SỔ TAY TỪ VỰNG HỌC THUẬT

* Động từ này thường dùng dạng v-ing ngữ cảnh 2 * Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là NHÓM, HỆ THỐNG, SẮP ĐẶT, SƯU TẬP, KHU VỰC.. Ghi nhớ: * Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là tác phẩm nghệ

BUILDING ACADEMIC VOCABULARY

Lawrence J Zwier

Tài liệu chia sẻ tại “DIỄN ĐÀN HỌC TIẾNG ANH”

ADVANCED PRACTICE FOR EAP CLASSES AND SELF-STUDY

BUILDING ACADEMIC VOCABULARY

Lawrence J Zwier

The University of Michigan Press - 2005

Tài liệu chia sẻ tại “DIỄN ĐÀN HỌC TIẾNG ANH”

Developing Academic Vocabulary

learning to read, and vocabulary, along with phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and comprehension was one of the five The Report presented three key findings about vocabulary:

1 Vocabulary is critically important to readers who use the words they speak and hear to make sense of the words they see in print Decoding without understanding what words mean is not reading meaningfully

2 Vocabulary is critical to reading comprehension throughout the grades A reader cannot comprehend what is read if he or she doesn’t know the meanings of most of the words As children advance in reading, they encounter words that are not part of their oral vocabularies, which they need

to learn in order to understand what they are reading

3 Most vocabulary is learned indirectly through everyday experience with oral and written language, but some words that represent complex concepts that are not part of everyday experrience must be taught directly

The National Reading Panel Report is not the only work that has shed light on the importance of vocabulary instruction in recent years Some studies demonstrated the critical importance of a solid vocabulary in academic achievment Some showed the connections between vocabulary and conceptual understanding in science, math and social studies Others identified the most effective methods for learning and teaching new words

This white paper summarizes the conclusions reached from research about teaching and learning academic vocabulary

What is Academic Vocabulary?

Given the importance of academic background knowledge and the

from academically advantaged backgrounds, is systematic instruction in important academic terms (Marzano and Pickering 2005)

Academic vocabulary includes the words that are critical to understanding concepts taught in school Academic vocabulary focuses on

specialized words, as opposed to the highfrequency words that students learn

through reading and speaking Learning academic vocabulary is not just for preparation for college Academic vocabulary can include school related words that form the language of learning that children encounter when they start school in kindergarten all the way through advanced placement courses they may take in high school

Academic vocabulary development is important for student achievement throughout the grades A profound study (Hart and Risley 1995) observed interactions between infants and their parents over a period

of time The study found that based on these interactions, some children enter preschool at age 4 with oral vocabularies that are up to two years behind their peers These children simply haven’t been exposed to many words This vocabulary deficit can make it seem as if teachers are speaking

in a foreign language Unless academic vocabulary is taught, a child can get

behind at the earliest levels and never catch up A person with more

expertise has a larger knowledge base, and the large knowledge base

allows that person to acquire even greater expertise at a faster rate

(Stanovich 1986) Thus is it critically important that academic vocabulary be taught at every level and particularly reinforced for those students who have

a vocabulary deficit

“.…those who enter fourth grade with significant vocabulary deficits show increasing problems with reading comprehension, even if they have good reading (word identification) skills The available evidence does not suggest a substantial “catching up” process, but rather a continuing slippage relative to those with average and above-average achievment.” (Biemiller 1999)

As students progress in school, academic vocabulary becomes more and more specific to content studies To support vocabulary instruction, academic vocabulary is often highlighted in instructional materials These highlighted words are considered key to understanding the content of a particular passage or chapter To support vocabulary instruction efforts further, several academic vocabulary word lists have been generated by publishers, academics, and state boards of education (Tennessee Department

of Education 2009) These lists include academic vocablulary that is

Knowledge of this vocabulary will not guarantee success, but lack of knowledge of vocabulary can ensure failure (Biemiller 1999)

Words, reason, and understanding are intertwined The Greek word

logos means “word” but also “reason,” “thought,” and “speech.” The Greek -log is used as a root in logic, analogy, geology, and anthropology To know

what a word means, helps define the thought or concept behind the word and develops understanding Vocabulary is critical to reading comprehension

Vocabulary knowledge is involved in a reciprocal relationship with reading ability…the relationship is one that continues throughout reading development and remains in force for even the most fluent adult reader (Stanovich 1986)

Language, along with sense perception, reason, and emotion are the fundamental ways of knowing Of course language is only one way of knowing and yet it is an important contributor to understanding, particularly abstract concepts that cannot be experienced

Research shows that vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of reading comprehension than most variables, even cognitive ability Two-thirds of all academic English words come from Latin, French (through Latin), or Greek Understandably, knowledge of the most high incidence academic words in English can significantly boost a student’s comprehension level of school-based reading material (Coxhead 2000)

People's knowledge of any topic is encapsulated in the terms they know that are relevant to the topic For example, people who know a great deal about snow skiing understand terms such as fall line, snow plow, corn snow, unweight, powder, packed powder, green slope, blue slope, black slope, mogul, carving, and face-plant Likewise, students who understand the content in their state mathematics standards document regarding data analysis and statistics have an understanding of terms such as mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation, and central tendency The more students understand these terms, the easier it is for them to understand information they may read or hear about the topic On the other hand, without a basic knowledge of these terms, students will have difficulty understanding information they read or hear (Marzano and Pickering 2005)

