Thỉnh cầu trong bộ sách giáo khoa tiếng anh dành cho trường trung học cơ sở một nghiên cứu dựa trên lí thuyết ngữ dụng học
INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
English is a global language widely spoken across many countries In Vietnam, it is a fundamental and mandatory subject in the education system, playing a crucial role in overall education.
English in schools serves as a vital communication tool, enabling students to acquire advanced scientific knowledge and technology while exploring diverse cultures globally It enhances language thinking and supports the teaching of Vietnamese, fostering innovative teaching methods and integrating content across various subjects Additionally, English plays a crucial role in shaping students' personalities and achieving comprehensive educational goals within the school system.
To effectively learn English, having a standard set of textbooks is essential Vellenga (2004) highlights that textbooks serve as crucial instructional materials, forming the backbone of foreign language education Meihami and Khanlarzadeh (2015) note that English textbooks equip learners with both grammatical and lexical knowledge, while also offering pragmatic content vital for successful language acquisition Furthermore, Glaser (2009) underscores that a high level of pragmatic competence significantly enhances communication in second language contexts.
This study emphasizes the significance of pragmatic content in creating second language materials for English learners It investigates the use of pragmatic requests in English textbooks designed for lower secondary schools in Vietnam, focusing on the theme of "Requesting in the English Textbook."
Series for Lower Secondary Schools in Vietnam: A Study Based on Pragmatics Theory”.
Aims and objectives of the study
This study aims to investigate the distribution of pragmatic content, specifically requests, in the English textbook series for lower secondary schools in Vietnam, which includes Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9.
To fulfill the above aim, the study sets for itself the following objectives:
- To explore types of request strategies used in the English textbook series for lower secondary schools in Vietnam
- To explore the ways that these strategies are employed
Research questions
This study is intended to address the following research questions:
(1) What are types of request strategies used in English textbook series for lower secondary schools in Vietnam?
(2) How are these strategies employed?
Scope of the study
This study focuses on the series of four English textbooks used in lower secondary schools in Vietnam: Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9, authored by Hoàng Văn Vân et al and published by Nhà xuất bản giáo dục in 2020 These textbooks were chosen for their ability to equip learners with essential skills and strategies for exams through research, presentations, and projects They serve as a foundational resource for advancing English proficiency at higher levels.
This research aims to investigate the various request strategies and contextual information present in dialogues from the Ministry of Education and Training's (MOET) English textbooks for lower secondary schools in Vietnam.
Methods of the study
The currency study selected Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng
Anh 9 used in lower secondary schools in Vietnam to explore types of request strategies and the contextual information found in dialogues in the English textbook series Both quantitative and qualitative researches were employed in this study The research employed content analysis technique In other words, the research based itself on the data collected from these English textbooks to analyze types of request strategies and the contextual content used in the dialogues of the textbooks.
Significance of the study
This study offers valuable insights into the pragmatics of requests as presented in English textbooks for lower secondary schools in Vietnam These textbooks serve as essential resources for both learners and teachers, aiding students in developing strong English language skills Furthermore, the inclusion of pragmatic knowledge in materials like Tiếng Anh 6 enhances the understanding of language use among both students and educators.
7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9 From that, they can learn and teach English language better
The study's results contribute to empirical research on teaching English as a foreign language, highlighting the importance of pragmatics for non-native English teachers By raising awareness of pragmatic information in textbooks, teachers can enhance classroom instruction and improve learners' communicative competence Additionally, the findings provide insights into the development of learners' pragmatic skills in schools This information is valuable for program developers, textbook writers, and publishers, guiding the creation of future textbooks that equip learners for real-life communication.
Design of the study
This research is divided into five chapters, including chapter 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 Each part is deployed into different sections:
Chapter 1- Introduction presents of the rationale to the study, aims and objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, methods, and the significance of the study
Chapter 2 - Literature review includes textbook, politeness, pragmatics theory, requests, and modifications
Chapter 3- Methodology provides information about research design, research instruments, date and date sources, and the technique for data collection, techniques for data analysis employed for the research
Chapter 4- Findings and discussion presents related to research questions, analyzes types of request strategies found in the English textbooks Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9, the contextual information of dialogues and listening transcripts in the textbooks and the summary of the chapter,
Chapter 5- Conclusions and recommendations of the research provides a recapitulation of the main points given in the study, gives some limitations of the study, some implications for English teachers and material develops, for researches and recommendations for further research
LITERATURE REVIEW
Textbook
A textbook is a fundamental resource widely recognized by educators in schools, serving multiple purposes According to Ur (1996), it is a course book that both teachers and students typically possess, intended to be systematically followed as the foundation of a language course Hutchinson & Torres (1994) describe it as a guide for teachers, a memory aid for students, and a permanent record of learning Graves (2000) emphasizes that while course books are designed for both learners and teachers, it is essential for educators to comprehend the materials they utilize Additionally, Tomlinson (2011) highlights the textbook as a crucial tool that assists teachers in facilitating student learning.
