encyclopedia of global justice [electronic resource]

The topic covers several disciplines and raises both theoretical and applied issues in such areas asrelations among nations, world poverty, human rights, global development, environmenta

Encyclopedia of Global Justice

Deen K Chatterjee (Ed.)

Encyclopedia of Global Justice

With 10 Figures and 4 Tables

Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011932691

© Springer ScienceþBusiness Media B.V 2011

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science þBusiness Media ( www.springer.com )

The two-volume Encyclopedia of Global Justice is a major publication venture toward a comprehensive coverage of thistimely topic The Encyclopedia is an international, interdisciplinary, and collaborative project, spanning all the relevantareas of scholarship related to issues of global justice, and edited and advised by leading scholars from around the world.The wide-ranging entries present the latest ideas on this complex subject by authors who are at the cutting edge ofinquiry

The goal of this timely and comprehensive encyclopedia is to provide a premier reference guide for students, scholars,policy makers, and others interested in assessing the moral consequences of global interdependence and understandingthe concepts and arguments that shed light on the myriad aspects of global justice The Encyclopedia will set the tone anddirection of this increasingly important area of scholarship for years to come

The question of justice across national boundaries, recently the focus of intense debate due to the ethical challenges ofmodern globalization, spans the range from extreme global egalitarianism to various kinds of extended nationalism andlimited globalism The topic covers several disciplines and raises both theoretical and applied issues in such areas asrelations among nations, world poverty, human rights, global development, environmental concerns, and the justifi-ability of military conflicts, among others

The Encyclopedia reflects this reality and provides an interdisciplinary approach that combines empirical researchwith theoretical arguments, drawing terms and concepts from political philosophy and theory, ethics, international lawand legal theory, development economics, public policy, and applied ethics, including legal, business, medical, military,religious, environmental, and feminist ethics as they relate to all aspects of global justice Because the term “global justice”

is itself a matter of contention, prompting questions regarding how it relates to and differs from “international justice,”

an important part of the project is to clarify such definitional issues and include entries that seek to address the relatedmethodological concerns

The Encyclopedia will serve as a complete reference for all key terms and concepts of global justice, broadly conceived

It is organized in A-to-Z format with cross-referencing of entries around a series of topics under four broad categories,making it convenient for students, scholars, and general readers to access the relevant entries on a specific theme or topic.The four broad categories are:

● Concepts/Theories

● Persons/Thinkers

● Institutions/Organizations

● Trends/Movements/Policies/Treaties

All entry topics fall under one or more of these broad categories

The entries number around 500 and consist of essays of 300 to 5,000 words The inclusion and length of entries arebased on their significance to the topic of global justice, regardless of their importance in other areas

The Encyclopedia consists of entries written by scholars drawn from a variety of fields and disciplines Based on theirpainstaking preparation of the chapters and their diligence through the process of revisions and editing, they made amplyevident their high level of care for and commitment to the project and their dedication to the growth and development oftheir own fields It was a delight and a privilege to work with them and see how they brought together their scholarshipand their respective style and orientation into a coherent focus to make this ambitious project possible Naturally, ourgreatest thanks go to these contributors for their collaboration and good will Their belief in the importance of the projectsustained our efforts

Special thanks are due to the members of the distinguished editorial board for their support and encouragement.Most of them reviewed the drafts and gave their advice whenever needed, and some of them also wrote several key entries

I would especially like to thank Lynette Sieger of New York University, a member of the editorial board andcontributor of several key chapters, for her able assistance, advice, and support

Special gratitude goes to Christine Hausmann at the Reference Editorial Office of Springer’s Reference and DatabasePublishing for her patience and unfailing support that made the project possible Special thanks are also due to NeilOlivier, Publishing Editor of Philosophy of Law and Ethics in the Humanities Department at Springer and to SusanneFriedrichsen, Associate Editor at Springer’s Reference & Database Publishing, for their valuable help and guidance.Finally, my greatest gratitude and appreciation goes to my beloved wife Donna Dinsdale for all her loving support,kindness, and sacrifice during the entire duration of this long project I cannot thank her enough.

Deen K Chatterjee

Editor-in-Chief

Topical Table of Contents

Civil Disobedience, International

Civil Disobedience, Transnational

Common GoodCommunitarianismCommunitiesCompatriot Partiality ThesisComplex EmergencyComplex EqualityComposition, Fallacy ofConsensus/JustificationConsent

Conspiracy TheoryConstructivismConsumerismContractarianismCorporate Social ResponsibilityCorrelative ObligationsCorruption

Cosmopolitan DemocracyCosmopolitan JusticeCosmopolitan RepublicanismCosmopolitanism

