LUẬN VĂN (Slogans Trương Thành Khải)

The author simultaneously tries to point out the similarities and differences in English and Vietnamese slogans in terms of the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features so that Viet

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 RATIONALE

Nowadays, language is universally acknowledged as the most powerful and vital means of communication We cannot imagine what would happen if language disappeared from the social life of human beings Obviously, we can, in daily life, communicate with each other through language in order to express what we want Language is, therefore, employed for many purposes in various fields among which

is propaganda or impingement through written slogans so as to influence people’s opinions, emotions, attitudes and behaviors We cannot help seeing socio-cultural propaganda slogans whenever we go out in the street, or on the package of products such as:

“Tobacco seriously damages health”,

“Keep your country nice and clean!”

“Dừng lại ở hai con để nuôi dạy cho tốt”,

“Nộp thuế là nghĩa vụ và quyền lợi của mọi công dân”,

“Bảo vệ môi trường là trách nhiệm của toàn xã hội”

This way of propaganda is considered to be very effective because they are easy to be seen, read, remembered, understood, and acted upon In fact, this is

always true with the famous proverb of the Vietnamese “Trăm nghe không bằng

một thấy” (Seeing is believing)

Propaganda advertising, a special form of spreading well-designed messages, has a large number of types with various forms In order for lines, policies, and topical news of an organization or a government to be effectively propagated, propagandists have to use a variety of ways of which is slogan Unlike spoken slogans, written slogans are much paid attention because they are easy to be seen, read, understood, remembered and acted upon easily Although the aims as well as the formats of propaganda slogans in both languages are partially similar, their grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features are different to a certain degree As

an English teacher as well as a Vietnamese learner of English, the author finds this issue interesting Not only does it arouse our curiosity but it urges us to discover this matter as well The author thinks if this can be studied, there will be a great contribution in teaching foreign languages in general and compiling the materials of propaganda slogans in particular

Although a lot of propaganda slogans are heard and found everywhere everyday, no researches on the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features have

so far been investigated systematically The study of propaganda language through slogans is, therefore, necessary and should be conducted specifically and scientifically

For the reasons as mentioned above, the author has come to a decision to

choose the topic “A Contrastive Investigation into Linguistic Features of

Socio-cultural Propaganda Slogans in English and Vietnamese” as a study

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The research of socio-cultural propaganda slogans (hereafter, S.C.P.Ss) on the

linguistic features will make a substantial contribution to profound understanding and using of the propaganda slogans in English and Vietnamese The similarities and differences between the two languages analyzed in the study may be of great benefit for Vietnamese learners of English in general and copywriters in particular

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 Aims

The aim of this study is to provide learners with a good knowledge of propaganda slogans as well as to help them with best choices of words and structures in order to compile slogans effectively to their expectations The author simultaneously tries to point out the similarities and differences in English and Vietnamese slogans in terms of the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features

so that Vietnamese learners of English can use S.C.P.Ss exactly in communication

1.3.2 Objectives

With the above-mentioned purposes, the specific objectives of the study are:

- Analyzing the nature of propaganda slogans

- Describing and commenting on the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features of S.C.P.Ss in English and Vietnamese

- Comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss in terms of grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features of S.C.P.Ss and their similarities and differences Besides, the analysis of data for this study is only based on the written slogans in panels, banners and posters

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The study is organized into five chapters as follows:

Chapter 1, Introduction, consists of the rationale, the justification, the

purposes, the objectives, the research questions, the research scope, and the organization of the study

Chapter 2, Theoretical Background, includes literature review and

theoretical background

Chapter 3, Research Design and Methodology, is composed of the research

design, data collection, and data analysis

Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, focuses on analysis and discussion in

terms of the grammatical, semantic and pragmatic features of S.C.P.Ss in English and Vietnamese based on the fact-findings

Chapter 5, Conclusion and Implications, gives conclusion and some

implications for learning and compiling slogans Some suggested ideas for further researches are also presented in this section

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

The problem of advertising and advertising slogans in English and Vietnamese has been discussed a lot in linguistics However, researches on this field got its real start some 20 or 30 years ago [45] To my knowledge, many researches on advertisements and advertising slogans can be listed in the chronological order as follows:

Leech cited in Richards [33, p.88], in his work of verbal advertising language, describes advertising language primarily in terms of its grammatical structure and vocabulary in a sample of 617 television advertisements In addition, the distinctive property of advertising language has been closely identified with the use of clauses, phrases, and words

Crystal [12, p.90] acknowledges that the aim of advertising is to draw

attention to people He is also concerned with various forms of advertising as well

as advertising style

Asher [2, p.42] considers the language of advertising is language that is used

in efforts to persuade people and to modify their behaviors In addition, he pays

much attention to the advertising register, language in media, etc

Dyer [16] examines commercial advertising as a form of communication that constantly impinges on our daily life in contemporary society Also in this book, the rhetorical devices are put into investigation

Thorne introduces a book titled Mastering Advanced English Language in

which advertising language is taken into consideration As an indispensable part of

the advertising language, slogans are considered to be crucial if an advertising

campaign is to succeed, because it is the slogan that will stick in the people’s minds [36, p.261]

In Vietnam, Nguyen Thi Phuoc Da [14] in her research “An Investigation into

Lexical Choice and Its Propaganda Effects through Brief News” emphasizes the

importance of word choice in language to convey messages because she considers what is implied is more important, if veiled and understated, than what is actually said or written

Also in [25] Ngo Thi Hong in her thesis “An Investigation into English Lexical

Choice in Trade Advertisements”, pays much attention to the lexico-semantic and

stylistic features of English lexical choice in trade advertisements

In the book titled “Học và sử dụng tiếng Anh trong lĩnh vực quảng cáo thương

mại” translated by Le Huy Lam and Pham Van Thuan [49], the characteristics,

syntactic features, rhetorical devices of advertising language are focused

Mai Xuan Huy [45] discusses advertising language in his book titled “Ngôn

ngữ quảng cáo dưới ánh sáng của lý thuyết giao tiếp” He says that the messages on

such issues as health, family planning, environment, traffic safety, smoking, etc…do not pertain to commercial advertising These issues serve the interests of the whole society and a community, so he equates them with the call or propaganda