What does it mean to know a word? One can know a word deeply, superfically, or not at all A knowledge continuum might include these kinds

of stages (Beck, McKeown and Kucan 2002)

1 Never heard or saw the word before

2 Heard or saw the word and know that it is related to a particular topic or

4 Have a narrow contextual understanding of a word

5 Can define a word in context but not use it in appropriate situations

6 Can recall or use a word in specific contexts

7 Know of multiple meanings of a word

8 Can apply a word correctly and recognize inappropriate use

9 use the word naturally in thinking, writing, and talking

10 Has a rich knowledge of a word’s meaning and how it relates to other words with similar meanings, roots, or affixes

11 Has deep knowledge of a word Can conjugate forms and use it appropriately in figures of speech, such as puns, metaphors, and understand its use in idiomatic exppressions

Vocabulary instruction can have a significant effect on concept knowledge, reading comprehension, and school achievement Given that vocabulary is so connected to understanding and having a deep understanding of words enriches content knowledge, the most effective and efficient ways of teaching vocabulary should be part of every teacher’s repertoire

Teaching Academic Vocabulary

Teaching specific terms in a specific way is probably the strongest action a teacher can take to ensure that students have the academic background knowledge they need to understand the content they will encounter in school When all the teachers in a school focus on the same academic vocabulary and teach it in the same way, the school has a powerful comprehensive approach When all the teachers in a district embrace and use the approach, it becomes even more powerful (Marzano and Pickering 2005)

All teachers can provide effective vocabulary instruction As students advance in school, continuous vocabulary reinforcement from all subject areas can have a significant effective on student achievement

There are an estimated 88,500 words in printed school English (Nagy and Herman 1984) It is impossible teach each one through direct instruction, nor would that be effective or efficient Some strategies,

however, are more effective than others Strategies that are not effective

include the following (Stahl and Fairbanks 1986):

1 Looking up definitions (in the absence of other strategies)

2 Providing only one or two exposures to a word

3 Drill-and-practice methods of instruction that involve multiple repetitions

of the same type of information

If simply having students look up vocabulary words in a dictionary and write the definitions is not an effective teaching strategy, what is? Below are basic strategies that have been identified as effective for acquiring vocabulary (M F Graves 2006)

1 Use context to unlock the meanings of unknown words

a Read carefully and ask yourself, “Does this make sense?”

b Notice when you don’t know the meaning of a word and slow down

c If necessary, reread the preceding sentence looking for clues to the word’s meaning

d Substitute your meaning for the unknown word to see if it makes sense If not, go back again

2 Use word parts (prefixes, suffixes and roots to unlock the meanings of words

a More than 60% of new words can be broking down into parts Then students can use their word parts to figure out their meanings

3 Use dictionaries and related reference tools Learn to use an appropriate dictionary

a Find the word and read the whole definition

b Think about multiple meanings

c Decide which definition makes sense in the passage you read

4 Develop strategies for dealing with unknown words

a Recognize unknown words

b Decide if you need to understand it to understand the passage

c Attempt to infer the meaning from context

d Attempt to infer the meaning from word parts

e Attempt to sound out the words to see if it is familiar

f Use the dictionary or other resource

5 Adopt a personal approach to building vocabulary and to developing word consciousness

Multiple exposures to a word, particularly in different contexts, are also important to securing vocabulary (Laflamme 1997)

Selecting Words to Teach

The first step in teaching academic vocabulary is to identify the words

to teach These may include the words that are highlighted in the reading materials, along with words that appear on state lists, coupled with words that are suggested or identified in the classroom Some words are critical to understanding a concept; for example, understanding the difference between

mean, median, and mode will help to critically evaluate data

wise to take time to identify the small selection of words that will have the most effect on student understanding

Deciding The Most effective Way to Teach Vocabulary

Once words have been selected, the next step is to determin the most effective methods to teach the words Different words lend themselves to different strategies:

Context Some words are best learned in context; for example, if students are

studying parts of a flower, the stigma and sepal would probably be best taught in context with the more familiar terms, petal and stalk

Categorization Some words are best understood when they are related to

words that are similar or opposite in meaning; for example, the word pelf can be related to wealth or riches, although it conveys the idea of ill-gotten gains Antonyms would include poverty, need, or want

Word Parts Word parts and word derivations are valuable tools to making

meaning of words Knowing that the word pelf is related to pilfer, for

example, may help in deepening understanding

Six-Step Strategy For teaching specific vocabulary, the following six steps

form a strategy shown to be highly effective (Marzano 2009) This strategy works at every grade level, from kindergarten to high school It provides multiple exposures to a word in a varieity of contexts and is most effective when all the steps are used Employing the whole process promotes student achievement much more effectively than using any step individually

Provide a description, explanation, or example of the new term

Ask students to restate the description or explanation in their own words (The results are not as strong when students copy the teacher’s explanation instead of generating their own.)

Ask students to construct a picture, pictograph, or symbolic representation of the term (This step is crucial When students do this step well, achievement soars.)

Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of the terms in their vocabulary notebooks

Periodically ask students to discus the terms with one another

Involve students periodically in games that enable them to play with the terms (Games engage students at a high level and have a powerful effect

on recall.)

Summary

The attention drawn to the important role of vocabulary in reading

concept understanding Teaching academic vocabulary can begin when children enter school in the primary grades and develop over time to include specific terms that represent key concepts in content area studies

The most effective strategies for teaching academic vocabulary involve multiple exposures to new words in a variety of contexts This type

of instruction leads to deep understanding of words and concepts Given the importance of vocabulary in reading comprehension, as well as academic achievement, empowering all teachers with effective strategies for vocabulary instruction has the potential to have dramatic positive effects on student achievement

References

Beck, Isabel L., Margaret G McKeown, and Linda Kucan Bringing Words

to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction New York, NY: The Guilford Press

Graves, Michael F., editor Essential Readings on Vocabulary Instrucrtion

International Reading Association 2009

Hart, B., and T R Risley Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children: The everyday experience of one- and two-year-old American children Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes 1995

Laflamme, John G "The effect of the Multiple Exposure Vocabulary

Method and the Target Reading/Writing Strategy on test scores." Journal of

Adolescent & Adult Literacy (International Reading Association) 40, no 5

(February 1997): 372-381

Marzano, Robert J Building Background Knowledge for Academic

Achievement: Research on What Works in Schools Alexandria, VA: ASCD

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2004

"Six Steps to Better Vocabulary Instruction." Educational Leadership,

September 2009

Teaching Basic and Advanced Vocabulary: A Framework for Direct Instruction Alexandria, VA: ASCD Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development 2009

Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J Pickering Building Academic Vocabulary:

Teacher's Manual Alexandria, VA: ASCD Association for Supervision and

Stahl, Steven A., and Marilyn M Fairbanks "The Effects of Vocabulary

Instruction: A Model- Based Meta-Analysis." Review of Educational

Research (American Educational Research Association) 56, no 72 (1986)

Stanovich, K.E "Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of

individual differences in the acquisition of literacy." Reading Research

Quarterly 21 (1986)

Tennessee Department of Education Tennessee Academic Vocabulaary: A Guide for Tennessee Educators 2009

CHỦ ĐỀ 01

CÁC CÁCH DIỄN ĐẠT MỐI QUAN HỆ GIỮA MỘT TỔNG THỂ VỚI CÁC BỘ PHẬN CẤU THÀNH HOẶC MỘT TẬP HỢP VỚI CÁC

THÀNH VIÊN CỦA NÓ

Nhóm 01: consist of, comprise, be composed of

1 consist of: bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The nuclear family traditionally consists of a married couple and their

children

Diễn đạt tương đương:

In a nuclear family, traditionally, there are a woman and a man (married to each other) and their children

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The research described a procedure consisting of several

time-consuming steps

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The people doing research told about a process in which there were many steps, each taking a long time

A Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMA) comprises a large

city and surrounding counties within reasonable comuting distance

Diễn đạt tương đương:

A SMSA is made up of a large city and the counties close enough so that people who live there can travel to the city to work

(A county is a governmental unit larger than a city but smaller than a state)

Ngữ cảnh 02:

A new therapy, comprising muscle massage and a cocktail of anti-

inflammatory drugs, significantly reduces the pain of arthritis

Diễn đạt tương đương:

A new treatment for arthritis (swelling of joints like knees and elbows) work well The parts of the treatment include muscle rubbing and a mixture of several drugs that reduce swelling

Ghi nhớ:

* Động từ này KHÔNG dùng ở dạng BỊ ĐỘNG

* Động từ này thường dùng dạng v-ing (ngữ cảnh 2)

* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là NHÓM, HỆ THỐNG, SẮP ĐẶT, SƯU TẬP, KHU VỰC

3 be composed of : bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The peptide molecule is composed of at least two amino acids

Diễn đạt tương đương:

At least two amino acids make up each peptide molecule

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The third category is composed of males between the ages of 25 and

40

Diễn đạt tương đương:

In the third group are men between the ages of 25 and 40

Nhóm 02: involve, encompass, include, contain

1 involve: đòi hỏi, gồm cả

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Successful budgeting involves not just accurate numbers but also a

realistic knowledge of your needs and tastes

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Successfully planning how to use your money requires you not only to know the correct amount of your income and expenses but also to be aware

of what you need and what you like

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The researchers described a complex protocol involving the

meticulous cleaning of equipment and strict controls on access to the laboratory

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The researchers described a complicated procedure that included very careful cleaning and tough limits on who could enter the laboratory

Ghi nhớ:

* Động từ này có thể dùng ở dạng bị động nhưng dùng dạng chủ động thì tốt hơn

Ví dụ:

- Many decisions are involved in setting up a website

- Setting up a website involves many decisions

* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là từ chỉ QUÁ TRÌNH, HỆ THỐNG hoặc SỰ KIỆN