Crimes Against HumanityCrimes Against PeaceCultural RelativismCultural Rights

►Globalization

►Health and Health Care

►Human Rights: African Perspectives

►International Covenant on Economic, Social, andCultural Rights

►Multiculturalism

Death Penalty

►Capital Punishment

Decent SocietyDemocracy, ConstitutionalDemocracy, DeliberativeDemocracy, TransnationalDemocratic CitizenshipDemocratic Equality

Duties to the Distant Needy

Duties, Determinate and Indeterminate

Duties, Perfect and Imperfect

Duties, Positive and Negative

Duties, Remedial

►Duties, Determinate and Indeterminate

►Duties, Perfect and Imperfect

►Duties, Positive and Negative

►Global Equality of Opportunity

End of Life Care

Environmental Justice

Environmental Racism

Environmental Sustainability

Equality

Essential Medicines, Access to

Ethical Foreign Policy

GeorgismGlobal Basic StructureGlobal CitizenshipGlobal Civil SocietyGlobal Contractarian JusticeGlobal Democracy

Global Difference PrincipleGlobal Distributive JusticeGlobal EgalitarianismGlobal Equality of OpportunityGlobal Ethic

Global FederalismGlobal GovernanceGlobal Impartiality ThesisGlobal Justice

Global Justice, Subjects ofGlobal Market

Global Resources Dividend

Humanitarian Intervention, Non-Military

Humanitarian Military Intervention

Ideal Moral Theory

International Due Process

►International Criminal Court (ICC)

►International Criminal Justice

►International Law

International Health Partnership

►Development Ethics

►Global Public Health

►Health and Health Care

►Pandemics

International Humanitarian Assistance

International Institutional LegitimacyInternational Justice

International Political Economy

►Peace Versus Justice

►Perpetual Peace: Abbe´ de Saint-Pierre

►Perpetual Peace: Kant

►Preventive Non-Intervention

Just War Theory

►Just War Theory: Invasion of Iraq

►War, Just and Unjust

Justice and Reciprocity: Local and GlobalJustice and Religion: Buddhism

Justice and Religion: ChristianityJustice and Religion: ConfucianismJustice and Religion: DaoismJustice and Religion: HinduismJustice and Religion: IslamJustice and Religion: JudaismKilling and Letting Die

Topical Table of Contents ix

►Global Public Health

►Health and Health Care

National Interest Thesis

►Compatriot Partiality Thesis

►Basic Needs

Negative Duties

►Duties, Positive and Negative

►Killing and Letting Die

Negative RightsNeoliberalismNon-Combatant ImmunityNon-Ideal Moral TheoryObligation to Future GenerationsOdious Debts

Original PositionOwning LifePacifismPareto OptimalityPartiality

PaternalismPatriarchyPatriotismPeace EducationPerfect Justice

►Rawls, John

►Sen, Amartya

Perpetual PeacePerpetual Peace: Abbe´ de Saint-PierrePerpetual Peace: Kant

Political AllegiancePolitical AuthorityPolitical AutonomyPolitical ConstructivismPolitical CosmopolitanismPolitical Ecology

Political EconomyPolitical ForgivenessPolitical Freedom

►War Against Terrorism

►War, Just and Unjust

►Secession

►Truth Commissions

ReparationsReproductive Rights

►Population Politics

►Poverty

►Quality of Life

Resource CurseResponsibility, IndividualRestorative Justice

►Truth Commissions

RetributionRetributive JusticeRevolutionRightsRule-ConsequentialismSanctions

Second Original PositionSelf-DeterminationSeparation of Church and StateSlavery

Social ContractSocialismSolidaritySovereigntySpecial ObligationsSpecial RightsStandard of Living

Subsistence Rights

Surrogacy, Transnational

Sustainable Development

Territorial Rights

Thin Universalism and Thick Localism

Toleration/Tolerance, Liberal Principle of

►Global Difference Principle

►Global Distributive Justice

►Global Public Goods

►Global Public Sphere

►World Government

Institutions/Organizations

African Development BankAmnesty InternationalBretton Woods InstitutionsCanadian International Development Agency (CIDA)Democratic Institutions

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

►Climate Change

►Global Warming

International Commission on Intervention and StateSovereignty (ICISS)

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

►International Criminal Court (ICC)

►International Criminal Justice

►International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

►International Criminal Tribunal for the FormerYugoslavia (ICTY)

International Covenant on Civil and Political RightsInternational Covenant on Economic, Social, and CulturalRights

International Criminal Court (ICC)International Development Ethics Association (IDEA)International Finance Cooperation (IFC)

►Free Trade

►International Monetary Fund (IMF)

xii Topical Table of Contents

International Forum Against Globalization

►Globalization

►Third World Resistance

International Labour Organization (ILO)

►Global Public Reason

►High Road for Human Rights

►Human Rights Watch

►World Social Forum

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

►International Organizations

Organization for African Unity (OAU)

