

Graphic Organizers

circlegraphs

linegraphs

bargraphs

time lines

cluster diagramsflowcharts

organizationchartsVenndiagrams

Imagine you and your family are shopping for a new car In making your selection, you will

probably base your decision on the attributes and components of the vehicles you compare.

Attributes are the characteristics of an item or a process For example, the attributes of yourbody are characteristics such as eye color, height, and shape Components are the elements,ingredients, or factors that make up an item or a process The components of your body arethings such as eyes, hair, and skin

Motor vehicles, too, have both attributes and components Most vehicles within a given classwill have similar components, such as an engine, a transmission, and the materials that make

up their parts However, components will vary somewhat For example, the components of anautomatic transmission differ from those of a manual transmission Some vehicles will have acarburetor, and others will have a fuel-injection system Off-road vehicles will have four-wheeldrive or two driving axles instead of one Vehicles with the same components may differ inattributes Size, shape, color, and power are examples of the attributes of a vehicle

Each component of an item has its own attributes The box shows some of the components of

an automobile and the possible attributes of those components

A.The following words are related to automobiles On a separate sheet of paper, write C if the item names a component of an automobile, A if it names an attribute of an automobile or its components, or N if it names neither an attribute nor a component.

B.On a separate sheet of paper, list the components and attributes of an item or a process Useone of the suggestions below, or choose another item or process

1. a pet

2 an election

3. the United States government

4 your community or neighborhood

5 a favorite sport

The batter hit the ball, and it flew into left field This is an example of a true cause-and-effect

relationship In other words, one event (hitting the ball) caused the other event (the ball’s

flying into left field)

The batter hit the ball because he has blue eyes This example, on the other hand, shows a faulty

cause-and-effect relationship There is no reason to assume that eye color has anything to do

with the ability to hit a ball

The batter hit the ball because the pitcher threw it over the plate This example is more difficult.

Certainly the position of the ball increases the chances of getting a hit, but is this the only

cause? The batter’s skill and timing may also be causes The position of the ball is not the

single cause of the ball’s being hit

The presence of one of the following key words in a sentence may help you decide whether a

cause-and-effect relationship is being presented Remember, however, that the use of one of

these words does not necessarily mean that a true cause-and-effect relationship exists You still

need to examine the relationship and determine whether it is a true or faulty cause-and-effect

relationship

A Read each statement below On a separate sheet of paper, write T if a true cause-and-effect

relationship is stated Write F if the statement shows a faulty cause-and-effect relationship If

the cause mentioned is probably not the only cause for the effect given, write M (for multiple

causes)

1. The bread burned because I left it in the hot oven too long

2. Because of the bad weather, we canceled our trip

3. Cars cause pollution; therefore, Jeff does not drive

4. Jim won the race because his bicycle is expensive

5. Kwok has good grades; therefore, he can get into any college he wants

6. Sue is a talented athlete, so she has decided to go to college

7. We washed the car Consequently, it began to rain

8. We all ate spaghetti; hence, a good time was had by everyone

9. It began to rain Then we went into town

10. The band played on and on; so we decided to leave

B.Now try writing your own examples Write five statements that show true cause-and-effect

relationships

Words That May Signal Cause-and-Effect Statements

because therefore so for this reason

as a result consequently hence then

As a writer, you know how to organize your details according to different patterns If you werenarrating an event or explaining a process, you would probably order steps or events in timeorder If you were writing about why something happened, a cause-and-effect pattern wouldprobably make your point most effectively A comparison-contrast pattern is best for

organizing details about similarities and differences To explain what something is, aclassification pattern works best

As a reader, you can use these organizational patterns to aid comprehension, formulatequestions, plan your reading strategy, and organize your notes The box names severalorganizational patterns you may encounter in your reading

4. Kimberly Lewis had no advance warning in 1986 when a tornado tore its way through her home

in Sweetwater, Texas Her first warning was the sight of two garage doors flying across thebackyard Before she had time to get to her baby, the house was shattered Fortunately, Kimberly,her baby, and her two older children were unharmed Others were not so lucky After the tornadopassed, Lewis found out that ninety-seven people were injured and one person was killed

B.Search textbooks, reference books, and magazines Find an example of literature written inone of the organizational patterns listed in the box Describe how the author uses that pattern

Some Organizational Patterns

time order spatial order cause-and-effectproblem/solution comparison-contrast classification

During a strike, management and the union were bogged down in negotiations Neither side

would give in to the other In disgust the editor of a local newspaper referred to the two sides

as “two hogs pushing each other away from the trough.” The editor was using a metaphor, a

figure of speech that makes a comparison by describing one item or idea in terms of another

You have probably heard others refer to a person as a tiger, a clown, or a brain Perhaps you

have heard a house called a palace or a dump Some people dismiss ideas as garbage These

people are not attempting to state facts directly They are stating them indirectly by using

metaphors

Poets often use metaphors “Thus is his cheek the map of days outworn,” writes Shakespeare,

painting a vivid picture of the effects of aging “The fog comes on little cat feet,” writes Carl