The author asserts that textbooks serve as essential tools for teachers to convey knowledge to students While they should function as guidebooks rather than mandatory resources in foreign classrooms, the teaching of English and other subjects in Vietnam remains heavily reliant on textbooks.
Politeness
Brown and Levinson (1987) defined politeness as the act of maintaining the hearer's face, which involves not imposing on them and gaining their approval They proposed that face consists of two types of wants: ego-preserving and public-self-preserving Ego-preserving wants relate to the desire to avoid being imposed upon, generating a negative face, while public-self-preserving wants pertain to the desire for social approval, resulting in a positive face Both types reflect individuals' aspirations to be recognized as contributing members of society.
During the last thirty years, the linguistic politeness phenomena have been researched from the various perspectives Among many studies in this field, Brown
Levinson's politeness theory (1987) holds significant importance in the field of politeness research This paper builds upon Brown and Levinson's framework, which views politeness phenomena as linguistic strategies aimed at mitigating face-threatening acts.
Brown and Levinson (1987) identify four key strategies of human politeness behavior: bald on record, off-record (indirect strategy), negative politeness strategy, and positive politeness strategy They discuss the typical features of each strategy, highlighting major distinctions and specific politeness tactics associated with them.
On their point of view, Brown and Levinson (1987) claimed that:
• The bald on-record strategy does nothing to minimize threats to the hearer‘s ―face‖ and avoid FTAs
• Off-record indirect strategies: an FTA is avoided by not (literally) making a request at all but an indirect statement that must be inferred to be a request by the hearer
• The positive politeness strategy shows the speaker recognize that the hearer has a desire to be respected It also confirms that the relationships are friendly and expresses group reciprocity
• The negative politeness strategy also recognizes the hearer‘s face But it also recognizes that the speaker is in some way imposing on that face.
Pragmatics theory
Pragmatics is defined as the study of language use, emphasizing the equal importance of linguistic structure and the context of speech Various definitions have been suggested to explain pragmatics and pragmatic competence.
Yule (2006) describes this field as the exploration of a speaker's intended meaning, emphasizing the importance of understanding what is implied rather than explicitly stated.
Pragmatics explores the systematic relationship between what is intended and what is literally said by examining what inferences can be made from a
Pragmatics, once viewed as a chaotic realm of nonverbal cues, is evolving into a more structured field that interacts effectively with linguistic subsystems The meaning of sentences in specific contexts is influenced by the speaker and the discourse participants, highlighting the importance of understanding these dynamics in communication.
Morris (1938) defined pragmatics as "the science of the relationship of signs to their interpreters," situating it within the broader field of semiotics (p 30) Since then, numerous linguists and researchers, including Crystal (1997), Ferrara (1985), and Leech (1983), have proposed various definitions of pragmatics, reflecting its multifaceted nature The diversity in definitions arises from the complexity of the discipline itself, which explores the interplay between meaning and context, as well as the differing models and theories that inform the study of pragmatics (Chapman, 2011).
Levinson (1983, p 5) and Verschueren (1999, p 1) defined pragmatics as
Pragmatics can be defined as "the study of language use," which serves as a straightforward and widely accepted starting point for understanding the field However, this basic definition lacks the depth needed to address the complexities of pragmatics, prompting the development of more nuanced definitions in response to criticism.
Leech (1983) redefined pragmatics for the purposes of linguistics as ―the study of meaning in relation to speech situations‖ (p 6) Leech (1983) and Thomas
In 1983, Leech divided pragmatics into two branches: pragmatic linguistics and sociopragmatics Pragmatic linguistics focuses on the linguistic aspects of pragmatics, examining how grammar and specific linguistic resources enable speakers to express communicative behaviors and interpersonal meanings On the other hand, sociopragmatics pertains to the sociological interface of pragmatics, emphasizing the relationship between language and social context.