Tran Thi Ngoc Lang [48] in “Ngôn ngữ quảng cáo – Một lĩnh vực đặc thù của

phương ngữ xã hội” emphasizes the significance of words in advertising and

reckons that the language in advertising is essentially connected with the vernacular

Phan Thi Uyen Uyen [37] takes some commonly used stylistic devices in

advertising language into consideration in the thesis “An Investigation into Some

Commonly Used Stylistic Devices in Advertising in English and Vietnamese Newspapers”

As a small part of the book “Phong cách học tiếng Việt”, Dinh Trong Lac and Nguyen Thai Hoa [47, p.110] consider that “Quảng cáo là thể loại ngôn ngữ nhằm

truyền đạt thông tin” (Advertising is a language genre with the aim of propagandizing information)

As mentioned above, there have been a great number of studies on advertisements in general and advertising slogans in particular, but only commercial advertising is specially paid attention to for one side or the other Therefore, to my

knowledge, it seems that no researches have so far been concentrated exclusively on propagandic advertising slogans, especially the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features of propaganda slogans

2.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.2.1 Definitions of Terms

2.2.1.1 Definitions of Propaganda

Propaganda is a special form of communication and has a history of thousands

of years Nevertheless, the notion or definition of propaganda has evolved with time

According to [57], “Propaganda is a form of communication aimed at

influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position.”

Some definitions of propaganda cited by Jowett and O’Donnell [26, p.6] are as follows:

Leonard (1948) defines propaganda as “The attempt to affect the personalities

and to control the behavior of individuals towards ends considered unscientific or

of doubtful value in a society at a particular time”

Terrence (1962) remarks “Propaganda, to be effective, must be seen,

remembered, understood, and acted upon, … adapted to particular needs of the situation and the audience to which it is aimed”

Pratkanis and Turner (1996) regards the propaganda as “Attempt to move a

recipient to a predetermined point of view by using simple images and slogans that truncate thought by playing on prejudices and emotions”

Jowett and O’Donnell [26] provide a concise, workable definition of the term

as follows: “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions,

manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist”

The Vietnamese Dictionary [56] defines “Tuyên truyền là giải thích rộng rãi

để thuyết phục mọi người tán thành, ủng hộ, làm theo.”(Propaganda is explaining commodiously so as to convince everyone to approve, advocate, and imitate.)

In sum, although there are so many definitions of propaganda as listed above, their main purpose is driving at influencing people’s awareness in order to conduct

a general goal for the sake of social progress The writer can also say that propaganda of various ages and forms plays an indispensably important role in educating people’s attitudes and behaviors, and in this thesis, the definition of

Terrence (1962) is considered as a lodestar

2.2.1.2 Definitions of Slogan

There are many definitions of slogans that can be listed as follows:

According to [20, p.2145], the word “slogan” is derived from slogorn that was

an Anglicisation of the Scottish and Irish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm (sluagh "army",

"host" + gairm "cry") in the war in the early 16th century Then Slogome is the

mingling of the languages of Xento residents and screaming According to the time,

this term has been changed into sluggorne, slughorn and slogurn Up to now, slogan

is the latest product and has been turned into a more modern notion, whose message

is conveyed shorter under a small group of chosen words or a catchphrase

Crowther [11] defines: “Slogan is a word or a phrase that is easy to remember

to attract people’s attention or to suggest an idea quickly.”

Besides, Nguyen Lan in his dictionary [50, p.935] writes “Slogan is a sentence

summarizing an important task at a particular time, given out so as to encourage the public.”

Another source of material from Ho Chi Minh National Political Academy

circulating at Danang department of propaganda and training “Thông tin cổ động” [51, p.40] has a definition of slogan as follows: “Khẩu hiệu là hình thức tuyên

truyền – cổ động một cách cô đúc, ngắn gọn, rõ ràng và dễ nhớ về mục đích đấu tranh cách mạng và nhiệm vụ cách mạng của toàn dân hay của một ngành, một

đoàn thể, một giới hoặc một địa phương trong từng giai đoạn, từng thời kỳ cách mạng hoặc trong từng thời gian nhất định (Slogan is a form of propaganda which

is condensed, concise, clear, and easy to remember on the aim of revolutionary struggle and revolutionary task of the whole population or of a branch, an organization, a set or a locality in each phase of time, in each revolutionary period,

or in each particular time.)

Ngo Thi Hong [25, p.12] considers “Slogans are easy to remember and tend to

stick in people’s mind”

Talking about slogans, Lenin in “Thông tin cổ động” [51, p.40] says, “The

most important of slogans is topical.”

From a variety of definitions and viewpoints mentioned above, we can see that slogans, in form, are groups of words or short sentences A few words are employed, but can express many things In content, slogans are manipulating, reminding, persuading, warning, propagandizing, and educating the masses

2.2.1.3 Definitions of Socio-cultural Slogan

According to Goodfriend [19], he claims that slogans serve the society in the sense that they carry certain ethical and moral value

Socio-cultural slogans relate to all things that have impacted on the society and that aim at changing beliefs or inherent particularities of a culture

2.2.2 Functions of Propagandistic Advertising

It is undeniable that language is the most important communicative medium of human In terms of communication in general, language performs various functions

It is used to manifest sentiments and thoughts; to inform onlookers of important events or information of which they have no knowledge so as to enhance their awareness of a healthy lifestyle or law of a government In terms of advertising

language in particular, it is used in efforts to persuade people and modify their

behaviors [2, p.42]

Jakobson cited in Mai Xuan Huy [45] presents six language functions arranged

in order including emotive, conative, poetic, referential, phatic and metalingual function Among these functions are conative and referential ones for advertising

Briefly, the conative function can be described to persuade the viewers or readers to believe and to act upon in a certain moral way; the referential function is

used to convey information

This is, in fact, true in Thorne’s statement He says that the main function of

advertising is to persuade known as conative function and its subordinate function

is to provide information as referential function [36, p.259]

Consequently, propagandistic advertising function is aiming at providing readers with topical issues, informing them of key information, persuading them to act in a certain way, and making them believe in some claims Through slogans, all

of them draw people’s attention to a general viewpoint of an organization or a government