►African Development Bank

►Health and Health Care

►Human Rights: African Perspectives

►Global Human Rights Culture

►Global Public Reason

►International Organizations

►Self-Determination

►United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea

►United Nations: Peacekeeping and Peace Building

►United Nations: Reform

►United Nations: Right to Development

►Universal Declaration of Human Rights

United Nations Agenda for Democratization

►Health and Health Care

►Human Development and Capability Association(HDCA)

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization

(FAO)

►Food

►Food Sovereignty

►Land Grab

United Nations Human Rights Commission

►Ethical Globalization Initiative (EGI)

►Human Rights

►Human Rights: African Perspectives

United Nations Security Council

►United Nations: Peacekeeping and Peace Building

►United Nations: Reform

United Nations: Peacekeeping and Peace Building

United Nations: Reform

United Nations: Right to Development

Working Women’s Forum (WWF), India

►Global Public Health

►Health and Health Care

►Pandemics

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

World Social Forum

World Trade Organization (WTO)

►Alterglobalization

►Bandung Conference

►Doha Declaration

►General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

►Global Basic Structure

►International Organizations

►Stiglitz, Joseph Eugene

►Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property

Chwaszcza, ChristineCicero

Condorcet, N Marquis deCrocker, David

DanteDerrida, JacquesDower, NigelDryzek, JohnFalk, RichardFanon, Frantz

►Human Rights: African Perspectives

►Imperialism

►Liberation Theology

►Violence

Foucault, MichelGandhi, MahatmaGeorge, Henry

►Georgism

Goldhagen, Daniel JonahGould, Carol

Goulet, DenisGrotius, HugoHabermas, Ju¨rgenHardin, GarrettHegel, Georg Wilhelm FriedrichHeld, David

Held, VirginiaHerodotusHobbes, ThomasHonneth, AxelHuntington, SamuelJefferson, ThomasKant, ImmanuelKant, Immanuel: Contemporary Kantian Responses toKing, Martin Luther, Jr

Kukathas, ChandranKu¨ng, Hans

►Global Ethic

►World Citizenship

LaoziLocke, Johnxiv Topical Table of Contents

►Falk, Richard

►Gender Justice

►Okin, Susan

Bhopal TragedyBilateral Aid

Carbon TaxChild LaborChild SoldiersClimate ChangeConvention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination Against Women (CEDAW)

►Humanitarian Military Intervention

►Humanitarian Intervention, Non-Military

►Human Right to Democracy

►Preventive Non-Intervention

Doha Declaration

Drug Research and Human Experimentation

►Bioprospecting and Biopiracy

►Essential Medicines, Access to

►Organ Trafficking

►Owning Life

Duty to Prosecute

East Asian Economic Crisis

►International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Ethical Globalization Initiative (EGI)

European Convention on Human Rights

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS)

►Human Trafficking

Global WarmingGlobalizationGreen Revolution in Africa (AGRA)

►Land Grab

Guantanamo Bay Prisoners

►Afghanistan and Iraq Wars

►Just War Theory: Invasion of Iraq

►Punishment

►Terrorism

►War Against Terrorism

Hague ConventionsHuman Rights: African PerspectivesHuman Trafficking

International Environmental Standards

►Humanitarian Intervention, Non-Military

Just War Theory: Invasion of IraqKyoto Protocol

►Climate Change

►Climate Justice

►Global Warming

Labor LawsLand GrabLiberal InternationalismLiberation Theologyxvi Topical Table of Contents

►Humanitarian Intervention, Non-Military

►Humanitarian Military Intervention

►United Nations: Peacekeeping and Peace

Paris Peace Conference

Peace Versus Justice

►War Against Terrorism

Rio DeclarationRogue States

►Humanitarian Military Intervention

►Rawls, John

►Tyranny

Rome Statute of 1998Rwanda

SecessionSingularitySoft PowerStockholm Conference, 1972Technology

TerrorismThird World ResistanceTobin Tax

TortureTrade Agreements

►Intellectual Property Rights

►Stiglitz, Joseph Eugene

►Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual PropertyTranshumanism

Treaty of WestphaliaTruth CommissionsUDHR

►Universal Declaration of Human Rights

►United Nations: Rights and Duties

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

Topical Table of Contents xvii

Vienna Declaration on Human Rights

War Against Terrorism

Water

Weapons of Mass Destruction

►Afghanistan and Iraq Wars

►Just War Theory: Invasion of Iraq

►War Against Terrorism

►War, Just and Unjust

Deen K Chatterjee teaches philosophy at the University of Utah and is the series editor of Studies in Global Justice

(Springer), with nine volumes published in the series His areas of specialization are political philosophy, applied ethics,and philosophy of religion and culture