Sociolinguistics focuses on linguistic forms and functions, while pragmatics emphasizes appropriate social behaviors (Thomas, 1983) This distinction is crucial as it highlights two levels of language use: grammatical correctness and social appropriateness in communication (Leech, 1983).
Pragmatics is defined as ―the systematic study of the relationships between the linguistic properties of speech and their properties as social action‖ (Ferrara,
According to Ferrara (1985), for speech acts such as affirmations, imperatives, promises, questions, or requests to be valid, they must meet specific linguistic and contextual criteria This definition highlights the significance of social factors in the study of communication.
Mey (1993) defines pragmatics as the study of language use in human communication shaped by social conditions, highlighting that language users rely on their social backgrounds and access to communication resources He underscores the significance of context in language use, distinguishing between social contexts, which are influenced by societal institutions, and social contexts, which emerge through interaction.
Textbooks play a crucial role in teaching pragmatics in EFL contexts by offering essential knowledge and skills in the target language that may be otherwise unavailable to learners and teachers (Kim & Hall, 2002) However, the quantity and quality of pragmatic information in these resources are often found to be inadequate.
Crandall and Basturkmen (2004) reviewed several major textbooks for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) They argue that the conventional approach
Many speaking textbooks fall short in enhancing students' pragmatic competence, as they primarily offer lists of "helpful expressions" for various speech acts These lists tend to focus on clear and direct speech acts, neglecting the more subtle and indirect forms of communication Additionally, the context in which these expressions are used is often overlooked, leaving students unaware of when and why to perform specific speech acts or which expressions are suitable for particular situations.
Bardovi-Harlig et al (1991) analyzed the concluding dialogues in 20 ESL textbooks, identifying three essential components: terminal exchange, pre-close, and closure Their findings revealed that only 12 textbooks featured at least one complete closure, with just one textbook consistently including them The researchers noted that the dialogues primarily aimed to introduce new grammatical structures rather than serve as authentic conversational input for learners As a result, they concluded that many commercially available English materials fail to offer natural or realistically appropriate conversation models for students.
Akutsu (2006) examined 15 Oral Communication textbooks from 2002 used in Japan's high school English curriculum, focusing on strategies to enhance English language skills and communication competence The analysis revealed insufficient distribution of strategies, language forms, and sentences, indicating a need for improvement in the textbooks to meet the required speech acts Notably, there was a lack of contextual information regarding the use of linguistic forms Previous research indicates that native English speakers frequently employ indirect request strategies (House & Kasper, 1987; Tanaka & Kawade, 1987) In contrast, the Oral Communication A textbooks overemphasized direct strategies and variations while underrepresenting the necessary indirect strategies.
Requests
The term ―request‖ has been widely used inconsistently with the term
"directive" As stated before, the concept of "directive" can be understood as the speaker's attempt to get the listener to do something Some linguists consider
The term "request" is often debated in its classification, with some scholars viewing it as a subtype of directive, while others consider it a directive in its own right (Anderson, 1978; James, 1978; Schmidt, 1983) Frasher (1975, in Achiba, 2003) and House and Kasper (1987, in Achiba, 2003) discuss threat verbs that express directives related to requests Additionally, Becker (1982, in Achiba, 2003) defines a request as an utterance aimed at indicating the speaker's desire to influence the listener's behavior, specifically to prompt the listener to take action.
Becker's (1982) definition of requirement reinforces the argument that it is possible and appropriate to equate "instruction" as defined by Searle (1979) and Yule (1996) with the term "requirement"
A request is defined as an illocutionary act in which the speaker communicates to the listener a desire for them to perform an action that benefits the speaker (Trosborg, 1995, in Soler & Jorda, 2007).
Requests can be seen as face-threatening acts that jeopardize the social standing of both the speaker and the listener, as highlighted by Brown and Levinson (1987) When a speaker makes a request, they inherently challenge the listener's autonomy and right to choose, which can lead to feelings of imposition (Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984).
(1982, in Achiba, 2013) suggests that the term ―request‖ is more common than the term directives
There are three types of request strategies, namely direct request strategies, conventional indirect strategies, and non-conventional indirect strategies
Direct strategies refer to statements where the speaker's intention aligns with the meaning conveyed (Holtgraves, 1986) For instance, a speaker will explicitly state a request when making one These strategies are typically employed by individuals in positions of authority and communicate a single propositional meaning There are five types of direct request strategies: elliptic/imperative phrases, explicit execution, protected execution, obligation statements, and wish statements.
