EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices of formative assessment – a study at a university in Hanoi, Vietnam = Nhận thức và thực hành của giáo viên tiếng Anh
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
The National Foreign Language Project 2020 and its extension, Project 2025, aim to align English language education in Vietnam with international standards This initiative emphasizes a learner-centered approach, particularly through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which enhances learner autonomy compared to traditional methods In this updated framework, teachers serve as mentors and facilitators, offering guidance and feedback, while students are encouraged to take an active role in their learning, understanding the purpose and methods to achieve their educational goals.
Despite ongoing efforts to improve teaching methods and assessment practices in Vietnam, the evolution of evaluation objectives and procedures has been slow According to the OECD report (2005), while Vietnam is working to enhance its evaluation frameworks for better student outcomes, it faces challenges such as aligning these frameworks, developing evaluation competencies, effectively using feedback, and addressing implementation issues Summative tests, which focus on knowledge-based assessment, continue to dominate in Vietnamese schools and persist in colleges and universities, even with their greater learning autonomy and student-centered approaches Hoang's (2016) research highlights that ineffective teaching methodologies and assessment, exacerbated by large class sizes and inadequate facilities, are significant weaknesses in nine Vietnamese universities.
The focus of assessment methods is predominantly on knowledge-based and mechanical techniques, emphasizing controlled test items such as vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, rather than on essential English communication skills like speaking, listening, and writing Consequently, summative assessments take precedence, with students' grades and progress largely determined by these tests, while formative assessment receives minimal attention.
Formative assessment plays a crucial role in fostering active learning and deep understanding among students Research by the Australian Education Research Organization (2021) indicates that formative assessment positively influences student performance in subjects such as mathematics, reading, writing, social science, and foreign languages The extensive work of Black and his colleagues, including studies from 1998 to 2018, highlights the significance of formative assessment in both general and higher education As a result, undergraduates are expected to enhance their skills and competencies through the support and feedback received from teachers, peers, and self-assessment during formative assessment processes.
Formative assessment offers significant benefits and can be effectively implemented worldwide; however, its adoption in schools is often hindered by social and cultural factors In South-East Asia, particularly Vietnam, Confucian and Buddhist values emphasize standardized exams and competitive testing, drawing considerable attention and resources from educational stakeholders, especially in higher education Research by Pham and Pham (2021) highlights that formative assessment practices in Vietnam encounter structural and cultural obstacles, such as established classroom norms and rules Additionally, Vietnamese EFL teachers have raised concerns regarding inadequate training and support Nevertheless, the study noted successful implementation of formative assessment in a higher education setting, attributed to effective strategies.
Cooperation and role negotiation among stakeholders are crucial in the implementation of formative assessment Research by Nguyen et al (2020) highlights that while formative assessment enhances student engagement, its effectiveness is influenced by factors such as class size, portfolios, and curriculum English teachers must effectively understand and utilize various formative assessment techniques in the classroom (Akter and Khan, 2020; Nurfiqah and Yusuf, 2020) Additionally, Johnson, Sondergeld, and Walton (2019) indicate that university educators are successfully integrating formative assessment elements However, foundational studies by Black and Wiliam (1998) and Hasim, Di, and Barnard emphasize the ongoing challenges in this area.
Research indicates that teachers often lack a solid understanding and effective practice of formative assessment, particularly in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Vietnam Studies show that EFL teachers at universities are hesitant to implement formative assessment due to concerns about workload and professional development Despite having positive views on formative assessment, high school teachers report infrequent usage Additionally, while group oral presentations are recognized for enhancing English-speaking skills, caution is advised against their overuse with low-level learners A study involving over 500 primary and secondary teachers reveals that those who regularly employ formative assessment techniques tend to be well-prepared and confident, understanding its importance for instructional adjustments However, the existing research on EFL teachers' perceptions and practices of formative assessment in Vietnam's tertiary education is limited and fragmented, highlighting the need for further investigation into the alignment between teachers' beliefs and actions, as well as the reasons behind any discrepancies.
Research aims, objectives, and questions
This study aims to explore the perceptions and practices of formative assessment among Vietnamese EFL teachers at a university in Hanoi, Vietnam The research focuses on understanding how these educators implement and view formative assessment in their teaching methodologies.