2.2.3 Language of Propaganda

Propaganda language has a powerful influence on people and their behaviors

It is manifested through texts or discourse so as to propagandize burning issues in society under the simple or complex forms like phrases and sentences The language choice to convey messages or information at a particular time is of great significance Its language must be brief, attractive, persuasive, honest, condensed and officially associated with the national language so that it can be read, understood, remembered, and acted upon easily Hence, the language used in written slogans must be very carefully chosen in order to get special effects The use

of written slogans can, and what is more, make the propagandistic content more memorable, for writing is not transient, as speaking is, it can be reconsidered

2.2.4 The Linguistic Features of S.C.P.Ss

2.2.4.1 Grammatical Features of S.C.P.Ss

a Noun Phrases

There are many kinds of phrases, yet in order to emphasize the grammatical features of S.C.P.Ss, in this research, the author only focuses on noun phrase (NP), the most important component of slogans

A noun phrase - a noun with other words or groups of words clustering around and modifying it in various ways - consists of at least two parts: the noun itself and

the word or words accompanying it Yule [39, p.269] defines a noun phrase as “a

phrase in which the main word is a noun and which is used as a subject or an object.” The noun is called the headword of the cluster, and the other modifiers [34,

p.79] A noun phrase can be made up of either a single noun or a noun with one or more pre-modifiers and post-modifiers or qualifiers When analyzing the structure

of a noun phrase, Baker [4] examines individual modifiers as well as complements that can follow the main word, i.e., a noun A noun phrase can, therefore, be of considerable length Let us have a look at the following sentences:

Renewable energy, sustainable peace [11]

More candy, less climate change [9]

Môi trường hôm nay - Cuộc sống ngày mai [17]

(Environment today – Life tomorrow)

Nhiều loài – một hành tinh - tương lai của chúng ta [39]

(Many species – one planet – our future)

b Sentences

Traditionally, grammarians define a sentence in such terms as “the complete

expression of a single thought” [12, p.94] Another definition of sentence is that

“traditionally, the basic unit of language for the purpose of analyzing is grammar is

the sentence” [9, p.96] “Sentence is grammatical complete string of words expressing a complete thought” [52, p.302] or “Câu là đơn vị lớn nhất của mặt cấu

trúc trong tổ chức ngữ pháp của một ngôn ngữ, được làm từ một khúc đoạn ngôn ngữ tập trung chung quanh một vị tố, và được dùng để diễn đạt một sự thể” [41,

p.15] (A sentence, the biggest unit of the structure in grammatical organization of a language, is made up of a language phrase clustered round a main element, and used

to express a state of affairs) According to [42, p.266], “Câu là đơn vị ngôn ngữ nhỏ

nhất có khả năng thông báo một sự việc, một ý kiến, một tình cảm hoặc một cảm xúc.” (Sentence is the smallest linguistic unit that possibly informs of an event, an

opinion, a sentiment or an emotion) Some traditional grammarians give a logical definition to the sentence The most common approach proposes that a sentence has

a subject (the topic) and a predicate (what is being said about the topic), but the apparent exception to this is the imperative where the subject is usually implied rather stated

There are many kinds of sentences consisting of declaratives, imperatives, and others based on the sentence analysis by communicative intentions However, in this study, only declaratives and imperatives are taken into consideration

b.1 Imperative Sentences

An imperative sentence is one that has no subject, just has only an imperative finite verb [32, p.199] Imperative sentences give a direct command, make a request

to someone, or express a wish, a warning, an appeal, an advice, a suggestion; and

often assumed to have an implied subject “you” For example,

Reduce, reuse & recycle [4], or

Keep it GREEN, keep it CLEAN! [18]

In some cases, exclamation point (!) is employed in imperatives to signal that

an imperative is meant The utilization of exclamation point is not obligatory However; in fact, it normally signals that an abrupt or consistent command is being used

Like an English imperative, a Vietnamese imperative sentence is one that often

commences with such imperative words as “hãy”, “đừng” [44, p.53] For instance,

Hãy thay đổi nhận thức và hành vi để phòng chống tác hại của thuốc lá.[144] (Change your perception and behaviour to prevent harmful effects of tobacco), or Đừng làm tổn thương tình cảm, sức khoẻ của thành viên gia đình bạn [157] (Don’t hurt feelings and health of your family members)

Hence, imperatives typically have no subject, consisting of the residue only as well as no tense, number or modality [15, p.193] An imperative sentence itself brings petitioning, calling, and imperative meanings with it The purpose of propaganda advertising is calling everyone for action or accepting a certain viewpoint Imperative sentence thus appears in noncommercial advertising slogans very often [49, p.100]

b.2 Declarative Sentences

One of the sentence types that are used the most in English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss is the declarative sentence Declarative sentences, also known as statements, present a fact, an opinion, or a piece of information They are composed

of simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and complex ones Here are some examples:

compound-The safe way is the best way [142]

Love earth and earth will love you! [21]

If you can’t stop smoking, cancer will [148]

People who are violent towards animals rarely stop there [195]

b.2.1 Simple sentences

A simple sentence contains one subject and one finite verb [3, p.155] This definition, according to [29, p.157], is also the traditional definition “a simple

sentence is a sentence that contains only one clause.” However, modern

grammarians have widened the term ‘clause’ to include structures with non-finite verbs and also some verbless structures Nevertheless, the traditional relationship

between a simple sentence and a clause remains If we qualify it, a simple sentence

is a finite clause that stands alone

b.2.2 Compound sentences

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences linked by

coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but) [36, p.37] Each clause in a compound

sentence carries equal weight and makes sense on its own – they both can, therefore, be described as main clauses

Safety is like a lock, but you are the key [86]

Take part in earth day, and in the future it will pay [27]

b.2.3 Complex sentences

Complex sentences describe more than one thing or idea and have more than one verb in them They are made up of more than one clause, an independent clause that can stand by itself and a subordinate clause which cannot stand by itself by

using subordinators like if, when, because, etc as in the following sentences:

You’re a fool if you think smoking is cool [159]