Direct requests often utilize linguistic indicators to convey non-revolutionary power, primarily through derived imperatives or moods For instance, a request like "close the window" demonstrates authority, especially when the requester holds power over the recipient, compelling compliance Common examples include commands from teachers to students, parents to children, and bosses to employees (Trosborg, 1995) To soften commands, one can add a question tag or the word "please," while elliptical forms, such as "two cups of tea, please," also represent direct requests.
Activities can serve as an effective strategy for making requests, utilizing verbs such as "ask," "request," and "command" to clearly indicate the intention behind the statement There are two main types of request performances: explicit operations and hedging representations Explicit operations are authoritative statements that may come off as impolite in informal contexts, such as "I asked you to clean your room." In contrast, hedging representations allow the requester to soften their demands, as seen in the phrase "I want to ask you to move that car," which employs a protective execution strategy.
12 modified by a hedging expression Fence verb indicating intent to request is modified by a modal verb or an intent verb showing some courtesy in the act of asking
A direct approach to conveying a claim involves using statements that express obligation or necessity This strategy highlights the listener's responsibility to carry out the requested action.
The request to "move that car" remains direct despite its softer phrasing, indicating that even when expressed gently, the speaker maintains personal authority Additionally, when individuals articulate a statement of obligation or necessity, they reinforce their authoritative stance.
Modal verbs like "should" and "must" indicate moral obligations, with "must" denoting external obligations and "should" representing internal ones typically imposed by the claimant Statements of obligation highlight the responsibilities of individuals required to act, often articulated by those in positions of higher authority.
The want statement is the weakest direct strategy for making requests, as it expresses the speaker's needs and desires that the requestee can fulfill This type of statement can be articulated as a wish, such as "I really wish you would stop complaining," or more directly as a request, like "I want you to be quiet." However, want statements are often perceived as impolite unless modified with polite markers, such as "please," which can transform them into pleas, for example, "please, please, I want to see that movie" (Trosborg, 1995).
The conventional indirect request strategy involves making a request in a way that is not straightforward, where the requester's intent and the literal meaning of the words differ, allowing for multiple interpretations According to Blum-Kulka et al (1989), these strategies are characterized by their indirectness and complexity.
"strategies that perform an action by reference to the contextual preconditions
Indirect request strategies often involve ambiguity and pragmatic duality, as speakers may prefer to ask indirectly to preserve the face of others In English, requests can be expressed through imperatives, interrogatives, and statements However, in Moroccan Arabic, the use of imperatives can lead to awkwardness in polite requests, as they are perceived as more polite compared to their English counterparts This highlights the importance of understanding pragmatic conventions in making requests across different languages.
Conventional indirect request strategies are categorized into suggestion formulation and query preparation In suggestion formulation, the requester presents the request as a suggestion, prompting the listener to act, as seen in the example, "What about washing dishes?" Conversely, query preparation involves the requester referencing preparatory conditions related to the listener's ability or readiness to fulfill the request According to Blum-Kulka et al (1987), this strategy includes questions that imply the feasibility of the request rather than directly stating it Verbs such as "could," "can," and "would" are used to express ability, permission, and willingness in this context.
Non-conventional indirect requesting strategies involve various forms of language or suggestions that allow the requester to avoid direct responsibility for their request (Blum-Kulka et al., 1987) These strategies offer two key advantages: they enable the requester to obscure their true intentions and rely on hints that can be interpreted in multiple ways, requiring the listener to infer the actual request.
The requester can effectively address negative aspects more than through negative politeness strategies, as hints represent an "off record" approach that is generally more polite than "on-record" strategies (Brown & Levinson, 1987) Additionally, Blum-Kulka (1982) indicates that both Hebrew native speakers and Americans favor indirect request strategies for suggestions due to their lack of pragmatic clarity and significant pragmatic power Ervin-Tripp (1976) further notes that hints are commonly used among close families and community groups, making it challenging to classify suggestions as the most polite form of request.
Modifications
External modifications, as classified in Blum-Kulka et al (1989) CCSARP coding scheme, are supportive moves that can be positioned before or after the head act to mitigate the illocutionary force of a request These modifications can either soften or emphasize the overall force of the request The classification of external modifications includes various types that serve these functions.