● Exploring the perceptions of formative assessment among Vietnamese EFL teachers at the university;
● Exploring the perceived practices of formative assessment among Vietnamese EFL teachers at the university;
● Exploring the possible relationship between the perceptions and practices of formative assessment of Vietnamese EFL teachers at the university
To fulfill the above aim and objectives, the following research questions are set out for exploration:
1 How do Vietnamese EFL teachers at the university perceive formative assessment?
2 How do Vietnamese EFL teachers at the university perceive their practices of formative assessment?
3 What is the possible relationship between the perceptions and perceived practices of formative assessment of Vietnamese EFL teachers at the university?
Scope of the research
This study investigates the perceptions and implementation of formative assessment by EFL teachers at a university in Hanoi, Vietnam It focuses on teachers' views regarding the purposes, timing, and techniques of formative assessment, along with the associated procedures, feedback, and student roles Additionally, the research explores the potential relationship between the teachers' beliefs and their actual practices in formative assessment.
This study is grounded in the formative assessment theory developed by Black and Wiliam (1998, 2010, 2016) and Black et al (2004), focusing on its characteristics, common techniques, and feedback strategies Data collection tools, including a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview protocol, are designed based on this theoretical framework Furthermore, the research incorporates the formative assessment processes and steps outlined by Simpson and McCulloch (as cited in Ruiz-Primo and Furtak, 2007), which align closely with Black and Wiliam's (2010) theory.
5 emphasize the cyclical nature of formative assessment, to develop several questionnaire items Detailed constructs of the questionnaire and interview will be discussed in Chapter III: Research methodology
This study examines the perspectives of thirty EFL instructors from a university in Hanoi through a questionnaire, followed by individual interviews with five selected participants By focusing solely on teachers, the research aims to gather essential insights into the design and implementation of assessment activities, which are critical for understanding the current challenges faced in the educational context Future research may consider exploring student perspectives to provide a more comprehensive view.
Significance of the research
This study offers valuable insights for EFL instructors aiming to enhance student learning outcomes through effective assessment techniques By referencing this research, teachers can gain a deeper understanding of the benefits, functions, strategies, and challenges associated with formative assessment in EFL contexts The findings encourage educators to apply formative assessment more effectively in their teaching and evaluation processes Furthermore, the study highlights the impact of teachers' perceptions on their formative assessment practices and provides actionable recommendations for improvement, prompting educators to reflect on their beliefs and experiment with new strategies Theoretically, this research enriches the literature on formative assessment by examining the perceptions and practices of Vietnamese university EFL teachers, establishing a potential connection between these perceptions and their assessment practices, and paving the way for future research in foreign language assessment.
Structure of the thesis
The thesis is divided into five main chapters as below:
Chapter I: Introduction outlines the rationale behind selecting this research topic, highlighting its practical relevance and identifying gaps in existing studies It clearly articulates the research aims, objectives, and questions, setting the foundation for the subsequent analysis.
6 includes the scope and the significance of the research
Chapter II of the literature review outlines and synthesizes essential concepts related to formative assessment, including its definitions, roles, and various types and techniques Furthermore, it examines previous research on the perceptions and practices of EFL teachers regarding formative assessment, both nationally and internationally.
● Chapter III: Research methodology – presents the research design including research participants, research setting, and data collection instruments – questionnaire and semi-structured interview; data collection procedure; and data analysis
● Chapter IV: Research results and discussion – focuses on presenting findings and discussing those findings obtained from the data analysis
● Chapter V: Conclusion and implications – summarizes the main outcomes of the study and offers implications with possible measures for educators.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An overall of assessment
Assessment in second/foreign language teaching is defined in various ways According to Bachman (2004), it involves systematically gathering information about language ability, learner attitudes, and educational levels Brown (2004) emphasizes that assessment is an ongoing process, where teachers can evaluate students through their responses, pronunciation, and written work, while students can also engage in self-assessment and peer-assessment Berry (2008) describes language assessment as a purposeful data collection process from multiple sources, including tests, to identify learner characteristics, which ultimately enhances teaching and learning The concepts of testing, assessment, and evaluation are interconnected, as test scores provide insights into student learning, helping teachers identify strengths and weaknesses, while evaluations determine if learning outcomes have been achieved.
Hattie and Jaeger (1998) emphasize the importance of assessment and feedback in the teaching and learning process, arguing that language assessment should focus on evaluating learning outcomes to enhance effective language acquisition Similarly, Wigglesworth (2008) supports this view, stating that language assessments must be crafted to measure learners' productive language skills through relevant tasks.