Sandburg, creating an image of the fog’s silent approach Walt Whitman’s entire poem “Oh,

Captain, My Captain” uses an extended metaphor for President Lincoln’s assassination

Metaphors are used to paint vivid pictures, help an audience grasp an unfamiliar concept, or

lend force and power to a message Colonist Samuel Adams demonstrated the power of

metaphorical relationships when he railed against the British “who have let loose on us the

dogs of war to riot in our blood.” “Crouch down and lick the hands which feed you,” he

sneered at the British sympathizers who opposed war Adams’s imagery was so effective that his

spellbound listeners rarely noticed how much he exaggerated

To gain meaning from a writer’s use of metaphorical relationships, think about what the two

items compared have in common For example, the editor, in describing the union and

management as “two hogs pushing each other away from the trough,” was suggesting that

neither group wanted to share the company’s profits (the trough) with the other, with the

result that neither was getting anything at all

A.On a separate sheet of paper, explain the following common metaphorical relationships by

noting what the two items might have in common

1. ideas and garbage

2. a person and a tiger

3. a person and honey

4 campaign slogans and mud-slinging

5 an effort to eliminate cancer and a war

B.Write five metaphors and explain what the terms in each metaphor mean You may write

metaphors for the listed items if you wish—or make up your own

1. the sunrise 3 the onset of fear 5. visible air pollutants

2. sadness 4 a cheerful person

When you read a nonfiction book, people sometimes ask you what it is about In yourresponse you probably state the main idea of the book When you read or study, identifyingmain ideas will help you focus on what is important It will also help you relate and organizesupporting details.

A main idea is present in any well-written paragraph or well-crafted piece of nonfiction Themain idea of a paragraph is usually stated directly Most commonly the main idea is stated in atopic sentence To find the stated main idea of a paragraph, ask yourself the questions in thebox

Some paragraphs do not state the main idea at all However, if the paragraph is properlyconstructed, all sentences will support one unstated idea To find an unstated main idea in aparagraph, ask yourself what you would write if you were to write a topic sentence for theparagraph

A Read the passages below On a separate sheet of paper, write the main idea of each passage

1. The atmosphere exists in layers Closest to the ground is the troposphere Above the troposphere,

at a height of about ten miles, is the stratosphere It extends to a height of thirty miles Themesosphere begins at the top of the stratosphere and reaches to the bottom of the thermosphere,eighty-five miles above the earth’s surface

2 The ozone layer, a thin layer in the lower stratosphere, is of particular importance to life on earth.Most of the ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated in this thin layer Formed from the action ofsunlight on oxygen, ozone absorbs most of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays Unabsorbed, theserays would make life on earth impossible

3 Certain human-made chemicals, called chlorofluorocarbons, rise to the atmosphere and breakdown the ozone These chemicals are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and propellants forsome sprays Thus, human activity is thinning the ozone layer on which our very lives depend

4. Scientists predict widespread damage as the thinning ozone layer allows more ultraviolet rays toreach the earth’s surface Among the most alarming predictions is a dramatic increase in theincidence of skin cancers These rays can also damage the immune system and the eyes

B.Read a short article or a textbook chapter On a separate sheet of paper, identify the mainidea of the article or chapter

1 What is the subject or topic of this paragraph?

2 Which sentence says most about that subject?

3 Do all the other sentences support that idea?

Newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and billboards bombard the public with messages

designed to persuade individuals to form an opinion or take action Eye-catching

advertisements clamor for customers or supporters Attempts at persuasion are often based on

arguments Evaluating the arguments used can help an audience decide whether to accept the

conclusion of the writer or the speaker Asking the following questions will help you evaluate

the arguments in a persuasive communication

A Read the following items On a separate sheet of paper, use the following initials to indicate

whether the items contain logical errors

1. “Why aren’t you cheering for our school team? You must be hoping the other team will win, youtraitor.”

2. “I heard that the guy who wrote a book about the health benefits of jogging died of a heart attack.That proves that exercise has nothing to do with good health.”

3. “Of course you should elect me governor rather than my opponent After all, his son just flunkedout of school.”

4. “I agree with you that we should eat more fruits and vegetables, but a person doesn’t have to

become a vegetarian to be healthy.”

5. “My feet have been hurting me all day They hurt me last week just before that rainstorm I’ll betit’s going to rain again tonight.”

6. “I can’t stand Dorothy, and if you were really my friend, you wouldn’t hang around with her.”