- Preparator (e.g ―Hey, you had this management class, right?‖)
- Grounder (e.g ―I wasn‘t in class the other day because I was sick.‖)
- Disarmer (e.g ―I know this is short notice‖)
- Promise of Reward (e.g ―I‘ll buy you dinner.‖)
- Imposition Minimizer (e.g ―I will return them in an orderly fashion.‖)
- Sweetener (e.g ―Today‘s class was great.‖)
- Pre-pre strategy (e.g ―Hello sir, how are you today? ‖)
- Self-introduction (e.g ―Hey, I‘m in your politics class.‖)
- Confirmatory strategy (e.g ―I would be grateful if you could help me.‖)
- Getting a pre-commitment (e g., ―Could you do me a favor? …‖)
- Apology (e.g ―I‘m sorry I can‘t give you the lesson on Monday.‖)
External modifications play a crucial role in shaping the illocutionary force of requests by either softening or emphasizing them, as noted by Balman and Lee (2020) Unlike internal modifications, which alter the utterance itself, external modifications influence the contextual elements surrounding the request This can occur both before and after the main request, as illustrated in the example: "I know you are busy, but can you check the last draft I sent last week? The deadline is approaching, and I need your feedback." Here, the phrase "I know you are busy, but" acts as a disarmer, helping to alleviate any potential objections from the hearer, while the grounder provides necessary context for the request, explaining its urgency.
According to Blum-Kulka et al (1989) in the CCSARP coding scheme, internal modifications are categorized as supportive moves that either mitigate (down graders) or enhance (up graders) the illocutionary force of requests External modifications are classified differently.
- Play-down (e.g ―I was wondering if I could join your study group.‖)
- Conditional (e.g ― if you have time.‖)
- Politeness marker (e.g ―Can I please have an extension on this paper?‖)
- Embedding (e.g ―It‘d be great if you could put this on the door.‖)
- Understate (e.g ―If you have a minute, could you help me with this stuff?‖)
- Appealer (e.g ―I need your computer to finish my assignments, okay?‖)
- Downtoner (e.g ―Is there any way I could get an extension?‖)
- Consultative Device (e.g ―Would you mind lending me a hand?‖)
- Adverbial intensifier (e.g ―I would be most grateful if you could let me use your article.‖)
Internal modifications are defined as elements within the head act of a request that are not essential for the utterance to be understood as a request (Blum-Kulka et al., 1989) These modifications can function as down graders, which soften requests, or as upgraders, which intensify their coerciveness Internal modifiers may include syntactic down graders like interrogatives, conditionals, negations, and past tense, as well as lexical and phrasal down graders Lexical/phrasal down graders serve as optional additions that soften the imposition of a request through specific word choices (Blum-Kulka et al., 1989) For example, the term 'possibly' in the request 'Can you possibly check my last draft I sent last week?' helps to soften the request This study specifically focuses on internal modifications related to lexical/phrasal down graders and upgraders.
Related previous studies
Numerous studies have examined the pragmatic knowledge present in business English textbooks utilized across various countries, specifically within English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) programs Despite their widespread use, these L2 textbooks have faced criticism for lacking essential pragmatic content.
17 learners with appropriate and complete input (Akutsu, 2008; Shimizu, Fukusawa, & Yonekura, 2007; Vellenga, 2004; Yang, 2007)
Vellenga (2004) performed a comprehensive study analyzing eight textbooks designed for intermediate ESL and EFL learners The textbooks were chosen based on an informal survey of leading publishers, focusing on four integrated skills EFL texts.
The investigation of four ESL grammar texts revealed a significant deficiency in both metallographic and metaphysical information, with minimal pragmatic content across all analyzed materials While EFL texts contained a higher percentage of pages with pragmatic information, the quality, particularly regarding speech acts and practical signals, was superior compared to ESL texts Notably, discussions on metaphorical aspects of politeness and modesty were largely absent in various speech behaviors Additionally, the teacher handbooks mirrored this lack of metaphysical content found in student textbooks Teacher interviews highlighted that three out of four educators incorporated supplementary activities, yet these rarely addressed pragmatic topics, indicating that the textbooks primarily serve as the main input for learners.
Shimizu, Fukasawa, and Yonekura (2007) conducted a study on the introduction and practice of speech behavior in the Oral Communication 1 textbook used in Japan, focusing on EFL contexts Unlike Vellenga's (1994) research, this investigation analyzed 17 textbooks approved by MEXT (Ministry of Education, Sports, Culture, Science and Technology) The study emphasized the pragmatic feature of speech behavior, calculating the number of verbal action and response patterns presented in the textbooks to assess the clarity of pragmatic information.