Turn off the lights before you perish [28E]

c Grammatical Cohesive Devices

c.1 Ellipsis

Ellipsis has been acknowledged and discussed a lot for a long time in grammar, especially very popular in both English and Vietnamese language In English, people often omit words rather than repeating them [10, p.707] Ellipsis is understood as a certain component of a sentence which should appear in the sentence, but which is, for a certain reason, omitted without influencing on understanding of the meanings of the examining sentence [40, p.394-397] In

addition, ellipsis is the result of a deletion process whereby a word or set of words,

usually a verb phrase, is removed from a sentence with the resultant ‘gap’ [21,

p.101] And what is more, ellipsis when used as a stylistic device always imitates

the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence [18, p.232]

According to [1, p.117], ellipsis is a sequence of words in which some words have

been omitted

Ellipsis is much employed in everyday communication so as to help our speeches become more concise and appropriate to the human’s short-term memory Ellipsis has a variety of forms among which is subjective ellipsis as imperatives and verbal ellipsis of ‘be’ or the copular ‘là’ [54, p.237] The shade of directive manifests clearer when no subject is used in the sentence This is often seen in slogans with the aim of propagandizing, calling upon, or appealing to the public It

is, thus, more or less, connected with the directive meaning The omission of the verb ‘be’ or linking word ‘là’ adds emotional colouring and makes sentences sound more emphatic For example,

Việt Nam - điểm đến của bạn [199] (Vietnam - your destination), or

Australia Unlimited [200]

c.2 Parallelism

According to Hiatt (1975) cited in [13, p.13], parallelism is, structurally, the repetition of words or constructions of the same form class in the same functional or syntactic situation The necessary conditions in parallelism are based on identical or similar syntactical structures in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession The similar grammatical form of parallel construction enables viewers

to recognize its similar content and function more easily In some cases, parallelism

emphasizes the similarity and equates the significance of the parts In other cases, parallel construction emphasizes diversity and contrast of ideas [18, p.209]

Parallelism consists of two contiguous syntagms in which each syntagm can be a clause, a phrase, an expression, or a simple sentence The two syntagms are related

to each other by form or by content, meaning that they are connected with each

other semantically and structurally [13, p.13] Let some examples be given as follows:

An toàn là bạn tai nạn là thù, [101] (Safety first)

An toàn để sản xuất, sản xuất phải an toàn, [179]

(Safety to produce, production must be safe), or

One earth, one chance [23]

c.3 Repetition

Repetition is a kind of recurrence or repetition of a word or a phrase When used as a stylistic device, repetition acquires quite different functions, does not aim

at making a direct emotional impact, but at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary

to fix the attention of the readers on the key word of the utterance [18, p.211] In addition, repetition is one of the most basic techniques that the copywriters use to catch attention from readers Therefore, repetitive words in slogans help to imprint the message in the memory of the readers For example,

The safe way is the best way [142]

Save the world, save yourself [26]

Bảo vệ môi trường, bảo vệ sự sống [8]

(Environmental protection, protection of life)

Xanh biển, xanh rừng, xanh đất nước; Sạch làng, sạch bản, sạch đường phố [28]

2.2.4.2 Semantic Features of S.C.P.Ss

a Semantic fields

According to Brinton [6, p.112], a semantic field denotes a segment of reality symbolized by a set of related words Besides, a semantic field is a set of interrelated senses based on a conceptual field or spectrum [24, p.78] From the two definitions, the authour can say that words which can be grouped either thematically

or ideographically belong to the same semantic properties or semantic fields

b Representational meaning

The representational meaning, which is also called literal meaning, is what state of affairs or situation in the world is represented through processes, participants, and circumstances [17, p.2] Let us take this example:

Only you can prevent forest fires [2]

From the standpoint of literal meaning, the example above represents a situation with an event ‘preventing’, and certain participants ‘you’ and ‘forest fires’ Here the event ‘preventing’ pertains to the material process The relationship between processes, participants, and their circumstances are expressed through what Halliday terms transitivity network Halliday [22, p.107-109] has linguistically classified the various processes into six main processes types as follows:

- Material doing bodily, physically, materially

- Mental sensing emotionally, intellectually, sensorily

- Relational being equal to, or some attribute of

- Verbal saying lingually, signally

- Behavioral behaving physiologically and psychologically

- Existential existing there exist

Those kinds of processes are realized by verbs Traditionally, verbs have been defined as ‘doing words’ But, as the above list indicates, it is obvious that some verbs are not doing words at all, but rather express states of being or having the process types differentiate kinds goings-on, for instance:

When jogging, run against the traffic law (Material)

You're a fool if you think smoking is cool (Mental)

Violence against women Australia says no (Verbal)

There’s Nothing Like Australia (Existential)

These processes consist of three elements comprising:

- Processes themselves, according to the characteristics are realized by verb or phrase of verb,

- The participants in process, according to the characteristics are realized by noun or phrase of noun, and

- Circumstances associate with the process, are realized by adverb or phrase of prepositions

b.2 Mental process

Mental process is the process of sensing consisting of feeling, thinking, and perceiving M Halliday [23] and Angla Downing [15] call processes which encode meaning of thinking or feeling as mental processes These processes tend to be

realized through the use of verbs like think, believe, understand, and so on He

divides mental process into three principle subtypes labeled as:

- Affective is the feeling which is recognized through the use of verbs of like,

fear, miss, admire, hate, love, dislike, please, enjoy, delight, detest, want …

- Cognition is realised through such stative verbs as think, know, understand,

believe, realize, recognize, doubt, remember, forget, guess, mean…

- Perceptive is the perceiving through the five senses consisting of see, hear,

feel, taste, and smell

However, Lock [27] has a different division According to him, mental processes consist of four subtypes called Perception, Affection, Cognition and

Volition (wanting, needing, desiring, hoping, and wishing) And we can see that

Lock’s volition and Halliday’s affection somehow overlaps

In general, it usually involves a senser and a phenomenon like the following

example: “You're a fool if you think smoking is cool”

b.3 Relational process

Relational process expresses the notion of being something that is reflected in

languages in different ways In this thesis, it is realized by the verb “be” and can be

classified according to whether is being used to identify something or to assign

quality to something

The process which establishes an identity is called identifying process which

has the participant roles as Token and Value, whereas the process which assigns a

quality is called attributive process which has the participant roles as Carrier and