B.Now try writing your own examples Write a short dialogue of your own, including some

logical errors Then trade papers with a partner and see if you can identify each other’s errors

1 Does the argument offer irrelevant ideas or facts as support for its conclusions? Some arguments

attempt to distract the reader from the issue by offering evidence that is irrelevant to the

conclusion A piece of irrelevant information is called a red herring A car salesman who avoids

questions about financing by pointing out the car’s racing stripes and trim is throwing out a red herring

2 Does the argument rely on either/or reasoning? Some arguments attempt to force the reader to

choose between two extreme positions For example, a vegetarian may argue that people are

either vegetarians or animal haters This either/or technique is often used to discredit opposing

views It ignores the fact that the truth may lie somewhere between the two opposing views

3 Are effects attributed to incorrect causes? Arguments may offer faulty cause-and-effect

relationships as proof of a conclusion For example, to argue against a vegetarian diet, a speaker may cite a woman who died of pneumonia two weeks after becoming a vegetarian Examine cause-and-effect statements to see whether they are valid

As John was approaching the kitchen, he detected the sweet smell of baking apples andcinnamon “Thanks for making apple crisp, Mom,” John said as he entered the kitchen.

John was inferring, or going beyond available information, to identify what reasonably might

be true John’s inference was based on information perceived by his senses and by his priorknowledge He knew what his mother’s apple crisp smelled like However, John could havebeen wrong Perhaps this time his mother was making baked apples or an apple cake instead

Sometimes additional information forces one to revise a previous inference

Whether John’s inference was correct or not, he had good reason to make the inference Hebased his inference on known facts and drew a logical conclusion He used sound reasoningand careful analysis of the available information

Good readers infer or draw conclusions as they read You might say they are skilled at “readingbetween the lines.”

A.Examine the information in the situation described below On a separate sheet of paper,make an inference by applying the steps listed in the box Then explain what you based yourinference on If you like, try writing a brief story about the three boys that explains theirbehavior

From your front yard, you see two small boys playing in the yard across the street One of thempoints to another boy who is approaching from down the block Quickly, they run into the house Afew minutes later the third boy knocks on the door He knocks repeatedly for five minutes and thengoes away crying

B.Study the following conversation Then make an inference about the point of view of eachspeaker Write your ideas on a separate sheet of paper You might try expanding the

conversation, keeping the points of view of each speaker in mind

Samantha: Don’t throw your candy wrapper on the ground You’re just adding to the park’s litterproblem

Clarise: Look how cluttered the ground is already What does one more little wrapper matter?Samantha: Saving the Earth has to start with individuals The only way we can protect theenvironment is to each do our own share I’ll carry your wrapper in my pocket until we see a trash can

Clarise: You sure can get preachy when it comes to the environment

Steps for Inferring:

1 Identify what is known about the current situation.

2 Identify similar situations from personal experience.

3 Identify what is known about similar situations that may fill in a gap in the current information.

4 Make an inference, a conclusion based on the information available and past knowledge or

experience

When President Harry Truman ran for reelection in 1948, his popularity had hit an all-time

low All the opinion polls favored his opponent, Thomas Dewey, and most people predicted

that Dewey would win In fact, the editors of the Chicago Tribune had enormous confidence in

their prediction Before the final results of the election were in, they printed the next morning’s

edition A famous photograph taken the following morning shows a beaming, victorious Harry

Truman holding up a headline announcing “DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN.”

The editors had based their prediction on sound evidence, but, like many predictions based on

sound evidence, it turned out to be incorrect People often make predictions that are later

disproved or that must be revised in the light of additional information

Predictions are often a prerequisite for action For example, when investors buy stock in a

company, they are predicting that the price of the stock will rise When guests dress for a party,

they make predictions about what other guests will wear

A scientist’s hypothesis is a prediction about what research will prove Scientists attempt to

verify their predictions with studies or experiments Sometimes, however, they disprove them

You, too, verify your predictions When you predict the winners of a game, for example, you

usually watch the game or check the results to see who actually wins

You can verify your predictions in some of your learning activities as well In reading, you may

make predictions about how a story will end By reading the story, you verify your predictions

In reading nonfiction, you can predict the outcomes of historical events, the scientific causes

and effects, or the next episode in the chapter You can then verify your predictions as you read

A.On a separate sheet of paper, predict what will happen in the following situations Compare

and discuss your predictions with those of several classmates

1 The score is tied The two football teams are evenly matched Suddenly the home team’s star player

is injured and put out of the game

2 You have just finished a multiple-choice test You have guessed at most of the answers There is apenalty for errors

3. The two candidates are running neck and neck in the polls A few days before the election, one

candidate is overheard telling a tasteless joke

4 As far as Susan knows, nothing is planned for her birthday tonight other than dinner with her

family As she walks toward home from a meeting that adjourned fifteen minutes early, she sees

two of her friends ring her doorbell The door opens, and they enter the house

B.Think of a current problem in your community, your state, the country, or the world Make

a prediction about what will happen, and tell what you based your prediction on Share your

To make a prediction

1 Examine the situation and the known facts.

2 Consult your prior knowledge of what usually happens in such situations.

3 Make a prediction.