Chatterjee’s publications include, most recently, Ethics of Preventive War (Cambridge University Press); Democracy in

a Global World: Human Rights and Political Participation in the 21st Century (Rowman and Littlefield); Ethics ofAssistance: Morality and the Distant Needy (Cambridge University Press); and Ethics and Foreign Intervention, withDon E Scheid (Cambridge University Press) Currently he is completing two monographs, one on the ethics of war andpeace and the other on cosmopolitan justice In addition, he is editing two volumes, one with Martha Nussbaum onTagore’s philosophy of education and the other on feminism and multiculturalism Besides contributing chapters inseveral anthologies and encyclopedias, he has published articles and reviews in The Monist, Metaphilosophy, Ethics andInternational Affairs, Ethics, The Journal of Moral Philosophy, Social Philosophy Today, and The Good Society

Chatterjee has been a member of the American Philosophical Association’s Advisory Committee on Applied Ethics(Eastern Division) and has been a two-term member of the Association’s Committee on International Cooperation

Deen K ChatterjeeDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UTUSA

JEREMYMOSSUniversity of MelbourneAustralia

COLLEENMURPHYTexas A & M UniversityUSA

REECENEWMANForum for Questioning MindsUSA

JUHARAIKKAUniversity of TurkuFinland

SALLYSCHOLZVillanova UniversityUSA

ASUNCIONLERAST CLAIRUniversity of BergenNorway

HELENSTACYStanford Law SchoolUSA

RONALDTINNEVELTRadboud University NijmegenThe Netherlands

MYRTODRAGONA-MONACHOUUniversity of AthensGreece

RICHARDFALKUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraUSA

TOMFARERUniversity of DenverUSA

DESMONDGASPERInstitute of Social StudiesThe Netherlands

SAADEDDINIBRAHIMAmerican University of CairoEgypt

TAKASHIINOGUCHIChuo UniversityJapan

IOANNAKUC¸URADIHacetteppe UniversityTurkey

CHANDRANKUKATHASLondon School of EconomicsUK

HANSKU¨NGGlobal Ethic FoundationGermany

WILLKYMLICKAQueen’s UniversityCanada

STEPHENMACEDOPrinceton UniversityUSA

xxii Editorial Board

MARYROBINSONEthical Globalization InitiativeUSA

JOELH ROSENTHALCarnegie Council for Ethics in International AffairsUSA

AMARTYASENHarvard UniversityUSA

ARJUNSENGUPTA {Centre for Development and Human RightsIndia

HENRYSHUEOxford UniversityUK

PETERSINGERPrinceton UniversityUSA

andUniversity of MelbourneAustralia

GUSUNanjing UniversityChina

JEREMYWALDRONNew York UniversityUSA

MICHAELWALZERInstitute for Advanced StudyUSA

{ Deceased

Editorial Board xxiii

List of Contributors

DAVIDA´LVAREZ

Yale Global Justice Program

Department of Sociology, Political Science and

Department of Humanities and Philosophy

Diablo Valley College

School of Arts & Humanities

University of Texas at Dallas

Richardson, TX

USA

SHARONANDERSON-GOLD

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI)

Troy, NY

USA

ROSSC ANDERSONHigh Road for Human RightsSalt Lake City, UT

USA

CHRISARMSTRONGSchool of Social SciencesUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton

UK

YUBRAJARYALPhilosophy and Literature ProgramPurdue University

West Lafayette, INUSA

HARRIETE BABERDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of San DiegoSan Diego, CA

USA

GORDONA BABSTDepartment of Political ScienceWilkinson College

Chapman UniversityOrange, CA

USA

AMRITABANERJEEDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of OregonEugene, OR

USA

ALYSSAR BERNSTEINDepartment of PhilosophyOhio University

Athens, OHUSA

DEENK CHATTERJEEDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UTUSA

HIRAMCHODOSHS.J Quinney College of LawUniversity of Utah

Salt Lake City, UTUSA

RYOACHUNGDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of MontrealMontreal, QC

Canada

ROBERTPAULCHURCHILLDepartment of PhilosophyColumbian College of Arts & SciencesGeorge Washington UniversityWashington, DC

USA

WILLIAMW CLOHESYDepartment of Philosophy and World ReligionsUniversity of Northern Iowa

Cedar Falls, IAUSA

JULIANCULPJustitia Amplificata–Centre for Advanced StudiesJohann Wolfgang Goethe-Universita¨t FrankfurtFrankfurt am Main

Germany

RANDALLCURRENDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of RochesterRochester, NY

USAxxvi List of Contributors

School of History, Philosophy

Political Science and International Relations

Victoria University

Wellington

New Zealand

HELDERDESCHUTTER

Centre for Ethics, Social and Political Philosophy

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

St Joseph’s UniversityBeirut

Lebanon

JAYDRYDYKDepartment of PhilosophyCarleton UniversityOttawa, ONCanada

DAVIDA DUQUETTE

St Norbert College

De Pere, WIUSA

TEPPOESKELINENDepartment of Social Sciences and PhilosophyUniversity of Jyva¨skyla¨