Attribute

b.4 Verbal process

Verbal process is the process of saying or of symbolically signaling In the

verbal process, there are typically three participants included in Sayer, Receiver,

and Verbiage

- The sayer is the participant responsible for the verbal process, who encodes a

signal source

- The receiver is the one whom the verbal process is directed or the one to

whom the verbalization is addressed

- The verbiage is nominalized statement of the verbal process, a noun

expressing some kind of verbal behaviour, a name for the verbalization itself

b.6 Existential process

Existential process is the process of existence It represents that something exists or happens It also represents experience by positing that “there was / is something”

c Interpersonal meaning

Apart from the presentational meaning as mentioned above, interpersonal meaning is the second component of the meaning of the sentence On doing research on the interpersonal meaning, linguists often focus on modality

Palmer [30, p.14] defines modality as semantic information associated with the

speaker’s attitude or opinion about what is said According to Frawley [17, p.386],

modality is a semantic phenomenon: it is the content of an expression that reflects the speaker’s attitude or state of knowledge about a proposition Bybee [8, p.177] introduces four types of modality Among them are agent-oriented modality and speaker-oriented modality

According to Nguyen Hoa [24, p.112], modality expresses the attitude and

opinion of the speaker or writer toward the representational content of the sentence Also talking about modality, Perkins [31, p.4] considers that doing research on modality is very similar to trying to move in an overcrowded room without treading else’s feet Moreover, Nguyen Van Hiep [43, p.74] admitted

without taking interest in modality, we shall not be able to understand the essence of

language and that if there were no modality, the content of the sentence is only desultory pieces of materials

In sum, there are various definitions of modality by many linguists However, modality in this study is analysed according to Bybee [8] and Nguyen Van Hiep [43] Agent-oriented modality and speaker-oriented modality are concentrated on

c.1 Agent-oriented modality

The term agent-oriented modality refers to those cases in which the agent of a

clause is influenced in some way on performing the action describe in the clause:

“Agent-oriented modality reports the existence of internal and external conditions

on the agent with respect to the completion of the action expressed on the main predicate” [8, p.177] Some types of agent-oriented modality are composed of obligation, necessity, ability, and volition The principal means of expressing modality in English is the set of modal auxiliary verbs Therefore, Biber [5, p.485] divided modal verbs into three categories composing of

(i) permission / possibility / ability (can, could , may , might)

(ii) obligation / necessity (must, should, have to, need to, ought to)

(iii) volition / prediction (will, would, shall, be going to)

Modal verbs which are found in the English data are, however, included in

‘will’, ‘can’, ‘must’, ‘could’, ‘may’, ‘might’, and ‘have to’ as in the following

sentences:

(a) Safety is something we can live with [51]

(b) Slow down! Your family will be waiting for you [130]

(c) Safety helmets must be worn in this area [100]

(d) One person smokes, the whole family may get cancer.[167]

(e) You might as well eat from the trash can [33]

(f) Smokers don’t get to smoke, they have to smoke [152]

On the contrary, modality in Vietnamese, according to Nguyen Van Hiep [43], consists of modal verbs and modality verbs The number of modal verbs in

Vietnamese in general and in this data in particular is found to be restricted and

known as ‘cần’ (need), ‘phải’ (must), and ‘có thể’ (can), whereas that of modality

verbs is numerous However, in this study, only set of modal auxiliary verbs are paid attention The examples are:

(g) Trẻ em nghèo luôn cần sự giúp đỡ của cộng đồng và xã hội [198]

(h) Công nghiệp hóa, hiện đại hóa phải đi đôi với bảo vệ môi trường [13]

(i) Hút thuốc lá có thể gây ung thư phổi [140]

Through the examples from (a) to (i) as well as the ones in the data, it can be seen that modal auxiliary verbs are present in all sentences, yet each of them can be used with more than one meaning In the following analysis below, the authour tries

to provide a list of the principal meanings expressed by modal verbs in English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

c.2 Speaker-oriented modality

Speaker-oriented modalitiy is one type of modality found in statements which impose and propose some action or behaviour, especially in directives (a term from Searle) In addition, this type of modality is also found in statements in which speakers agree and permit listeners to carry out their action Bybee [8, p.179] divided directives into five categories composing of:

- imperative: the form used to issue a direct command to a second person;

- prohibitive: a negative command;

- optative: the wish or hope of the speaker expressed in a main clause;

- hortative: the speaker is encouraging or inciting someone to action;

- admonitive: the speaker is issuing a warning; and

- permissive: the speaker is granting permission

2.2.4.3 Pragmatic Features of S.C.P.Ss

a Periphrasis

According to [20], periphrasis is the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter form of expression In this way, periphrasis violates Grice’s

cooperative principle and four maxims in relation and manner maxims The

Cooperative principle is as follows:

- The maxims:

A Quantity

(a) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange)

(b) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required

B Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true - and two more

specific maxims:

(a) Do not say what you believe to be false

(b) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence

C Relation: Be relevant

D Manner: Be perspicuous - and various maxims such as:

(a) Avoid obscurity of expression

in their slogans, writers or speakers sometimes violate some of these maxims intentionally They generate periphrasis, which must depend on certain contexts and backgrounds

b Behavioural culture

According to Bodley (2000) cited in Bernard [7, p82], culture involves at least three components: what people think, what they do, and the material products they produce Thus, mental processes, beliefs, knowledge, and values are parts of culture Some anthropologists would define culture entirely as mental rules guiding behaviour, although often wide divergence exists between the acknowledged rules for correct behaviour and what people actually do Consequently, some researchers pay most attention to human behaviour and its material products

In sum, what has been discussed so far in this chapter is a review of the previous studies and some fundamental theoretical background in English and Vietnamese, which helps lay a foundation for the investigation to be made in the thesis

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

To get the purposes of the study on S.C.P.Ss in terms of the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic features, the author conducts some such methods as descriptive method, contrastive method, qualitative method, and quantitative method

3.2 DATA COLLECTION

In order for the data to be collected, the author employs the general method Data for this research will be 200 English slogans and 200 Vietnamese slogans collected from 2009 to 2010

For Vietnamese data, most of them are mainly from street slogans in big cities The rest are printed slogans, public vehicles, public dustbins, billboards, electric poles, walls, newspapers, internets, films, and even television

For English data, most slogans are primarily gathered from Australia, England, the United States through internets, films in slow motion, cablevision, and from slogans printed in the packing of foreign goods