* Tân ngữ của động từ này KHÔNG là CÁC BỘ PHẬN CẤU THÀNH, mà

là CÁC BƯỚC THỰC HIỆN, CÁC CÔNG CỤ, PHƯƠNG, ĐIỀU KIỆN thực hiện

2 encompass : chứa đựng, bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The Animal Rights Coalition (ARC) encompasses several smaller

organisations that advocates better treatment of animals

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Within the ARC are many smaller groups that want people to treat animals better

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Today’s children live in a digital environment, encompassing

everything from electronic “pets” to cellular phone systems

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Children are now surrounded by digital things (using electronic “1” or

“0” signals) that range from electronic pets to cellular phone systems

Ghi nhớ:

* Tân ngữ có thể liệt kê “mọi thứ từ … đến”, hoặc tập hợp nhiều tổ chức, hay vật khác nhau

3 include: bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The government’s plan includes measures to limit currency trading

Diễn đạt tương đương:

As part of the government’s plan, there are steps to control the buying and selling of money from various countries

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The order Lagomorpha includes rabits, hares, and pikas

Diễn đạt tương đương:

In the category of animals known as Lagomorpha, there are rabits, hares, and pikas

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Inside each cell are two groups of DNA – one in the centre of the cell and another in the mitochondria

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The film contains sexually explicit scenes that some viewers may find offensive

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Some parts of the film show sexual activity very clearly Some people who watch this film may not like seeing these things

Ghi nhớ:

* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là tác phẩm nghệ thuật, văn học; học thuyết, các ý kiến

***************************************************

Nhóm 03: constitute, make up, form

1 constitute: tạo nên, cấu thành

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Rabits, hares, and pikas constitute the order Lagomorpha

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The members of the group of animals called Lagomorpha are rabits, hares, and pikas

Ngữ cảnh 02:

A large city and the surrounding conties within reasonable commuting distance constitute a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA)

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The parts of an SMSA are a large city and the counties close enough

to it so people can drive from there into the city to work

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The parts of a traditional grouping of four string instruments are two violins, a cello, and a bass viol

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Strictly speaking, all counties with Pacific shores make up the

so-called Pacific Rim

Diễn đạt tương đương:

In a totally correct use of the phrase “Pacific Rim”, this group should include all countries with land beside the Pacific Ocean

Ví dụ: Jim and his friends made up that meeting to get out of a test

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Seven political groups that do not agree with the government came together to set up a new group called the National Revolutionary Front Ngữ cảnh 02:

The pistil, stamen, and anthers form the reproductive system of a flowering plant

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The parts of a flowering plant’s system for creating new plants are the pistil, stamen, and anthers

Nhóm 04: comprehensive, all told

1 comprehensive (adjective): bao hàm, toàn diện, phổ quát

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Doctors performed a comprehensive autopsy, but the cause of death

remained a mystery

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The doctors’ examination of the dead body covered all the necessary points, but they still couldn’t discover why the person died

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Albertson’s book offers a comprehensive but rather superficial review

of genetic research

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Albertson’s book look at all the important branches of research into genes, but the book’s description are not very deep or detailed

Ghi nhớ:

2 all told (adverbial ): cả thảy

Ngữ cảnh 01:

All told, 14 new elements were added to the periodic table as a result

of the new research

Diễn đạt tương đương:

If you count up all the elements added to the periodic table as a result

of the new research, you get the number 14

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Police confiscated a large number of handguns in the raid – 253, all told

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Police took away a large number of handguns – a total of 253 - after they raided the place

CHỦ ĐỀ 02

CÁC CÁCH DIỄN ĐẠT “KHÔNG BAO GỒM,

LOẠI TRỪ RA, TÁCH RỜI ” Nhóm 01: anomalous, exception, egregious, marginal

1 anomalous: ngoại lệ, bất thường

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Although most materials contract as they cool, water is anomolous in that it expands when it freezes

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Most things take up less space as they get cooler, but water does not

It takes up more space after it becomes ice

Ghi nhớ:

* Tính từ này thường được đi sau bởi các cụm từ in that, because, hoặc by

virtue of nêu rõ đặc tính ngoại lệ, khác thường đó

* Cụm từ chỉ nhóm người, vật, sự vật mà nó không thuộc về thường đứng

sau giới từ in hoặc among (xem ngữ cảnh 02)

2 exception: sự ngoại lệ

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Crops failed throughout the Midwest, Delton County being the sole exception

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Throughout the Midwest, plants on farms failed to produce The only place this was not true was Delton County

Ngữ cảnh 02:

With exception of the samples from Lab 4, all the virus cultures showed significant growth after 3 days

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Almost all the populations of viruses that the scientists were trying to grow did increase a lot after 3 days The only ones that did not were in Lab

3 egregious : tồi tệ, dễ nhận thấy, phô trương

(các nghĩa trên chưa có trong các từ điển Anh – Việt hiện nay)

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The bank’s practices were so egregious that regulators had to take strong punitive action

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The bank’s (bad) practices were very obvious, so the people who control banking had to punish the bank very strongly

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The neighbourhood’s egregious wealth makes it a frequent target of buglars

Diễn đạt tương đương:

It is easy to see that the neighbourhood is very wealthy, so thieves often choose that area as a place to break into houses and steal things