Each textbook contains a limited number of speech acts, as analyzed in the variation of language forms and exercises for practicing these acts This aligns with Vellega's (2004) findings, indicating that while students encounter these speech acts, the linguistic variations presented are minimal Furthermore, the metaphysical information provided is lacking in both quantity and quality, resulting in fewer opportunities for students to practice the speech acts and forms they have recently learned.
A study by Ji (2007) in the EFL context conducted a content analysis of the textbook "College English Speaking and Listening Course (new) (books 1-4)" to examine the materials and pragmatic tasks it offers The findings aligned with previous research, highlighting the characteristics of the textbook created by a team of Chinese authors.
The research conducted by English professors and published by Shanghai Foreign Education and Training Publishing House from 2001-2003 focuses on third-year college students and incorporates pragmatic information adapted from Vellega (2004) It covers various aspects such as exclusivity, relevance, formality, registration, culture, metaphysical information, metallic language, speech acts, and pragmatically oriented tasks The study employs quantitative data to analyze percentages and varieties of pragmatic information in textbooks, while qualitative data examines the nature and richness of this information Findings indicate that the pragmatic content in the textbooks is limited in variety, with most metaphorical explanations being simplistic Furthermore, the authors of college English textbooks have not adequately considered the distribution of pragmatic information across course materials, particularly in the four Listening and Speaking courses.
The previous studies have shown somethings about pragmatic information in the books, such as practice of speech behavior in textbooks, limited pragmatic
This research addresses the absence of studies on the types of request strategies utilized in English textbooks, particularly focusing on lower secondary school materials in Vietnam It aims to explore the various request strategies present in these textbooks and examine their application.
The way to employ request strategies
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This research utilizes both qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze request strategies in the textbooks Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9 The quantitative approach focuses on counting the number of request strategies and assessing the availability of contextual information In contrast, the qualitative method aims to provide a verbal description of the findings.
Qualitative research is a form of scientific inquiry aimed at clarifying research questions through systematic procedures (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005) It involves collecting evidence that leads to results applicable beyond the immediate study context This method focuses on understanding problems from the participants' perspectives, effectively gathering insights into their values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts (Crow, 2013) Maxwell (2013) emphasizes that qualitative research explores meanings, motives, and beliefs, delving into complex relationships and phenomena that cannot be simplified to mere variables Both qualitative and quantitative methods have their advantages and disadvantages, prompting researchers to carefully consider their objectives when selecting the most suitable approach.
According to Yilmaz (2013), a quantitative study is the study of the use of mostly statistical methods to quantify measure, reflect, and interpret relationship
Quantitative research focuses on measuring variables through numerical data, aiming to generalize findings using randomization and representative sampling (Cresswell, 2010) This method effectively describes the distribution of characteristics within a study and examines relationships and causal links between variables One significant advantage is its ability to collect data from a large number of respondents, making it ideal for thesis work However, Muji (2010) identifies limitations, including the inability to clarify human behavior phenomena, the influence of various factors that may compromise objectivity, and the differing interpretations of standardized scales.
Research instruments
Instruments are essential tools and materials used by researchers to conduct studies and gather necessary information for analysis, leading to more accurate, comprehensive, and systematic results.
In this analysis, the researcher served as a crucial tool, actively involved in data collection, counting, classification, and analysis According to Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen (2010), the researcher's role was fundamental in obtaining and interpreting the data.
424), ―human investigator is the primary instrument for the gathering and analysing of data‖ As cited in Ary, Jacobs, and Sorense (2010), Lincoln and Guba (1985) say,
Only a human instrument can capture the complexity of human experience, adapting and responding to the environment According to Merriam (2009), humans can enhance their understanding through both verbal and nonverbal communication, allowing them to clarify, summarize, and verify interpretations In this study, textbooks serve as crucial tools for the researcher to identify various request strategies and their application within a pragmatic context, specifically focusing on "Tiếng Anh 6" and "Tiếng Anh."
7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9
Data and data sources
The researcher gathered data comprising words, phrases, clauses, and sentences presented in dialogues, focusing on requests conveyed in both listening and speaking sections The listening sections feature transcripts, while the speaking sections consist of dialogues, both of which must include requests Additionally, the research data encompasses dialogues and contextual information, including the names of participants, for thorough analysis.
Data was gathered from lower secondary English textbooks, specifically Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9 These textbooks were selected due to their diverse authorship and the inclusion of numerous listening transcripts and dialogues.