Jyva¨skyla¨

Finland

STEPHENL ESQUITHResidential College in Arts and HumanitiesMichigan State University

East Lansing, MIUSA

JEFFEWINGDepartment of SociologyUniversity of OregonEugene, OR

USA

ARNOLDL FARRDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of KentuckyLexington, KY

USA

CHRISTOPHERJ FINLAYDepartment of Political Science andInternational Studies

University of BirminghamEdgbaston, BirminghamUK

List of Contributors xxvii

Civil Society Institute

Santa Clara University

Public Policy and Management/Staff Group on States,

Societies and World Development

International Institute of Social Studies (of Erasmus

USA

WAYNEB HANEWICZDepartment of Humanities/PhilosophyUtah Valley University

Orem, UTUSA

JAMIEHARDYDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UTUSA

TRISTINS HASSELLDepartment of PhilosophyOakland UniversityRochester, MIUSA

NICOLEHASSOUNDepartment of PhilosophyCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburgh, PA

USA

HAYEHAZENBERGLeuven Centre for Global Governance StudiesKatholieke Universiteit Leuven

LeuvenBelgium

SIRKKUK HELLSTENDepartment of Political and Economic Studies/Socialand Moral Philosophy

University of HelsinkiHelsinki

Finland

KENNETHHENLEYDepartment of PhilosophyFlorida International UniversityMiami, FL

USAxxviii List of Contributors

Department of Literature, Philosophy, and the Arts

University of Michigan – Dearborn

Baltimore, MDUSA

FREDERIKKAUFMANDepartment of Philosophy and ReligionIthaca College

Ithaca, NYUSA

KAIANAMAKANOEKAIKAULAOKAWEILAHAKAULULAAUDepartment of Philosophy

California State UniversityLos Angeles, CA

USA

PAULINEM KAURINDepartment of PhilosophyPacific Lutheran UniversityTacoma, WA

USA

LORIKELEHERDepartment of PhilosophyNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, NM

USA

DAVIDR KELLERDepartment of PhilosophyUtah Valley UniversityOrem, UT

USA

CHRISTOPHERKILBYDepartment of EconomicsVillanova UniversityVillanova, PAUSA

MEGANKIMEDepartment of PhilosophyThe University of SheffieldSheffield

UK

List of Contributors xxix

Department of Social and Cultural Analysis

New York University

Tel AvivIsrael

COURTLANDLEWISDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of TennesseePellissippi State Technical Community CollegeKnoxville, TN

USA

JOHANNALUTTRELLDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of OregonEugene, OR

USA

ANNAMALAVISIDepartment of PhilosophyMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, MI

USA

CHIBLIMALLATS.J Quinney College of LawUniversity of Utah

Salt Lake City, UTUSA

RAFFAELEMARCHETTIDepartment of History and Political ScienceLuiss University

RomeItaly

JAMESR MAXEINERSchool of LawCenter for International and Comparative LawUniversity of Baltimore

Baltimore, MDUSA

JAMIEMAYERFELDDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA

USAxxx List of Contributors

Political Science and Global City Indicators Facility

John H Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape

Republic of South Africa

FAINAMILMAN-SIVAN

MoscowRussia

KARENMIZELLDepartment of Philosophy and HumanitiesUtah Valley University

Orem, UTUSA

WILLIAMB T MOCKThe John Marshall Law SchoolChicago, IL

USA

DIMITRIOS(JIM) MOLOSDepartment of PhilosophyFaculty of Law

Queen’s UniversityKingston, ONCanada

ANNAMOLTCHANOVADepartment of PhilosophyCarleton College

Northfield, MNUSA

MONICAMOOKHERJEESPIRE (Politics, International Relations and Philosophy)Keele University

Keele, StaffordshireUK

MARYLEEMORRISONPax Educare, Inc

Central Connecticut State UniversityHartford, CT

USA

MATTHEWMOSDELLDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UTUSA

List of Contributors xxxi

School of Politics and International Relations

University College Dublin

TODDERICMYERS

Center for Asian and Pacific Studies

San Diego State University

San Diego, CA

USA

ROSLYNMYERS

Department of Criminal Justice

John Jay College of Criminal Justice and

Fordham Law School

BLAINNEUFELDDepartment of PhilosophyCollege of Letters and ScienceUniversity of Wisconsin – MilwaukeeMilwaukee, WI

USA

TRACEYNICHOLLSDepartment of PhilosophyLewis University

Romeoville, ILUSA

DOUGLASPALETTADepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA

USA

JEFFREYPARISDepartment of PhilosophyCollege of Arts and SciencesUniversity of San FranciscoSan Francisco, CA