Nhóm 02: keep out, exclude, ban

1 keep out: ngăn cản, không cho vào, tránh

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Australia’s strict quarantine rules aim mostly to keep out diseases of

cattle and sheep

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Australia has very strong rules against bringing plants or animals into the country The main purpose of these rules is to make sure that illnesses of cattle and sheep do not get into the country

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Most members of the marketing department keep out of the battle

between the two top managers

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Most of the people in the marketing department did not support one side or another in the struggle between the two top managers

Ghi nhớ:

*Cấu trúc câu “to keep out something/sombody of smth/sbd”

2 exclude : ngăn, không cho vào, loại ra, trừ ra

Ngữ cảnh 01:

In the 1950s, the club excludes people on the basis of colour and national origin

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The club would not let people of some races or nationalities in

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The people who took this poll excludes any responses that were illegible or incomplete

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The people who took this poll (a measure of public opinion) did not include any answers that were hard to read or were not complete

Ghi nhớ:

* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là NHÓM, TỔ CHỨC, THÀNH VIÊN NHÓM hoặc NỘI QUY DO NHÓM ĐỀ RA

3 ban: chính thức cấm

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Police banned journalists from the area while they searched for survivors of the crash

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The police announced that journalists would not be let into the area during the search for people still alive after the crash

Ngữ cảnh 02:

In an attempt to stop the spread of apple blight, the importation of all foreign fruit was banned

Diễn đạt tương đương:

To keep the apple blight from travelling further, the government said that foreign fruit could not be brought into the country

Ghi nhớ:

* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là các cơ quan chính quyền (cảnh sát, chính phủ) hoặc nội quy, quy định

* Thường dùng với giới từ from (ngữ cảnh 01) Có thể cấm ai đó khỏi một

nơi, một tổ chức, hành động, sự kiện hay quá trình

* Thường dùng trong câu bị động

* Khi dùng là danh từ “ban” đi với giới từ “on” Ví dụ: “A ban on (smth)”

* Danh từ “ban” có thể đứng sau động từ “impose” (áp đặt), “declare” (tuyên bố)

***************************************************

Nhóm 03: filter, screen

1 filter: lọc ra, loại bỏ

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The lens coating filtered out most frequencies of light

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The material on the surface kept most frequencies of light from passing through the lens (a piece of glass that changes the direction of light) (Frequency of light = light with a certain wavelength)

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Official student groups on campus filter most forms of expression, so that only very bland statements are never made publicly

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Student groups keep most things from being said at the college Only very uninteresting things can be said openly

2 screen: sàng lọc

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The hospital screened its blood supply for HIV

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The hospital did tests on the blood it kept The tests were to find evidence of HIV (the virus that can lead to AIDS)

Ngữ cảnh 02:

After carefully screening thirty – five applicants, the committee listed three

Diễn đạt tương đương:

After carefully examining thirty – five people who applied for the job (and looking for posible problems that might make the unsuitable), the committee selected three top possible choices

Ghi nhớ:

* Động từ này có thể dùng để miêu tả các biện pháp an toàn hoặc điều tra cẩn thận

* Chủ ngữ thường là một người một hoặc một nhóm người có trách nhiệm

và quyền hạn làm việc này

* Trong cấu trúc câu “to screen out” thì tân ngữ thường là vật không mong muốn bị loại bỏ ra khỏi

* Trong cấu trúc câu “to screen smth for smth” thì tân ngữ sau “for” thường

là vật muốn tìm để loại bỏ ra khỏi

* Trong cấu trúc câu không có “out” đứng sau thường chỉ nhóm người hay vật được sàng lọc

***************************************************

Nhóm 04: rogue, outcast, alien

1 rogue (adjective): khác thường, xấu

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Much of the money lost by the bank was because of things done by a person in the office that lends money to businesses He or she acted alone and in a way outside normal procedures

Ghi nhớ:

* Từ này trong từ điển khi dùng với người thường chỉ người có hành vi không trung thực với từ “elephant” có nghĩa là “con voi độc” (thường đi một mình và rất hung hãn)

2 outcast (Noun-countable ): kẻ bị ruồng bỏ

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Among her baseball-loving colleagues, Dr Prakash, a cricket fan, felt like an outcast

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Most other people with whom Dr Prakash worked were interested in baseball Because she liked cricket, she felt like she was outside the group Ngữ cảnh 02:

The cult attracted social outcasts and misfits

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The small, unusual religious group drew in misfits (people who đi not fit well into society) and people who had not been accepted into mainstream society

Ghi nhớ:

*Một số tính từ có thể đi với từ này: social, complete, miserable

3 alien (adjective): ngoại quốc, nước ngoài, lạ lùng, xa lạ

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The concept of a free press was alien to the region

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The idea that news media should be free to report on almost all issues was strange and foreign in this area

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Branson claims the government is covering up evidence that aliens have visited Earth

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Branson says the government is trying to hide facts that show our planet has been visited by beings from other planets

Ghi nhớ:

* Danh từ “alien”: người ngoài hành tinh

* Cấu trúc “to be alien to sbd/smth”

* Khi là tính từ thường đứng trước các danh từ như: concept, idea, system

* Động từ “to alienate sbd from smth”: làm cho ai cảm thấy thấy tách biệt

@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

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CHỦ ĐỀ 03 CÁC CÁCH MIÊU TẢ SỰ GIỐNG NHAU, TƯƠNG TỰ

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The report shows that women still have not come up to the same positions as men in the places where they work