In addition, these English textbooks are published by MoET (Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training) Vietnam Education Publishing House – the most prestigious education publishing house in Vietnam
The titles of the English textbooks for secondary level as the data source of the research are below:
(1) Tiếng Anh 6 - Sách học sinh by Hoàng Văn Vân et al (2020)
(2) Tiếng Anh 7 - Sách học sinh by Hoàng Văn Vân et al (2020)
(3) Tiếng Anh 8 - Sách học sinh by Hoàng Văn Vân et al (2020)
(4) Tiếng Anh 9 - Sách học sinh by Hoàng Văn Vân et al (2020)
There are three dialogues extracted from Tiếng Anh 6, three others from Tiếng Anh 7, one from Tiếng Anh 8, and one from Tiếng Anh 9
The reason for choosing dialogues in these textbooks is that these dialogues can present context, emotions of the characters in these textbooks Therefore, pragmatic content can be easily understood
Techniques for data collection
The researcher played a crucial role in data collection for the study by downloading soft copies of four English textbooks: Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9 The researcher thoroughly examined dialogues containing requests, which were intended for listening and speaking materials Subsequently, the data was selected, classified, and organized into tables, leading to a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the findings.
Techniques for data analysis
The researcher employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods for data analysis The quantitative approach focused on measuring the various types of request strategies and contextual information present in the dialogues of the textbooks In contrast, the qualitative method aimed to describe and interpret the findings derived from the analysis.
In this study, the researcher employed the concept of deduction, which Saldana (2011, p.93) defines as the conclusions drawn from established facts and evidence This approach involves utilizing pre-existing theories and coding schemes for data analysis Specifically, a modified taxonomy was used, combining elements from Blum Kulka, House, and Kasper (1989) and Soler, Jorda, and Flor (2005) to code request strategies, alongside a taxonomy proposed by Brown and Levinson (1987) for coding contextual information.
The researcher followed the style of Wolcott (1994) in analyzing data in qualitative method Wolcott (1994) recognized three dimensions of qualitative method, including description, analysis, and interpretation
This research centers on the data derived from observations to address the question: "What is happening here?" The findings are illustrated through the dialogues presented at this stage.
Request strategies were explored and explained, especially the peripheral modifications, and the contextual information which existed in dialogues
The analysis of request strategies and contextual information was interpreted in this stage
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Results
4.1.1 Types of request strategies found in Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9
Table 4.1 Number of occurrences of the request strategies
Type of request strategies Direct request (DR) 46
Conventional indirect request (CIR) 96 Non-conventional indirect request (NCIR) 1
Table 4.1 displays the number of request strategies used in dialogues in
Tiếng Anh 6, Tiếng Anh 7, Tiếng Anh 8, and Tiếng Anh 9 The results show that there were over 143 requests used in the dialogues of English textbook Tiếng Anh 6,
In the English textbooks for grades 7, 8, and 9, there are a total of 96 occurrences of conventional indirect request strategies found in dialogues In contrast, direct request strategies are represented with 46 occurrences.
The selected textbooks include non-conventional indirect request strategies, utilizing interrogative forms with preceding words such as "can" and "could."
Requests using "will/would" and "let's" exemplify common forms of indirect speech acts that necessitate both a response and an action Trosborg (1995) and Yule (1996) assert that indirect speech acts tend to be more polite compared to their direct counterparts.
In selected English textbooks, non-conventional indirect request strategies are rarely used, with only one occurrence out of 143 requests This low frequency is attributed to the textbooks' focus on providing clear and pedagogically accessible examples Carter (1998) suggests that incorporating questions and answers in language learning materials enhances effectiveness, as they are closely related and facilitate better understanding for learners.
Table 4.1 also displays the number of modifications used in making requests
The term "attention-getter" appears most frequently in the analysis, with 34 occurrences, highlighting its role in various functions such as commands, invitations, and suggestions This modification aims to capture the audience's attention during speeches Following closely, the modification "please" ranks second with 45 occurrences, underscoring its importance as a common and significant modifier in English requests.
Table 4.1 highlights the modification known as the "promise of a reward," which is notably absent in dialogues from the selected English textbook As noted by Soler, Jorda, and Flor (2005), this modification aims to provide a reward contingent upon the fulfillment of requests Trosborg (1995) contended that such modifications could enhance the likelihood of compliance.
In this study, "requests" are defined as those that utilize the "promise of a reward" to effectively impose the speaker's desires on the listener.