8 simulate real-world contexts Therefore, rather than assessing rote memorization of language facts, the focus should be on evaluating practical language skills
The primary aim of language assessment is to collect essential information that supports learners in improving their skills and aids teachers and administrators in evaluating learners' linguistic abilities, placement, and achievement in relation to curriculum objectives (Bachman and Palmer, 2010; Rea-Dickins and Gardner, 2000) According to Berry (2008) and Popham (2011), assessment fulfills various roles, such as providing performance evidence, assessing individual or system effectiveness, and promoting learning enhancement Assessments in education can be categorized into three main types, as noted by Miles (2022), Spark (2015), and Swearingen (2002).
● Diagnostic Assessment: This type of assessment is conducted prior to the learning activity It is termed „diagnostic‟ because the results help identify areas of focus for upcoming instruction
Formative assessment takes place during the learning process and is essential for guiding future steps for individual students or groups It is categorized as "assessment for learning," which includes both diagnostic and formative assessments that support decision-making throughout the learning journey Various methods and techniques for implementing formative assessment will be explored further.
Summative assessments are conducted after a learning activity to summarize what learners have understood, often serving as achievement tests like unit or end-of-course tests Unlike diagnostic and formative assessments, which focus on learning processes, summative assessments evaluate the outcomes of learning.
Figure 1: Three types of assessment (Miles, 2022)
Formative assessment
Formative assessment, as noted by Black and Wiliam (1998), lacks a universally accepted definition but is generally understood as an assessment focused on enhancing students' performance through the learning process Arrafii and Suhaili (2015) suggest that formative assessment shares similarities with diagnostic assessment However, Brookhart (2011) and the Assessment Reform Group (ARG) (2002) differentiate the two, stating that formative assessment aims to understand the current state of learning to identify improvement steps, while diagnostic assessment is conducted prior to instruction to inform teaching strategies.
Many scholars define formative assessment as a continuous process that allows both teachers and learners to adapt their approaches based on students' current performance Pat-El et al (2014) emphasize that this ongoing assessment occurs throughout the entire course, while Gipps and Pickering (2010) describe it as the evaluation and appraisal of students' progress.
10 work and using it to shape and improve students‟ competence Bell and Cowie
(2002) define formative assessment as the process of “gathering”, “interpreting” and
Formative assessment is a structured process where teachers and students utilize assessment evidence to modify learning and instruction, as highlighted by Popham (2008) According to Black and Wiliam (1998) and ARG (2002), formative assessment encompasses a comprehensive approach to enhancing student learning.
Classroom practice is essential for fostering student achievement, as it involves gathering, interpreting, and utilizing evidence by teachers, students, or peers This process enables informed decision-making regarding subsequent instructional steps, leading to more effective and evidence-based teaching strategies.
According to Black and Wiliam (2009), this definition points out the nature of formative assessment as below:
● The term “instruction” means the combination of both teaching and learning
● The instruction refers to any activity that is intended to create learning
● The “decisions” to make instructional adjustment are based on collected learning evidence
● Three agents of formative assessment including teachers, individual learners and peers are involved in the decision-making process
● Formative assessment is continuous and interactive
This study is grounded in the definition of formative assessment by Black and Wiliam (1998), which also serves as the basis for developing the questionnaire items Further details regarding this application will be outlined in Chapter III: Research Methodology.
For an assessment to be formative, it must deliver feedback highlighting the gap between the evaluated work and the required standards (Taras, 2008) According to Black and Wiliam (1998), effective feedback is essential for an assessment to qualify as formative, necessitating the use of diverse strategies in response to this feedback They further elaborate on this concept in their 2010 work, emphasizing the importance of incorporating varied approaches to enhance the assessment process.
Formative assessment is essential for adapting teaching to meet student needs, ultimately enhancing student achievement It involves eliciting and interpreting evidence of student performance to inform future learning stages, often through consultations with students or peers The effectiveness of classroom activities as formative assessments hinges on their purpose in providing feedback, which is a crucial component of the formative assessment process Feedback itself is recognized as a key technique in formative assessment, warranting further exploration in section 2.2.5.
2.2.2 Formative assessment vs summative assessment
Formative assessment involves collecting and analyzing information about student performance to provide feedback that enhances teaching and learning This process often includes interactive discussions among teachers, learners, and peers In contrast, summative assessment evaluates student achievements based on specific criteria at the end of a unit or course, with formal tests being the most common method Techniques for formative assessment include informal tests, quizzes, observations, portfolios, and self-assessments The relationship between formative and summative assessments is crucial, as all sources of information should be considered in evaluating learning Brown (2004) emphasizes that formative assessment is the most widely used method in classrooms, focusing on developing students' competencies and supporting their ongoing growth.