After slogans are collected adequately as planned, the author scans and then classifies them into such propagandizing themes as environment, public places, safety, health, energy, population, violence, taxes, children’s rights, and tourism In order to get these valuable data sources, the author has to observe to search for slogans whenever going out on streets, going shopping, watching films and television, reading magazines and surfing webs On coming across a slogan, the researcher takes notes on the spot for the later analysis

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

- On the basis of the qualitative method, the internal describing method and the external describing method are employed

The internal describing technique is the structural depiction of grammar, analysis of the meanings of sentences and phrases, and pragmatic meanings of slogans are used The external describing one is used to depict the relations of words and structures in slogans with features of behavioural culture of each language

- On the basis of the quantitative method, the author reckons up the frequency

of using slogans in terms of grammar, semantics, and pragmatics through tables and charts

- Finally, the contrastive method is mentioned to find out the similarities and differences on the grammatical, semantic and pragmatic features of using S.C.P.Ss

in English and Vietnamese

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter is considered the most important and painstaking part of the study Many an interesting thing is found out and new discoveries are made in order

to meet the strict requirements of a serious research at the M.A level, and needless

to say, to satisfy the most difficult and curious readers

As stated in the previous chapter, slogans are the appeals or the calls for everyone to effectuate a line, a policy of an organization or a government with view

to serving the public purpose In order to help readers understand and compile slogans well, their grammatical features, semantic features, and pragmatic features should, therefore, be paid a special attention

In the following pages, each of the mentioned features will be depicted, analyzed, and contrasted to show the similarities and differences concerning aspects

of phrases, sentences, types of meaning, and behavioral culture in English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

4.1 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN GRAMMATICAL FEATURES

OF S.C.P.Ss IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

4.1.1 Noun Phrases of Englíh and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

As can be seen in Chapter 2, the main component or the central one in a NP is the head noun, which provides information compendiously The copywriters employ the head nouns in NPs to convey propaganda messages The structure of NPs is complex with strings of determiners and modifiers

4.1.1.1 Noun phrases of English S.C.P.Ss

Like all other phrases, a complete English NP can be analyzed into four major components which consist of the determinative, premodification, the head, and postmodification occurring in a fixed order Through the data, an English NP can be found to be complete or incomplete as in the following examples:

(1) More candy, less climate change [9]

(2) Renewable energy, sustainable peace [11]

(3) One Earth, One Chance [23]

(4) A spill, a slip, a hospital trip [67]

(5) Safety - a small investment for a rich future [123]

(6) Safety first [50]

(7) Australia unlimited [200]

In the examples from (1) to (7), NPs are noticeable to be established in various

ways by combining a head noun with either determiners or modifiers according to

the needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the NP They are all

illustrated in Table 4.1 below

Table 4.1 Examples of Noun Phrases in English

(4)

Through the examples shown above as well as the data collected, premodifiers

can be composed of a cardinal number as “one” in (3), a quantifier as “more”, “less”

in (1), an article as “a”, “an”, and “the” in (4) and (5), a noun (the noun comes

before a head noun (‘hospital’ in hospital trip) in (4) and an adjective (‘renewable’

in renewable energy) in (2) and postmodifiers such as a prepositional phrase as in

(5), and an adjective as in (6) and (7)

In Thorne’s viewpoint, NPs in English S.C.P.Ss can be classified into two categories comprising function and form and illustrated as follows:

N det Adj N PrepP

4.1.1.2 Noun phrases of Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

The general formation of Vietnamese NPs is also composed of three main parts: premodifier, a head noun as a central part, and postmodifier [41 p268] NPs in the Vietnamese data can be found as follows:

(8) Nhiều loài – một hành tinh - tương lai của chúng ta [39]

(9) Dân số ổn định, xã hội phồn vinh, gia đình hạnh phúc [163]

(Stable population, prosperous society, happy family)

(10) Một ý thức giao thông - triệu con người hạnh phúc [104]

(A sense of traffic, millions of people are happy)

From (8) to (10), Table 4.2 illustrated for Vietnamese NPs can be inferred as follows:

Table 4.2 Examples of Noun Phrases in Vietnamese

Nhiều

một

loài - hành tinh -

(8)

xã hội gia đình

ổn định, phồn vinh, hạnh phúc

(9)

Một

triệu

ý thức con người

giao thông,

From the table above, it can be deduced that Vietnamese NPs can be joined by

either a head and a premodifier or a head and postmodifier, or both Premodifier in

Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss can be a cardinal number such as “một”, “triệu”, “nhiều” in

(8) and (10) Others are found as “mỗi”, “mọi”, “những”, and “các” in the data

Similarly, postmodifier in Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss can be found to be supplemental

elements which modify the head noun such as “của chúng ta”, “ổn định”, “giao

thông”, and “hạnh phúc” from (8) to (10)

4.1.1.3 Similarities

Noun phrases are employed in English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss because of

the essence of slogans As discussed in the previous chapters, slogans are the calls

as well as the appeals Therefore, they should be short in form and condensed in

meaning NPs of both languages have, in general, the same formation and

constituted by at least two single words They all have a premodifier, a head noun,

and a postmodifier

The copywriters of both languages all employ parallel phrases, enumerative

structures in order to express the climax effect of each action Structurally, they use

the structure: “NP + NP” as in (11) and (12) By this structure, the comparison

between two things or events can be given out in order that the addressees perceive what they should do and not do as in:

(11) One Earth, One Chance [23]

(12) Một ý thức giao thông - triệu con người hạnh phúc [104]

The sentence (11) means that if much attention should be paid to the earth or the environment, there will be an opportunity for man to do more things In order for this to be done, the environment should, of course, be well kept Similarly, the sentence (12) shows that only when an awareness of traffic is needed, millions of people will be happy

In addition, the structure: “NP + NP + NP” is employed to enumerate the

increasing degree of actions as in (13) and (14)

(13) A spill, a slip, a hospital trip [67]

(14) Dân số ổn định, xã hội phồn vinh, gia đình hạnh phúc [163]

From the examples above, we can summarize that although few words are used, the copywriters employ the forms of contrast, comparison as in (1) and (8), repetition as in (3), alliteration as in (2) and (4) in their slogans, which makes slogans more stimulating It is these structures that make readers more curious and attentive to slogans, and they can gradually go into the unconscious of the readers Hence, NPs in English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss are effectively used in view to their rememberance and understandability