USA

ASHWANIPEETUSHDepartment of PhilosophyWilfrid Laurier UniversityWaterloo, ON

Canada

CHRISTOPHERPENFIELDDepartment of PhilosophyPurdue University

West Lafayette, INUSA

PETERPENZCentre for Refugee StudiesYork University

Toronto, ONCanadaxxxii List of Contributors

College of Liberal Arts and Education

University of Detroit Mercy

HENRYS RICHARDSONDepartment of PhilosophyGeorgetown UniversityWashington, DCUSA

WALTERJ RIKERDepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of West GeorgiaCarrollton, GA

USA

LISARIVERADepartment of PhilosophyUniversity of Massachusetts – BostonBoston, MA

USA

RODNEYC ROBERTSDepartment of PhilosophyEast Carolina UniversityGreenville, NC

USA

KIRKROBINSONWestern Wildlife ConservancySalt Lake City, UT

USA

WADEL ROBISONDepartment of PhilosophyRochester Institute of TechnologyRochester, NY

USA

JORDYROCHELEAUDepartment of History and PhilosophyAustin Peay State University

Clarksville, TNUSA

List of Contributors xxxiii

Grinnell, IAUSA

BONGRAESEOKDepartment of Humanities/PhilosophyAlvernia University

Reading, PAUSA

LYNETTEE SIEGERGallatin SchoolNew York UniversityNew York, NYUSA

GARYM SIMPSONDepartment of TheologyLuther Seminary

St Paul, MNUSA

ERICSMAWDepartment of Philosophy and ReligionRollins College

Winter Park, FLUSA

NANCYE SNOWDepartment of PhilosophyMarquette UniversityMilwaukee, WIUSA

RICHARDSTITHSchool of LawValparaiso UniversityValparaiso, INUSA

SOPHIAA STONEDepartment of PhilosophyPurdue University

West Lafayette, INUSA

xxxiv List of Contributors

Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures

Southern Methodist University

Department of Philosophy of Law

Radboud University Nijmegen

Nijmegen

The Netherlands

RANDALLTOLPINRUD

Pax Natura Foundation

Salt Lake City, UT

USA

LAWRENCETORCELLODepartment of PhilosophyRochester Institute of TechnologyRochester, NY

USA

LEETREPANIERDepartment of Political ScienceSaginaw Valley State UniversityUniversity Center, MI

USA

PETERSHIU-HWATSUPhilosophy ProgramResearch School of Social SciencesAustralian National UniversityCanberra, ACT

Australia

ERICKATUCKERDepartment of PhilosophyCal Poly Pomona

Pomona, CAUSA

DORISUNGERSoCuMJohannes Gutenberg University MainzMainz

Germany

SUSANNEUUSITALODepartment of Behavioural Sciences and PhilosophyUniversity of Turku

TurkuFinland

CHRISTIENVANDENANKERDepartment of Politics, Philosophy andInternational Relations

University of the West of EnglandBristol

UK

STEVEVANDERHEIDENDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, CO

USA

List of Contributors xxxv

St Louis, MOUSA

andCAPPE, Charles Sturt UniversityAustralia

KATHLEENJ WININGERDepartment of Philosophy & Women and GenderStudies

University of Southern MainePortland, ME

USA

MORTONWINSTONDepartment of Philosophy and ReligionThe College of New Jersey

Ewing, NJUSA

RAFAŁWONICKIDepartment of Philosophy and SociologyUniversity of Warsaw

WarsawPoland

SHAUNPATRICKYOUNGMcLaughlin College and York Centre for Practical EthicsYork University