Formative and summative assessments, often perceived as contrasting concepts, are more accurately viewed as points on a spectrum Early interpretations of formative
Contemporary educational perspectives emphasize the cyclical relationship between formative and summative assessments, rather than viewing them as separate entities (Taras, 2005; Dolin et al., 2017) Formative assessments, which monitor individual student progress, can effectively prepare students for subsequent summative evaluations These assessments can share similar formats and be conducted simultaneously (Brookhart, 2008; Dolin et al., 2017) By integrating structured formative assessments throughout the course and conducting summative evaluations based on students' most recent or representative work, educators can create a cohesive assessment strategy This approach ensures that students are aware of the competencies and skills being taught, reducing any surprises during formal testing.
Black et al (2004) propose using summative tests for formative purposes to enhance classroom practice They suggest three strategies:
● Engaging students in reflective review of their work for effective revision planning
● Encouraging students to set and mark questions to understand the assessment process and refine their improvement efforts
● Promoting peer and self-assessment where students apply criteria to understand how to improve their work, including opportunities to revise examination answers in class
Therefore, summative tests should be a constructive part of the learning process
2.2.3 The role of formative assessment in EFL/ESL classes
Numerous studies highlight the effectiveness of formative assessment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes Research by Fuchs et al (1997) indicates that consistent feedback from assessments significantly benefits low-achieving or learning-impaired EFL students Additionally, integrating formative assessment into English writing classes enhances student learning outcomes.
Research indicates that collaborative activities significantly improve students' writing skills and self-confidence (Sadler, 1989; Nicol and Macfarlane‐Dick, 2006; Ho and Dang, 2019) Additionally, Vu (2021) emphasizes that group oral presentations are an effective formative assessment tool for enhancing students' English-speaking abilities.
Black and Wiliam (1998) posits that formative assessment is a valuable instrument for classroom evaluation, contributing to improved learners‟ academic performance
Formative assessment serves as a valuable alternative to traditional testing methods, enhancing the quality of education According to Black and Wiliam (2010), it is a crucial element of classroom activities that can significantly improve student achievement This assessment type allows teachers to monitor student progress effectively and supports the learning and teaching process Additionally, formative assessments help educators identify students' learning needs, facilitating the creation of more effective educational resources.
Formative assessment is a crucial strategy that helps educators identify students' learning challenges and enhance their teaching methods (Ruiz-Primo & Furtak, 2007) It provides valuable feedback for both teachers and students, allowing them to recognize gaps between teaching practices and expected learning outcomes (Heritage, as cited in Bailey, 2008) A deeper understanding of formative assessment can significantly influence EFL instructors' teaching methods (Akter & Khan, 2020) The teaching and learning framework supports the modification of instructional approaches to meet educational needs and standards (Black & Wiliam, 2010; Rivai et al., 2019) Additionally, formative assessment serves as a tool for measuring student accountability and improving teaching effectiveness (Black et al., 2006).
Fourteen instructors provide constructive feedback to enhance their teaching methods According to Gan, Liu, and Yang (2017), formative assessment is a developmental evaluation conducted during the teaching and learning process This approach aims to improve students' overall development by adapting various assessment techniques, monitoring instructional progress, and delivering timely feedback, thereby facilitating effective oversight of students' independent learning.
2.2.4 Process and steps of conducting formative assessment
Formative assessment is a cyclical process consisting of four key phases: planning the assessment, gathering evidence, interpreting the evidence, and utilizing the results, as outlined by Mavrommatis (1997) Different perspectives exist regarding the steps involved in this process.
Related studies about teachers‟ perceptions and practices of formative
The terms “perception,” “belief,” “view,” “understanding,” and “conception” are often used interchangeably, though they have distinct meanings In this study, the researcher employs these terms interchangeably to maintain coherence, with “perception” being the primary focus According to the Oxford Dictionary, perception is defined as “an idea, a belief, or an image someone has as a result of how they see or understand something.” Gould (2014) and Woods (2015) describe perception as involving three interactive processes: selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input Various factors, including psychological state, expectations, age, and culture, influence perception This research specifically examines teachers’ perceptions in relation to the use of formative assessment.
Educational practices are established activities or procedures related to educational tasks that are frequently utilized (Spector et al., 2016) These practices encompass all potential methods for students, including their benefits and drawbacks, participation in discussions, and punctuality in completing assignments (Benitez et al., 2015, as cited in Kirkgoz, Babanoglu, and Ağỗam, 2017).