4.1.1.4 Differences

In spite of being employed in English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss, NPs of both languages have many different points

According to the statistics, the number of NPs in English S.C.P.Ss is 11 per

200 slogans taking the percentage of 5,5%, whereas Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss have 9 per 200, making up 4,5%

English NPs often go with articles, but there is no article in Vietnamese

Adjectives in English coming before nouns pertain to determiners, yet they follow

the head nouns in Vietnamese as an ending component or postmodifier

The figures above can be illustrated in Table 4.3 as follows:

Table 4.3 Difference of Noun Phrases in English and Vietnamese

Noun Phrases English S.C.P.Ss Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

Premodifiers adjective, noun, article,

quantifier, cardinal number

cardinal number, quantifier

Postmodifier prepositional phrase adjective

complement

In sum, due to their essence of calling and appealing, slogans under noun

phrases in English and Vietnamese all express complete thoughts They have the

same form with premodifiers, head word, and modifiers in some ways

4.1.2 Imperatives of English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

4.1.2.1 Imperative sentences of English S.C.P.Ss

English imperatives have a complex structure On looking at the slogans in

data collected, imperative sentences are in general found to have either a main verb

in the base form to express affirmative ideas, or an auxiliary followed by the base

form of the verb to express negative ideas as in the following sentences:

(15) Reduce, reuse & recycle [4]

(16) Save the world, save yourself [26]

(17) Breathe healthily, live happily [145]

(18) Keep your country clean! [30]

(19) Let’s keep our country clean [1]

(20) Don't drink and drive [116]

From the examples above, we can infer that imperatives perform with the following structures:

“let”, followed by a subject in the objective cases or more usually “Let’s” in (19)

As for the negative form, one just adds ‘Don’t’ to replace assertive form by

non-assertive form where necessary as in (20)

Imperatives from (15) to (20) show that in spite of their few words, their strength and meanings are of great They express the meanings of calling, appealing, or advising the masses to act for the common purpose Specifically, from (15) to (19), they call everyone upon protecting the earth, the world or the environment by not only reducing but also reusing or recycling wastes thrown into the environment, otherwise we will die soon The slogans imply that if the environment can be well kept then our health will be better

In (19), by using this type of structure, the copywriters want to emphasize that not only the addressees but also the very person who gives slogans co-operates together in order to carry out a common goal of the community The negative form with ‘don’t’ followed by the base form is employed in S.C.P.Ss to give advice or a warning to readers not to do the bad things in society

Sometimes the word “please” is added at the beginning or the end of

imperative sentences as in (18) to express the attitudes, feelings, or the wishes of the people who give out the slogans

4.1.2.2 Imperative sentences of Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

Through the data collected, the majority of slogans are found to be imperative sentences Let us take the following sentences as examples to illustrate for imperatives

(21) Tích cực xây dựng quê hương xanh-sạch-đẹp [54]

(Actively build the country green-clean-beautiful)

(22) Nhân dân tích cực tham gia phòng cháy, chữa cháy rừng [38]

(People … actively participate in forest fire prevention and extinguishment)

(23) Vì một Việt Nam khỏe mạnh, hãy rửa tay với xà phòng.[142]

(For a healthy Vietnam, wash your hands with soap)

(24) Hãy bảo vệ nguồn nước [36]

(25) Cảm ơn ban Đã bỏ rác vào thùng [61]

(26) Để tương lai tươi sáng – Hãy hành động hôm nay [14]

From the examples above, we have the structure in affirmative form as follows:

- V + O (+ C) as in (22),

- Hãy + V + O as in (24),

- N …+ V + O as in (22),

- Phrase + hãy + V + O as in (23),

- (Phrase) + hãy + V + Adv as in (26)

In order to express a thank-you to perceivers who does something good or useful, the structure for imperatives should be as follows:

- Cảm ơn ban! đã + V + … as in (25)

From the examples above as well as in the data, it can be seen that the

Vietnamese copywriters use the word “hãy” as a request or “cảm ơn bạn” in their slogans The words “hãy” is employed in slogans to show a persuasive and gentle request, and “cảm ơn bạn” to express a thank-you when one does a good deed

These all show the respect for the addressees The copywriters know how to put

readers – performers in holding the initiative of the co-operativeness instead of the only passive performance

In addition, one thing that we are easy to see in Vietnamese slogans is that

most slogans are used with the phrases of causes or purposes as in (23) or “Phải hạn

chế tốc độ để đảm bảo an toàn” The copywriters concretize the aims so that the

addressees can implement their deeds well on account of the common goal of the community

4.1.2.3 Similarities

In order to express the same calls and the appeals, both languages use two ordinary kinds of imperative sentences in their slogans among which there are affirmative and negative forms Although imperatives have lots of degrees, the copywriters of two languages use them in the same ways It is up to degree of the

slogans, their authors add “please” or “hãy” at the beginning of each slogan to

prove that the request is mild and becomes more persuasive They are all shown in Table 4.4 below

Table 4.4 List of Imperative structures in English and Vietnamese

Imperative structures in English S.C.P.Ss

Imperative structures in Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

Affirmative

form

+ V + (O) + V + Adv + V + O + C + Please + V + …

+ V + O (+ C) + (V + adv)

4.1.2.4 Differences

About the number of imperative sentences according to the statistics, there are

66 English imperatives, whereas there are 77 Vietnamese imperatives among 200 slogans

Structurally, both languages have fundamentally different structures The Vietnamese imperative structures are diversified as discussed in Chapter 2, whereas

in English the copywriters use only two basic structures: the affirmative form including a head verb with or without objects and the negative form employing an

auxiliary ‘don’t’ followed by a main verb with or without objects, too Sometimes

they add an exclamation mark at the end of the imperatives (!) to prove that it is a mild request, but this is not obligatory for all imperatives

Like English imperatives, imperative sentences in Vietnamese have the omission of the second person subject However, the subject of the imperative verb

is, in some cases, retained because it is a plural noun indicating the generality or specification as in the following examples:

(30) Toàn dân tham gia giữ gìn trật từ an toàn giao thông [106]

(People should participate in maintaining traffic order and safety)

(31) Nhân dân tích cực tham gia phòng cháy, chữa cháy rừng [38]

(32) Người nhiễm HIV hãy đến các cơ sở y tế để được tư vấn, chăm sóc và điều trị! [131]

(HIV-infected people, go to health facilities for counseling, care and treatment!)