4.1.1.1 Direct request strategies a) When someone coming to house
Unit 1 – ―My New School‖ in Tiếng Anh 6, page 10 mentioned conversation between Phong, his mother, and Vy:
Phong: Oh, someone‘s knocking on the door
Phong’s Mum: Hi, Vy You‘re early Phong‘s having breakfast
Vy: Hi, Mrs Nguyen Oh dear, I‘m sorry I‘m excited about our first day at school
Phong’s Mum : Ha, I see Please, come in
Vy: Hi, Phong Are you ready?
The direct request strategies in the conversation among Phong, his mom and
In the sentence "Haha, I see Please, come in," Vy's invitation reflects a request rather than a command, indicating a friendly atmosphere The context reveals that Vy, Phong's friend, has arrived to invite him to school, and Phong's mom opens the door, welcoming her inside This interaction fosters a sense of comfort and belonging for Vy in Phong's home, contributing to a relaxed and friendly conversation among all participants.
Phong's mom's request to Vy, expressed as "please, come in," is straightforward and easily understood This invitation reflects a polite gesture, welcoming Vy into her home upon her arrival at Phong's house.
In Unit 2 of Tiếng Anh 6, titled "My Home," direct request strategies are illustrated through a conversation between Mi and her mother, highlighting effective communication techniques.
Mi: Mum, are you home?
Mum: Yes, honey I‘m in the kitchen I‘ve bought these new dishes and chopsticks
Mi: They‘ re beautiful, Mum Where did you buy them?
Mum: In the department store near out house There are a lot of interesting things for the home there
Mi: We need some pictures for the living room, Mum Do they have pictures in the store?
Mum: No, they don‘t But there are some ceiling lights We are buying two for the new apartment this week
Mi: We also need two new vases, Mum
Mum: That‘s true Let‘s go to the store this weekend
The conversation is between Mi and her Mum In this conversation, there is a
The "preparator" modifications highlight the elements utilized by the requester to formulate their requests For instance, the statement "There are a lot of interesting things for the home there" sets the context for the actual requests made, such as "we need some pictures for the living room" and "we also need two new vases, Mum." These requests exemplify direct request strategies, illustrating how specific needs are communicated effectively.
In Mi's request, she articulates her desires using the term "need," which highlights her wants This construction does not take the form of an imperative or performative statement; rather, it is expressed as a "want statement."
The situation above has the actual request made by Mi is accompanied with a
―preparator‖ modification which is used to prepare her mother for head act Mi actually asks her mom to buy some pictures for the living room and two new vases
In fact, she does not do that; but she asks her mom by requesting her mom to buy Even though, in this case, Mi is inferior to her mom
Table 3.1 reveals that conventional indirect request strategies account for 106 occurrences, making them the most prevalent type of request This dominance can be attributed to their status as the most common form of indirect speech acts in English, typically structured as interrogatives The key interrogative words used in these requests include "can," "could," "will," "would," and "let's," which are positioned at the beginning of the sentences.
The conversation between Oanh and Mai in Tiếng Anh 7, part 2, Unit 7, page 6:
Oanh: I see Hey, Mai How about going cycling round the lake on
Mai: Great idea! Can you come to my house at 3 p.m.?
Oanh: Ok, Mai I can‘t wait! See you then
In a conversation between friends Oanh and Mai, they discuss their weekend plans, highlighting the sentence, "Great idea! Can you come to my house at 3 p.m.?" The phrase "great idea" serves as an attention getter, reflecting Mai's enthusiasm for Oanh's suggestion of cycling around the lake on Saturday This request not only expresses excitement but also draws Oanh's interest, while the use of "can" indicates a conventional indirect request strategy.
The "attention getter" effectively captures the listener's focus, as demonstrated when Mai expresses her agreement with Oanh's proposal In this context, the requester shares her plan to cycle around the lake over the weekend, prompting Oanh to invite Mai to join her for the ride Additionally, suggestions for enhancing the project presentation are also discussed.
The conversation between Nick and Mi in Tiếng Anh 8, part 2, Unit 7, page 6:
Mi: Bless you! what‘s the matter?
Nick: Thanks Ahchoo! I think there‘s air pollution here as well If the air wasn‘t dirty, I wouldn‘t sneeze so much Ahchoo!
Mi: I‘ve come up with an idea about our environmental project! How about giving a presentation about water and air pollution?
Nick: That‘s a good idea Let’s take some pictures of the factory and the lake to illustrate our presentation Ahchoo!