Teachers' practices encompass the various methods, strategies, and techniques employed to deliver knowledge and skills to students (OECD, 2005) These practices can be classified into key areas, including classroom teaching, professional activities, and the overall classroom and school environment.
Language teachers' perceptions are multifaceted and influenced by various factors such as the subject matter, their teaching experience, and the educational context These perceptions play a significant role in shaping their teaching practices, highlighting the dynamic and sensitive nature of their professional insights (Zheng, 2015).
Teachers' practices are significantly influenced by their beliefs, attitudes, and values regarding teaching and learning (Guadu and Boersma, 2018; OECD, 2005) A thorough understanding and positive beliefs among instructors are crucial for reforming assessment policies, enabling them to adapt their teaching to meet students' needs and provide formative feedback to enhance learning (Lumpur, 2013) However, the implementation of formative assessment faces challenges, including ineffective teaching methods, inconsistent teacher awareness, inadequate feedback, and a tendency to prioritize summative over formative assessment (Arrafii and Sumarni, 2018; Black and Wiliam, 2010) In Vietnam, the educational system's focus on preparing students for national exams detracts from achieving the intended learning goals, leading teachers to concentrate on lesson plans aimed at exam success rather than utilizing formative assessment effectively (Sach, 2012; Aitken, 2000).
Research by Mohammed (2013) and others highlights the challenges of implementing formative assessment, primarily due to teachers' insufficient knowledge, confidence, and lack of training and support In Vietnam, the application of formative assessment has faced similar limitations, as noted by Tran (2014) and Can (2019).
Research on teachers' perceptions and practices regarding language assessment in EFL/ESL contexts is extensive, yet findings often vary Chan (2008) highlights that teachers' beliefs significantly influence their use of multiple assessments in instruction, demonstrating a positive correlation between beliefs and practices However, challenges such as time constraints, work overload, large class sizes, and time-consuming activities can hinder effective implementation.
Research indicates that EFL teachers in Indonesian vocational schools possess a solid understanding of formative assessment and frequently apply it in their classrooms (Akter and Khan, 2020) Similarly, Ethiopian instructors demonstrate positive beliefs about formative assessment and regularly incorporate its techniques in writing lessons (Guadu and Boersma, 2018) However, a lack of adequate understanding among teachers can impede the effective use of formative assessment in educational settings (Arrafii and Suhaili, 2015) Consequently, studies suggest a positive correlation between teachers' perceptions and their practices regarding language assessment, particularly formative assessment In essence, limited understanding tends to result in restricted practices, whereas a strong grasp of formative assessment can lead to its effective and consistent application.
Johnson, Sondergeld, and Walton (2019) found that American high school teachers possess varying levels of understanding regarding formative assessment, yet their perceptions and experiences do not significantly impact its usage in English classrooms Similarly, research on Turkish (ệnalan and Karagỹl, 2018) and Chinese teachers (Gan, Liu, and Yang, 2017) indicates that positive beliefs about formative assessment do not translate into effective assessment practices This suggests a disconnect between teachers' perceptions and their classroom actions Additionally, studies by Nurfiqah and Yusuf (2020) and Widiastuti et al (2020) reveal a negative correlation between teachers' beliefs and their implementation of formative assessment strategies Despite a solid understanding of formative assessment, Indonesian teachers often fail to apply it effectively, with many using it primarily for summative purposes Consequently, further research is needed to explore the relationship between teachers' understanding and their application of formative assessment.
In Vietnam, research on formative assessment in EFL classes has highlighted significant findings Nguyen and Tran (2017) utilized questionnaires and interviews to assess EFL teachers' perspectives on classroom speaking assessment, revealing a positive attitude towards speaking assessment but a lack of essential assessment knowledge for effective classroom implementation Similarly, Can (2019) examined university teachers' perceptions and practices of formative assessment in ESP classes, indicating a reluctance to adopt formative assessment due to increased workload and the need for professional development Additionally, a case study by Ta et al focused on EFL teachers' beliefs and practices regarding formative assessment in high schools in Vinh Long, further emphasizing the challenges faced in this area.