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Because the north has most of the important natural resources there can never be economic equality among the nation’s regions

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Because most of the valuable natural things (such as coal or oil or wood) are in the northern part of the nation, the other regions will never be

as rich or important as the north

Ghi nhớ:

* Danh từ này có thể đi với một số giới từ sau:

- equality of smth: bình đẳng về …

- equality in: bình đẳng ở (nơi nào)…

- equality between: bình đẳng giữa (hai) …

- equality among: bình đẳng trong (một nhóm) …

* equality thường đứng sau các động từ như: achieve, gain, win, earn, enjoy

* các dạng khác: equal (adjective), equalise (verb), equally (adv)

2 parity : trạng thái bằng nhau, sự ngang bằng

Ngữ cảnh 01:

By adding three fighter squadrons to its air force, the country achieved military parity with its neighbours

Diễn đạt tương đương:

By getting three more groups of fighter airplanes, the country become approximately as strong as other countries near it

Diễn đạt tương đương:

For some time, the value of the Euro was lower than the value of the dollar

Ghi nhớ:

* Danh từ này thường dùng khi nói về lực lượng, sức mạnh, địa vị, tiền lương, cách đối xử

* Danh từ này thường dùng với “with smth”

* Danh từ này thường đi sau động từ “gain” hoặc “enjoy”

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The slowing down of Japan’s economy in the 1990s was similar in many ways to what happened in the U.S during the 1980s

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Dr Lewis’s research at Standford paralleled Dr Vu’s at the University of Iowa, though neirther knew of the other’s work

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The research Dr Lewis did at Stanford was very much like what Dr

Vu was doing at Iowa, but the two did not know about each other’s studies Ghi nhớ:

* Động từ này thường dùng để nói về các sự kiện, quá trình, câu truyện xảy

ra song song với nhau

* Động từ này cũng được dùng khi đề cập hai sự việc xảy ra ở hai giai đoạn

và hai nơi khác nhau (ngữ cảnh 01)

* parallel khi là danh từ có thể dùng với giới từ “between”

(e.g., “parallels between Dr Lewis’s work and Dr.Vu’s”)

* parallel khi là tính từ đi với giới từ “to” (e.g., “Dr Lewis’s work was parallel to Dr Vu’s”)

2 echo: gợi nhớ lại, tương tự như

Ngữ cảnh 01:

America’s current “war on drugs” echoes the Prohobition Era of the 1920s

Diễn đạt tương đương:

America’s efforts now to get rid of drugs are similar to the situation in the 1920s, when alcoholic drinks were illegal in the U.S

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Tyler’s technique of understated surprise echoes the work of Ford Maddox Ford

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The way she surprises readers in a simple, quiet way reminds us of how Ford Maddox Ford wrote

Nhóm 03: alike, identical, equivalent

1 alike (adj): giống nhau, tương tự

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The American robin and the European robin may look alike in their coloring, but thay are not the same species of bird

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The two kinds of bird have similar patterns of colour, but they are two different kinds of birds

- A and B + be/look/seem + alike + in (smth)/ because + Clause / because of (smth) (Ngữ cảnh 01)

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Two organisms grown artificially from the cells of another will be exactly the same in their genes, but they can look different because they’ve been influenced by different things in their surroundings

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Singapore’s copyright-protection laws are virtually identical to Britain’s

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The laws protecting ownership of printed or broadcast ideas in Singapore are almost exactly the same as Britain’s

Diễn đạt tương đương:

To become a student at this school you need an MLLE score of 220

or some other test score that indicates the same level of ability

Ghi nhớ:

* Tính từ này thường có “to” đứng sau (ngữ cảnh 02)

* Khi là danh từ thường có “of” đứng sau (e.g, “An A-level qualification is the equivalent of a high school diploma”)

***************************************************

Nhóm 04: just as, likewise

1 just as: tương tự như

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Just as a dog obeys its master, a wolf defers to the leader of the pack Diễn đạt tương đương:

The way a wolf follows the instructions of its group leader is similar

to the way a dog obeys the human who care for it

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Glaciers may look stationary but they flow, just as rivers do

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Even though glaciers (large, thick sheets of ice on top of land) look like they aren’t moving, they move downhill in the same way rivers do Ghi nhớ:

* Cụm từ này LUÔN LUÔN đứng trước mệnh đề trạng ngữ (Ngữ cảnh 01

và 02) và KHÔNG ĐỨNG TRƯỚC cụm danh từ (KHÔNG VIẾT “Just as

wolves, dogs need to belong to a group”)

* Khi diễn đạt ý nghĩa thời gian, cụm từ này còn có nghĩa là “Cùng một lúc”

2 likewise (trạng từ): tương tự như vậy

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Push factors such as war or famine are notorious for causing great population shifts Likewise, pull factors such as economic opportunity can lead to large – scale immigration

Diễn đạt tương đương:

War or widespread hunger can cause lots of people to move to other places So can “pull factors” like the chance to make money in other places Ngữ cảnh 02:

A stalk of grass, of course, remains non-woody and withers after

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The upright part of a grass plant does not become like wood, and it dries up and dies after the plant produces seed The banana plant does the same thing, so the banana is technically an herb

Ghi nhớ:

* Từ này có thể bổ nghĩa cho một câu ở hai vị trí:

- Ở đầu câu, có dấu phẩy ở sau (ngữ cảnh 01)

- Sau chủ ngữ

* Từ này có thể bổ nghĩa cho động từ:

- Đứng sau các trợ động từ “do”/”have”/”be” (ngữ cảnh 02)

“These birds are likewise interesting”

“Our department is likewise eager to …”

“They have likewise insisted …”

Nhóm 05: counterpart, clone, image

1 counterpart: đối tác, đồng nghiệp

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Minnesota’s Jesperson was in daily contact with her counterpart at Iowa State

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Jesperson, who worked for the university of Minnesota, spoke every day with the person at Iowa State who had a job similar to her

Ngữ cảnh 02:

There is no counterpart to the U.S Senate in the Malindian parlianment

Diễn đạt tương đương:

In the Malindian parliament, there’s no group similar to the U.S Senate

Ghi nhớ:

* Từ này thường dùng chỉ người, nhóm hay tổ chức

* Dùng khi nói về công việc hoặc vị trí trong các cơ quan, tổ chức

* Thường dùng các giới từ “of” hoặc “to” sau nó (ngữ cảnh 02)

2 clone : cái được nhân bản ra, cái được bắt chước

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Everyone in the office had hairstyles and clothes that made them look like exact copies of their boss

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Renton’s new novel is just another Scarlet Letter clone

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Renton’s new book is not very original It is very much like The Scarlet Letter (A novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne)

Ghi nhớ:

* Nghĩa ban đầu của từ này là “Một sinh vật được sinh sản vô tính”

* Nó có thể dùng với nghĩa bóng ám chỉ sự bắt chước hoặc copy một nguyên bản nào đó

* thường có giới từ “of” đứng sau

* khi là động từ thì chủ ngữ là cái được sao chép, bắt chước và tân ngữ là cái nguyên bản (e.g.They cloned the program = They made a copy of the program)

* Có thể dùng cấu trúc “to clone something from smth”

3 image: bản sao chép, sự bắt chước

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The team’s research design was the image of an earlier project at Stanford

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The plan for the structure of the team’s research was exactly like one used in an earlier project at Stanford

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The Pandas are a roots –reggae band in Marley’s image

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The Pandas play traditional reggae music (a style associated with the island of Jamaica) Their performance style reminds people of Marley’s Ghi nhớ:

* từ này nghĩa trung tính hơn từ “clone”, (từ “clone” mang nghĩa mỉa mai)

* cấu trúc đi với giới từ “of” (ngữ cảnh 01) hoặc giới từ “in” (ngữ cảnh 02)

CHỦ ĐỀ 04

CÁC CÁCH DIỄN TẢ SỰ KHÁC NHAU

VÀ KHÔNG BẰNG NHAU Nhóm 01: Disparity, inequality

1 disparity: sự khác biệt, sự chênh lệch

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The disparity between a teacher’s pay and that of other certified professionals is high

Diễn đạt tương đương:

There is a very large difference between the amount of money a teacher earns and the amount that any other professional whose work requires a licence would earn

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Amanda Huggins dedicated her career to correcting the disparities in service among the agency’s clients – disparities usually based on race

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Amanda Huggins spent most of her working life correcting situations

in which the agency gave people of some races much worse service than it gave people of other races

Ghi nhớ:

* Đây là danh từ đếm được

* Thường dùng trước giới từ “between” hoặc “among”

* Dùng giới từ “in” trước từ diễn tả lĩnh vực mà có sự khác biệt

* Thường dùng khi thảo luận về các điều kiện kinh tế và xã hội

* Có thể dùng cụm từ “to correct a disparity”

* Các tình từ thường chỉ kích thước, mức độ thường đi với “disparity”: huge,

enormous, great, significant

2 inequality: sự không bằng, sự không ngang bằng

Ngữ cảnh 01:

There is a disturbing inequality in the way the police respond to calls from people of different races

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The police answer a call from a person of one race very differently from the way they respond to a call from a person of another race This difference is something we should worry about

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The inequality among test scores of otherwise similar students is puzzling

Diễn đạt tương đương:

It’s very hard to understand why students who are similar in most ways had such different test scores

Ghi nhớ:

* Đây là danh từ KHÔNG đếm được nhưng đôi khi cũng ddwwocj dùng như danh từ đếm được

* Thường dùng trước giới từ “between” hoặc “among”

* Dùng giới từ “in” trước từ diễn tả lĩnh vực mà có sự khác biệt

* Thường dùng khi thảo luận về xã hội, việc làm và các ngữ cảnh về các mối quan hệ của con người

***************************************************

Nhóm 02: differ, diverge

1 differ: khác nhau

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The DNA sequence of chimpanzees and that of humans differ by only

a few nucleic acid pairs

Diễn đạt tương đương:

A few pairs of nucleic acids are not the same in a chimpanzee as they are in a human, but in other ways the DNA patterns of the two are the same Ngữ cảnh 02:

European socialists differ from their African counterparts in their distaste for revolution

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Unlike African socialists, European socialists did not really want to get rid of their current governments

Ghi nhớ:

* Một số cấu trúc câu:

- to differ in smth: Khác nhau về (cái gì) (Ngữ cảnh 02)

2 diverge : khác nhau, rẽ ra, phân kỳ

Ngữ cảnh 01:

From the graph, you can see that tax revenue and infrastructure spending diverge after 1994

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The graph has a line showing how much money the government took

in from taxes and another line showing line showing how much the government spent on basic services like roads and water supply The two lines run near each other for a while but then start separating at the point on the graph that shows 1994

Ngữ cảnh 02:

I agree that guns should be controlled, but I am afraid my views diverge from yours when it comes to confiscating guns from innocent citizens

Diễn đạt tương đương:

We both agree that guns should be controlled, but I do not think (as you do) that the government should take guns away from people who have never committed a crime

a) Colour differentiates the two types of mushroom

b) Colour differentiates one mushroom from the other

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The two kinds of mushroom are similar in many ways, but you can tell them apart by their color

Ngữ cảnh 02:

a) It is hard for me to differentiate between Bach’s style and Telemann’s

Diễn đạt tương đương:

I have a hard time hearing differences between the musical style of Johann Sebastian Bach and that of Georg Philipp Telemann

a) Financial savvy distinguished Barnard from earlier governors

b) Light weight and low radiation distinguish the Apex 4000 cellular phone

Diễn đạt tương đương:

a) Barnard was different from earlier governer in that she knew a lot about managing money

b) The Apex 4000 is different (from other cellular phones) because it weighs less and emits less radiation

Diễn đạt tương đương:

a) Because of the fog and darkness, it was hard for us to see clearly enough to know which objects were trees and which were people

b) If you study enough about maple tree, you can learn to tell the difference among various kinds

Ghi nhớ:

* Trong Ngữ cảnh 01, chủ ngữ luôn là từ chỉ đặc điểm gây nên sự khác biệt

Cấu trúc câu: smth distinguish smth from smth

* Trong Ngữ cảnh 02, Chủ ngữ thường là một người một hoặc một nhóm người hoặc thiết bị cảm biến như máy ảnh, micrô

* Khi phân biệt cái này với cái kia dùng giới từ “from”

* Khi nói về nhận ra sự khác biệt hay phân biệt dùng “between” hoặc

“among”

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Students learning about the sounds of language have to know how to separate a long piece of connected speech into separate, individual sounds Ngữ cảnh 02:

The two companies were discrete from one another, despite having a common parent company

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The two companies were totally separate from each other even though they were both owned by the same larger company

Ghi nhớ:

* Thường dùng khi nói về các bộ phận, đơn vị, phần, …

* Cấu trúc: discrete from (Ngữ cảnh 02)

2 disparate (adj): khác biệt, khác hẳn

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Attending to the disparate needs of the community after the tornado was a massive undertaking

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Taking care of the many different things the community needed after the tornado (a violent windstorm) struck was a huge job

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Because disparate broadcast formats are used worldwide, a TV from one country will not necessarily work in another

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Because the countries of the world broadcast their television programmes in many different formats, a TV made in one country might not work in another country

Ghi nhớ:

* Thường dùng với các từ chỉ các nhóm, các hệ thống, các tổ chức, các phần,

bộ phận hoặc các thành viên của nhóm, các đòi hỏi, nhu cầu

Diễn đạt tương đương:

In India there are many different kinds of languages, from many different basic groups of languages

Ngữ cảnh 02:

Labour organizers found the heterogeneous construction workers very difficults to unionize

Diễn đạt tương đương:

People who try to create organizations of workers had a hard time getting the construction workerd to form a group, because there were too many differences among the workers

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Rules set by the government led the university to hire teachers of many different races, nationalities, and other characteristics

Ngữ cảnh 02:

The obstacles to the research were diverse, ranging from lack of funds

to complaints that the research was immoral

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Many different things – from not enough money to complaints by people who thought it was wrong to do such research – made the research difficult

Ghi nhớ:

Nhóm 06: contrast, discrepancy, gap

1 contrast: sự đối chiếu, sự tương phản

Ngữ cảnh 01:

There was a sharp contrast between life before the oil boom and life afterward

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The way people lived in this area before they began getting a lot of money from oil was greatly different from the way they lived after, and the differences were very clear

Ngữ cảnh 02:

In contrast to its neighbours, Bangsa refused to bring in foreign workers to solve its labour shortage

Diễn đạt tương đương:

Unlike other nearby countries, Bangsa would not import a lot of workers from other countries to make up for a lack of local workers

Ghi nhớ:

* Thường có các tính từ như clear, sharp, great đứng trước

* Có thể dùng với các giới từ between hoặc among

* Cấu trúc câu: In contrast to …

* Khia là động từ có dùng với cấu trúc câu to contrast with (= to stand in

sharp contrast with/to … e.g “Life after the oil boom stands in contrast with life before”)

2 discrepancy: sự không nhất quán, sự trái ngược, sự khác biệt

Diễn đạt tương đương:

The people who examine accounts discovered a big difference