These imperatives are usually admonitory in tone and frequently express an emphasis on the general or specific groups of people It is easy to confuse the subject, in these imperatives, with a vocative noun phrase

Vietnamese imperatives often contain a phrase of purpose or cause at the beginning or the end of each slogan as from (30) to (32) It shows that Vietnamese copywriters specify the problem more than English copywriters do

(33) Thanh niên hành động vì môi trường [150]

(The youth act for the environment)

(34) Vì tương lai đất nước hãy bảo vệ nguồn nước và môi trường [49]

(Because of the country future, protect the water sources and environment)

(35) Phải hạn chế tốc độ để đảm bảo an toàn [106]

(The speed must be limited to ensure safety)

English imperatives often have the phenomenon of alliteration, rhyme, word repetition, enumeration, and parallelism in their slogans, which makes slogans easy

to be remembered and parodied such as in the following examples

(36) Save your lungs, save your life [161]

(37) Reduce, reuse & recycle [4]

(38) Think globally act locally [191]

Meanwhile, Vietnamese imperatives only use simple forms of imperatives as from (33) to (35) and other sentences in the data The differences of imperative structures between English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss are shown in Table 4.5 as follows

Table 4.5 Difference of Imperatives in English and Vietnamese

much utilized Although they are used in slogans of both languages, they also have

some similarities and differences as discussed above in some ways

4.1.3 Declaratives: Simple Sentences of English and Vietnamese S.C.P.Ss

4.1.3.1 Simple sentences of English S.C.P.Ss

As shown in Chapter 2, this type of sentence just containing one clause and

expressing one complete thought has a very simple structure consisting of a subject and a predicate The predicates which are found in English S.C.P.Ss bring in them with either an auxiliary verb or a lexical verb to express various intentions In other words, the simple sentences in English S.C.P.Ss are composed of different patterns

a Simple sentences with auxiliaries

The auxiliary among the slogans collected can be found as modal auxiliaries,

progressive auxiliaries, and passive ones

- Modal auxiliary consists of a modal auxiliary and the base of the VP head

For example,

(39) Only you can prevent forest fires [2]

(40) You might as well eat from the trashcan [33]

(41) Pets must be in suitable container [43]

From the three examples above, the pattern with modal auxiliary verbs can be inferred as follows:

S + auxiliary + V + Od

- Progressive auxiliary is composed of the auxiliary, the verb ‘be’ and the

‘-ing’ participle of the VP head as in (42)

(42) Slow down! Your family will be waiting for you [130]

The pattern with progressive auxiliary verbs can be deduced as follows:

S + auxiliary + BE + V-ing + Od

- Passive auxiliary includes the auxiliary, the verb ‘be’ and a past participle of

the VP head like the following sentence

(43) For your safety hardhat must be used [135]

(44) Safety helmets must be worn in this area [100]

With the examples of (43) and (44), the pattern with passive auxiliary verbs can be drawn as follows:

S + auxiliary + BE + V3/ed

Through the examples above, it can be found that auxiliaries are used in an effective and diversified way Depending on the aim and objective of each slogan, the copywriters employ various auxiliaries to express their intentions For example,

the word ‘can’ in (39) is employed to indicate that lookers-on themselves have an

extraordinary ability to do something to prevent forest fires as well as they could

The word ‘will’ in (42) is used for talking about or predicting the future The

authors of this slogan not only claim that everything will be all right as expected but also try to persuade drivers not to be in a hurry for a good accident prevention

‘Might’ in (40) indicates the possibility or doubt for a fresh environment in the

future Here the authors are not sure of that what has been eaten everyday is good

or not Correspondingly, the slogan is a reminder that everyone should be careful in

choosing daily fresh food for a better life And ‘Must’ in (41), (43) and (44)

indicates that it is not only a must or an obligation, but it is used as a piece of advice as well The slogan (41) shows that animals in general and pets in particular should be kept in suitable container otherwise everything will be in trouble on the spot In (43) and (44), if the copywriters use the passive voice, it is because they want to give the emphasis or significance of wearing the hardhat and helmets Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action

b Simple sentences with lexical verbs

- The lexical verb, the VP head, is mainly composed of intensive verb,

complex transitive verb, mono-transitive verb, and intransitive one

- Intensive verbs are commonly known as linking verbs, or copular verbs However, the intensive verbs found in the data are mainly the verb ‘be’ They have

the following structure: S + Be + Cs The subject complement found in the study

can be a noun, a NP, or an adjective For instance,

(45) The safe way is the right way [131]

(46) You're a fool if you think smoking is cool [159]

(47) Life is energy Energy is life [187]

- Complex transitive verbs are verbs followed by two components of sentence

patterns The first component after the verb is a direct object, and the other can be a noun or a NP (S.V.Od.Co), an adjective, or a PP (S.V.Od.A) However, in practical slogans, there are no other cases but (S.V.Od.Adj) The verbs of this pattern found

in the data are included in “make”, “keep”, and “leave” Let’s take the following

slogans as examples:

(48) Keep your country clean! [30]

(49) Too much smoke will leave you broke [157]

(50) This is your restroom Please keep it clean [32]

- Mono-transitive verbs are single words which are directly followed by a noun

or an embedded clause called the direct object to make the predicate complete The majority of the slogans found in the study pertain to the structure pattern S.V.Od Because this is a very simple sentence pattern, the copy-writers use it very often in their slogans Some examples are illustrated as follows:

(51) Be careful Carelessness can hurt you and others [97]

(52) Arsenic kills if you swallow it Tobacco kills if you smoke it [144]

(53) Cancer cures smoking [146]

(54) You're a fool if you think smoking is cool [159]

- Intransitive verbs are the ones that do not take an object and that make their

meanings themselves Some examples of this type can be described as follows:

(55) Save today survive tomorrow [190]

(56) Go green or I’ll scream [17]

(57) Save earth or die! [25]

(58) Safety is the light Let it shine [81]