Despite positive views on formative assessment, teachers often underutilize it in the classroom (2018) A study by Vu (2021) highlights the effectiveness of group oral presentations as a formative assessment technique, noting that while both teachers and students appreciate its benefits for improving English-speaking skills, excessive reliance on this method may undermine the confidence of low-English-level learners Additionally, research by Ho and Dang (2019) demonstrates the advantages of online formative assessment in enhancing EFL students' writing achievements Le, Le, and Nguyen (2022) found a correlation between teachers' perceptions and their practices of formative assessment among over 500 EFL primary and secondary school teachers, indicating that those who frequently apply these techniques are better prepared and more confident in their teaching However, there remains a gap in research regarding EFL teachers' perceptions and practices in Vietnam's tertiary education, underscoring the need for further studies to enrich the literature in this field.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
Research on EFL teachers' perceptions and practices of classroom assessment has predominantly utilized qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches Quantitative methods, as noted by Muijs (2011), emphasize scientific and objective measurements through data from polls, questionnaires, or surveys, offering several advantages Firstly, they enable researchers to generalize findings based on scientific data Bryman (2001) asserts that these methods can validate predictive generalizations of theory Secondly, the use of statistical data, such as numbers and percentages, allows for efficient processing by computers, significantly reducing the time and effort required for data analysis Lastly, Lichtman (2013) emphasizes that the quantitative approach prioritizes theory testing, guiding researchers to adhere to clear guidelines and objectives rather than relying on conjecture.
Qualitative approaches gather and categorize data through open-ended questions and conversational communications (Denzin, 1994) These methods, which include interviews, focus groups, and observations, provide researchers with detailed insights into participants' opinions and experiences, helping to elucidate the reasons behind their actions Additionally, qualitative methods allow researchers to clarify their perspectives and definitions, reducing ambiguity in their findings (Leung, 2015) For example, terms like "neutral," "satisfactory," and "good" can be quite subjective in questionnaires.
Qualitative methods are essential for understanding individual perspectives, as each person measures their satisfaction differently By allowing participants to articulate their reasoning behind their choices or behaviors, researchers can gain deeper insights into their opinions.
This study utilizes a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques to enhance research reliability and depth According to Creswell (2015), integrating these methods with various data collection tools strengthens the study's robustness through triangulation, allowing qualitative findings to be validated by quantitative data This approach acknowledges the complexity of the research topic, as a single method may not suffice It also fosters development, where qualitative insights build upon quantitative results Given the research questions, relying solely on quantitative methods would hinder understanding the underlying reasons for practices and the connection between perceptions and practices Conversely, an exclusive qualitative approach may fail to reveal broader trends in teachers' perceptions and practices of formative assessment at the university level Therefore, a mixed methods strategy is deemed appropriate, employing questionnaires for identifying trends and in-depth interviews for detailed insights, effectively capturing teachers' perceptions and practices Additionally, the quantitative phase will inform participant selection for the qualitative phase.
This study utilizes a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques in line with Creswell's (2015) explanatory sequential design The research is conducted in two distinct phases.
The research process begins with a quantitative phase, where data is collected via a survey questionnaire and analyzed to produce statistical results This phase leads to both descriptive and inferential findings Following this, a qualitative phase involves gathering and analyzing qualitative data to identify patterns and themes After completing both phases, the qualitative and quantitative findings are synthesized, compared, and contrasted to derive significant conclusions The research design is illustrated in Figure 2 below.
Figure 3: Process of mixed-method research design (Creswell, 2015)
Research settings and participants
The study is conducted at a university in Hanoi, Vietnam's capital, which offers a range of multidisciplinary courses primarily focused on technology, including mechanical and electrical engineering, automobiles, and automation, alongside economics, banking, accounting, and business administration The students, all non-English majors, typically enter with A1-A2 level English proficiency according to the CEFR English is a compulsory subject for the first three years, requiring freshmen and sophomores to complete four foundational courses: Basic English 1 and 2 in the first year, followed by Basic English 3 and 4 in the second year.
28 equip students with essential English skills and help them reach B1 level in CEFR
In their third year, students are required to enroll in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses tailored to their majors, such as automobile students studying ESP for automobiles Each English course carries 6 credits, while ESP courses are valued at 3 credits To qualify for graduation, students must achieve a B1-level certificate, TOEIC scores of 450, or an equivalent qualification.
Students are required to complete 60 hours of basic English courses during their first two years at university, attending six 50-minute periods each week, divided into two sessions on different days Class sizes typically range from 35 to 40 students The curriculum includes two main exams: a mid-course test and an end-of-course test, along with two progress tests for each course, assessing all language elements and skills The exam questions are designed in accordance with the KET and PET formats for A2 and B1 levels of the CEFR.
The textbooks for the basic English courses are New Cutting Edge - Elementary (A1- A2 CEFR) and New Cutting Edge - Pre-intermediate (B1 CEFR), both published by
Longman The first-year students use the elementary textbook for Basic English 1 and
Basic English 2, and the second-year students use the pre-intermediate textbook for
Basic English 3 and Basic English 4 each utilize half of the textbook, which is structured into 15 modules Each module covers a specific topic and includes six key segments: "Language Focus," "Vocabulary," "Reading/Listening," and "Task."