Toronto, ONCanada

NOAMZIONHartman InstituteJerusalemIsraelxxxvi List of Contributors

Absolute Poverty

TEPPOESKELINEN

Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy,

University of Jyva¨skyla¨, Jyva¨skyla¨, Finland

Absolute poverty means poverty defined using a universal

baseline with no reference to other people’s income or

access to goods The failure of meeting this baseline thus

means that the individual is poor Absolute poverty is

typically discussed in the context of extreme poverty in

developing countries, although absolute and extreme

pov-erty are not synonymous concepts

Absolute poverty can be defined as the state in which

a subject lacks the means to meet his or her basic needs

Such basic needs are often listed in international poverty

reduction programs, and usually include food, water,

shel-ter, basic education, and basic medical care Extreme

pov-erty is typically defined as a state in which a person lacks

access to all, or several, of the goods needed for meeting

these basic needs

Definitions of absolute poverty often derive from the

idea that the basic needs which need to be satisfied in order

not to be poor in the absolute sense are common to all

human beings and thus in some sense objective Yet which

needs count as basic needs and what is a sufficient level of

meeting these needs are philosophical problems in their

own right, as not all of the needs typically listed as basic

derive directly from human biology Education serves as

an example In a narrow sense, basic needs can be defined

as only biological needs, but this definition can be

criti-cized for excluding vital needs from the definition

Practically, the attempts to measure the number of

people living in absolute poverty have been based on

economic measurements In such cases, a poverty line is

defined, and persons falling under this line are classified as

poor There are both domestically used and international

poverty lines Poverty lines can also vary between different

social contexts, such as rural and urban areas

The most used poverty lines are $1.08 a day for

extreme poverty and $2.16 a day for poverty These lines

have been defined by the World Bank, which also producesstatistics on the number of the people in the world livingbelow these poverty lines The dollar figures do not refer toactual dollars but purchasing power Therefore, $1.08means the amount of money with which one can buy theequivalent of goods $1.08 buys in the USA Practically, indeveloping countries, the actual amount of money neededfor meeting the poverty line is significantly less than $1.08.The World Bank argues that the $1.08 PPP (purchasingpower parity) poverty line corresponds with the amount

of money needed to meet one’s most basic needs Severalcritics have claimed that the poverty line is set at a too lowlevel or at an arbitrary level

Practically, current international poverty reductionefforts focus on poverty in the absolute sense Thus thetask of poverty reduction is seen as to lift the people living

in poverty above a poverty line, rather than makingincome distribution more equal or increasing the overallliving standards in poor countries This policy issupported by the ethical argument that absolute extremepoverty generates duties for wealthier individuals andcountries to act to alleviate poverty, while less severeforms of poverty do not generate the same level of respon-sibilities Absolute poverty in its extreme form is thusunderstood as a state which is dehumanizing to the extentthat global justice can be seen to require abolishing suchpoverty regardless of what else is required

Pogge T, Reddy S (2010) How not to count the poor In: Anand S, Segal P, Stiglitz J (eds) Debates in the measurement of global poverty Oxford University Press, Oxford

Ravallion M (1998) Poverty lines in theory and practice Living standards measurement study working papers no 133 World Bank, Washington, DC

Deen K Chatterjee (ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Justice, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9160-5,

# Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2011

MATTHEWMOSDELL

Department of Philosophy, University of Utah,

Salt Lake City, UT, USA

Act-consequentialism is the view that an action is right if

and only if it maximizes the good for the greatest number

of people As with any consequentialist theory of morality,

act-consequentialism must specify what features of

an action’s consequences are morally valuable Is it

happi-ness, pleasure, welfare, wealth distribution, access to

primary goods, or something else? Furthermore, as

a consequentialist theory of morality, it must specify the

calculative method for determining the overall moral

value for a particular state of affairs Only in this manner

will it be possible for a comparison across states of affairs

to be obtained Though these difficulties are not unique

to act-consequentialism, they are problems that need to be

addressed if the position is to be plausibly maintained

As a distinctive position, act-consequentialism is often

mistakenly thought of as a decision procedure for

deter-mining what one ought to do: act in an effort to maximize

the greatest good for the greatest number Because of the

difficulties associated with such a decision procedure,

however, it is unfair to saddle act-consequentialists with

such a commitment, and virtually no one endorses the

position as a decision procedure in contemporary

philos-ophy What, then, is peculiar to act-consequentialism as

a philosophical position? Minimally, it is the view that

moral properties of an action are wholly determined

by the action’s consequences This is in contrast to

rule-consequentialism: the view that moral properties are

determined by the consequences of rules The difference

is apparent when considering the moral wrongness of an

action For an act-consequentialist, an action is morally

wrong if it results in less good than some possible and

available alternative Rule-consequentialists reject this

position in favor of one according to which an action’s

moral wrongness is determined by a rule justified in terms

of its consequences In this manner, an action may have

consequences that fail to maximize the good on

a particular occasion and be morally justified for a

rule-consequentialist (because following the rule will have

better effect overall) but not for an act-consequentialist

As with other forms of consequentialism,

act-consequentialism has a significant role to play when

think-ing about questions of global justice However, since the

position does not have a viable role to play as a method for

determining what ought to be done, that is, it cannot beused as a tool for making decisions, it seems that itsprimary role must be in thinking about judging themoral rightness of actions and, subsequently, thinkingabout moral culpability in terms of an action’s conse-quences For example, on an act-consequentialist render-ing of actions during war, the moral rightness of certainactions are determined by their effects It is frequently thecase that innocent civilians are killed during bombingattacks, yet the action is judged morally blameless in virtue

of a net increase in perceived good as a result of the action,for example, the value of killing, dismantling, ordestroying certain targets may justify the loss of somecivilian life Whether such actions can be justified or not,

it is clear that such act-consequentialist thinking playsprominently in our intuitive moral judgments, and, con-sequently, we should expect the view to have influence inconsiderations of this kind

Mill JS (1861) Utilitarianism Moore GE (1903) Principia ethica Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Rawls J (1951) Outline for a decision procedure in ethics Philos Rev 60:177–197