The segments "Further skills" and "Study Practice Remember" outline the learning objectives for each module, which include grammar, vocabulary, reading/listening, speaking, and writing, and are clearly listed beneath the module title.
In the initial phase of data collection, thirty EFL instructors from the university participate by completing a questionnaire From this group, five teachers are randomly selected for in-depth interviews Participants have the option to withdraw at any time without any negative consequences, and to ensure confidentiality, pseudonyms are employed.
The real names and personal information of the 29 participants are kept strictly confidential Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of these individuals, including their gender, academic qualifications, and teaching experience.
Table 2: Demographic information of 30 teacher participants
The data indicates that there are significantly more female teachers than male teachers, with a ratio of five to one The majority of these educators hold master's degrees, while those with bachelor's degrees are actively pursuing master's courses as mandated by the university Additionally, there is a considerable variation in teaching experience among the teachers, with differences exceeding five years Notably, only one-sixth of the teachers have between 10 years and less than 15 years of experience.
15 years of teaching, which is half of those with 5 to 10 years and a third of those with less than 5 years
A single teacher can instruct several courses at the same time, with the number of teachers assigned to each course varying each semester or year based on the demand for English classes Teachers are allocated to courses according to the number of students and classes each term, and they may also help prepare resources and materials for their respective courses.
Data collection instruments
This study employs a questionnaire and interviews, all conducted in English, to address three research questions The questionnaire primarily yields quantitative data, whereas the teacher interviews provide qualitative insights.
30 questionnaire is sent and returned via email, using Google Form, while the interviews are carried out face-to-face in a café on campus
To gather data for the research questions, a questionnaire is employed, which De Munck (2009) identifies as a widely-used method in social science research This approach allows researchers to pose predetermined questions to all participants, facilitating an inexpensive and straightforward data collection process Boynton and Greenhalgh (2004) highlight that questionnaires can include both close-ended and open-ended questions, enabling respondents to provide spontaneous feedback Close-ended questions, such as those using a Likert scale, are quick to complete, encouraging higher participation rates, while open-ended questions allow for more detailed responses when desired.
The researcher utilizes a questionnaire, detailed in Appendix 1, featuring a five-point Likert scale to investigate teachers' perceptions and implementation of formative assessment This questionnaire is structured into three sections: Part I, titled "Your understanding of the nature of formative assessment," includes 11 items that assess teachers' awareness of formative assessment's key characteristics Part II, "Your understanding of the process and steps of formative assessment," consists of 10 items that examine teachers' perceptions of the four main steps involved in the process Both Parts I and II utilize the same five-point Likert scale for responses.
Part III, titled "Your Practices of Formative Assessment," includes 12 items (numbered 22 to 33) that explore how teachers implement formative assessment in their classrooms Items 22 to 31 utilize a five-point Likert scale, while items 32 and 33 consist of checklists aimed at identifying the techniques and types of formative assessment and feedback used by educators.
31 teachers frequently employ in their classrooms The following shows the five scales used in this part:
The questionnaire and interview questions are primarily developed from the theories of Black and his colleagues (1998, 2010, 2018) and Black et al (2004), as outlined in the Literature Review Additionally, some questions draw from the formative assessment process by Simpson and McCulloch (as cited in Ruiz-Primo and Furtak, 2007) and the strategies of Wiliam and Thompson (2007) The researcher has also collaborated with colleagues and reviewed related studies to ensure the questions are effectively adapted from credible sources.
The first part of the questionnaire examines teachers' perceptions and practices regarding formative assessment It begins with items 1 and 2, which prompt teachers to evaluate their own knowledge and understanding of formative assessment, based on Jawad (2020) Items 3 to 5 delve into the roles of formative assessment, with item 5 specifically encouraging critical reflection on its use for grading or certifying students Items 6 and 7 emphasize the importance of feedback, while items 8 and 9 address how the evidence gathered from formative assessments can inform adjustments in teaching and learning Finally, items 10 and 11 explore the timing of formative assessment, questioning whether it should be an ongoing process or reserved for the end of a course, such as during final tests.
The second part of the questionnaire focuses on the formative assessment cycle and its essential components, drawing on the research of Simpson and McCulloch (as cited in Ruiz-Primo and Furtak, 2007) and supported by Wiliam and Thompson (2007) Questions 12 and 13 outline the continuous cycle of formative assessment, which consists of four stages Items 14 to 16 delve into the first stage, "Clarify," emphasizing the importance of establishing learning goals and success criteria for students Meanwhile, items 17 and 18 explore the second stage, "Elicit."
In the learning process, both teachers and students collaborate to set tasks that generate evidence of learning The third stage, "Interpret," involves analyzing this evidence to pinpoint students' strengths and weaknesses concerning the learning objectives Following this, the fourth stage, "Act," emphasizes the importance of utilizing the gathered evidence to modify teaching and learning strategies effectively.
Questionnaire part 3 examines the implementation of formative assessment by teachers in the classroom, drawing inspiration from the works of Jawad (2020) and Cheng, Rogers, and Hu (2004) It includes items 22-24 that assess the frequency and timing of formative assessment practices, as outlined by Jawad (2020) Items 25 and 32 identify common techniques and types of formative assessment utilized by educators Furthermore, items 26-29 and 33 investigate the methods teachers use to provide feedback to students regarding formative assessments Items 32 and 33 also feature checklists of formative assessment and feedback techniques, adapted from Cheng, Rogers, and Hu (2004).
30 and 31 describe the roles of students in formative assessment
The data collected is organized in an Excel spreadsheet, where Cronbach's alpha is calculated to assess the reliability of the questionnaire The findings indicate excellent internal consistency, with a coefficient of α = 946 for teachers' perceptions and α = 816 for teachers' practices (Cronbach, 1951).
Table 3: Reliability of the study questionnaire clusters
Interviews are a highly effective method for data collection in research, as noted by Creswell and Creswell (2017) The semi-structured interview format allows researchers to explore participants' perspectives, beliefs, and experiences in depth This qualitative technique offers significant advantages, including flexibility and adaptability, enabling researchers to modify questions, investigate intriguing topics, and seek additional information as needed.
Interviews play a crucial role in qualitative research by fostering rapport and trust between researchers and participants, enabling open and candid expression (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2018; Creswell and Creswell, 2017) They generate rich, detailed data that reveal the meanings, motivations, and emotions behind participants' responses Additionally, interviews complement other research methods, such as observations and questionnaires, allowing for triangulation and validation of findings Unlike questionnaires, interviews provide the opportunity for researchers to seek clarification and explore aspects that may have been overlooked.
The researcher employs semi-structured interviews to provide flexibility for extensive follow-up questions while maintaining control over the direction of the discussion These interviews aim to gain deeper insights into teachers' perceptions and practices, particularly concerning formative assessment Furthermore, the findings from both the interviews and questionnaires will be compared and synthesized to uncover the relationship between teachers' perceptions and their practices.
This research employs a semi-structured interview protocol featuring fifteen key questions adapted from Puad and Ashton (2020), organized into four sections The first section assesses teachers' general knowledge and perspectives on formative assessment The second section focuses on the frequency and timing of formative assessment in their teaching practices The third section explores specific formative assessment techniques, processes, and feedback mechanisms Finally, the fourth section reflects on teachers' experiences with formative assessment, considering influential factors, its impact on teaching and learning, and future implementation plans While some questions overlap with the questionnaire, they are designed to elicit more in-depth responses.
Data collection procedure
The data collection process consists of five essential stages, starting with the formulation of a questionnaire and interview questions in English, grounded in the established theoretical framework These tools are then tested on a small sample group that reflects the target population's characteristics The insights gained from the pilot study inform revisions that improve the effectiveness of the data collection instruments.
In the second stage, quantitative data is collected using an online questionnaire completed by thirty EFL teachers who provided their consent This 30-minute survey, conducted via Google Forms, explores the teachers' perspectives on and implementation of formative assessment, focusing on its attributes, objectives, processes, and strategies Participants are required to finish the survey within one week.
In the third step, survey data is analyzed to select five interviewees, chosen for their varied levels of understanding and interest in formative assessment Demographic information about these teachers is presented in Table 3, and the interviews are scheduled to take place within two weeks.
The fourth stage involves qualitative data collection from teacher interviews These interviews, conducted in a cozy café on the university campus, last between 30 to
50 minutes depending on the teachers‟ willingness to share Conducted in English, these interviews are audio-recorded for accuracy
The final step involves a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the quantitative and qualitative data gathered from the two instruments, with the goal of deriving meaningful findings and conclusions for the study.
Table 4: Demographic information of the five interviewed teachers
Gender Degree level Teaching experience Teacher A Male Master 10