Sen A, Williams B (eds) (1982) Utilitarianism and beyond Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Singer P (1972) Is act-utilitarianism self-defeating? Philos Rev 81:94–104 Smart JJC (1956) Extreme and restricted utilitarianism Philos Q 6:344–354

Afghanistan and Iraq Wars

GAILM PRESBEY

College of Liberal Arts and Education, University of

Detroit Mercy, Detroit, MI, USA

This chapter focuses on the “war against terrorism” as it

has been fought by the United States and its allies in

Afghanistan and Iraq After the September 11, 2001

attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and

the Pentagon in Virginia, USA, widely believed to have

been orchestrated by al-Qaeda, whose mastermind was

Osama bin Ladin, there became a question of how the

United States government should respond to the attacks

On September 12, 2001, Cardinal Theodore McCarrick,

the Catholic Archbishop of Washington, presided over

a mass during which he asked congregants to seek the

guilty but refrain from striking out against the innocent

The USA invaded Afghanistan on October 7, 2001 The

rationale was that the Taliban, rulers of Afghanistan, were

harboring Osama bin Ladin and other al-Qaeda members

and not cooperating with US requests to hand them over

The Taliban, for their part, complained that the US

offi-cials had not shown them the evidence linking bin Ladin

and the September 11 attacks While some saw the US-led

actions in Afghanistan as a just and measured response to

the attacks, other thinkers like Noam Chomsky (2001,

2003) and Tomis Kapitan (2003) pointed out flagrant

double-standards in who was called a terrorist, and what

response to terrorism was considered legitimate

Usually, the application of standards to judge

terror-ism, or for that matter, the war on terrorterror-ism, lacks

even-handedness Noam Chomsky pointed out the asymmetry

of the United States’ declaration that it could legitimately

attack Afghanistan because it harbored terrorists who had

attacked the United States If this attack were justified,

then on the same grounds, Nicaragua would have been

justified in attacking the United States, because it had

mined Nicaragua’s harbors and armed an insurgent

group (the “contras”) who had attacked schools, hospitals,

and farms in Nicaragua (thus targeting and harming

non-combatants), in violation of international law Haiti would

be justified in bombing the United States because it had

failed to extradite Emmanuel Constant, a man responsible

for thousands of deaths in Haiti Sudan would be justified

in bombing the United States because it had bombed

a pharmaceutical plant, shown later to be a nonmilitary

target – several thousand had died Yet Americans would

not think that other countries were justified in attacking

them for such reasons, even if the other countries hadthereby suffered as many civilian deaths as did the UnitedStates on September 11, 2001

The asymmetry involved in US decisions to invadeother countries militarily in situations where otherswould not have been allowed to, or would not have beenconsidered legitimate in so doing, points to the degree ofpower that the USA has in the world Such power dispar-ities, according to some thinkers, undermine the possibil-ity of global justice

There is also the question of whether engaging in war

in Afghanistan was the best or most efficient way to attackAmerica’s al-Qaeda enemies A recent documentary,Rethink Afghanistan, suggests that going to war with andthen occupying all of Afghanistan is like going after

a hotelier and trying to occupy a hotel in order to ensurethat the bad guest does not decide to stay there again It is

a costly and inefficient procedure Developing this kind ofargument philosophically, Karsten Struhl argues that the

US war in Afghanistan goes against just war principles(Struhl2005) In addition to academics, family members

of those who died on September 11 called themselves

“September Eleventh Families for Peaceful Tomorrows,”

as they publicly witnessed that they did not want the loss

of their loved ones to be construed as a justification forAfghani families to lose their loved ones as well Members

of this group traveled to Afghanistan in 2002, raising anddistributing funds to try to rebuild war-torn Afghanistan

On October 26, 2001, US Congress passed the Unitingand Strengthening America by Providing AppropriateTools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act,popularly known as the USA PATRIOT Act This gave the

US government authorization to hold immigrants inindefinite detention without charges, and gave the FederalBureau of Investigations power to search phone, email,medical, and financial records without court orders Set toexpire in 2005, it was amended and passed by Congressand signed into law on March 9 and 10, 2006 Thesesurveillance and detention measures have caused contro-versy and have been the subject of litigation

The US “war on terrorism” expanded to include itary action against Iraq in 2003 It is also important tonote that US aggression against Iraq preceded September

mil-11, 2001 While Hussein had been an ally of the USAduring the Iran–Iraq war of the 1980s, he later fell out offavor The United Nations Security Council imposed sanc-tions on Iraq on August 6, 1990, four days after Iraqinvaded Kuwait In January 15, 1991, the US-led air strikesagainst Iraq Trade embargoes against Iraq continued,despite statements and official reports from high-rankingU.N officials that a war-damaged power grid, water

A