05.09.14_FINAL_Becoming_An_Efficient_Student_Using_Mainstream_Technology_-_A_Resource_Guide_For_Students_With_Learning_Disabilities

ofBECOMING AN EFFICIENT STUDENT USING MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGY:RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIESbyAngela Fong Statement of the Problem By law, students with learning d

RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

A Project

Presented to the faculty of the Graduate and Professional Studies in Education

California State University, Sacramento

Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

Counseling(Vocational Rehabilitation)

byAngela Fong

SPRING2014

Angela Fong

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ii

RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to

be awarded for the project

, Graduate Coordinator

Graduate and Professional Studies in Education

iv

ofBECOMING AN EFFICIENT STUDENT USING MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGY:RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

byAngela Fong

Statement of the Problem

By law, students with learning disabilities (LDs) entering higher education institutions are eligible for reasonable accommodations with the intent to provide an equal playing field to education and participation in a school’s program Assistive technology (AT) is an accommodation that has been effective in helping students with LDs overcome academic deficits Despite federal laws, access to AT is still challenging for many students with LDs as they encounter barriers Currently, there are no resource guides on mainstream technologies that are comparable to AT, or technology-based tools intended for students with learning disabilities in higher education The purpose of this project was to help students with LDs overcome barriers to AT access by providing information on mainstream technologies that can enhance and personalize learning and productivity

Sources of Data

The resources obtained for this project originated from peer-reviewed journal articles, learning disability organizations’ websites, and books pertaining to AT and

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staff and students with LDs in higher education.

Conclusions Reached

With the current state of technology, mainstream technologies with similar features of AT utilized by students with LDs are easily accessible and affordable Therefore, a resource guide was created in hopes of removing barriers to AT access A second resource guide was also created to provide supplemental technology-based tools that can enhance and personalize learning and productivity for students with LDs

I would like to express my utmost appreciation for everyone who has inspired me and who has been involved throughout my journey in the master’s program First and foremost, I would like to extend my gratitude to my mother, sisters, extended family, and each of my best friends I love you all so much Thank you for your much needed unconditional love, encouragement, patience and emotional support Without it, I would not be where I am today! And, thank you, Dad, Grandma Lum, and Cousin Jessica Although no longer here, remembering your spirit, love, support, and work ethic has helped me to persevere through the toughest of times.

Second, I would like to thank all of the counselors and staff at American River College (ARC), Disabled Student Programs & Services (DSP&S) for all their

encouragement, support, and always treating me as one of their own My experience in DSP&S and relationships with everyone in the department has truly inspired me to continue my education to pursue a career as a DSP&S Counselor And, a million thanks

to my good friends in the Financial Aid Office at ARC You have been like family to me and your tough love, flexibility, and encouragement is much appreciated!

Finally, I would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor and Program

Coordinator Dr Guy Deaner, and faculty members Dr Todd Koch and Mark Frayser for challenging me and for your guidance and support throughout my time in this program

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Acknowledgments vii

Chapter

Background of the Problem 1

Statement of the Problem 8

Definition of Learning Disabilities 16

Types of Learning Disabilities 18

Impact of Learning Disabilities in Higher Education 21

Federal Laws in Higher Education 25

Recommendations 64

Appendix A A Resource Guide to Mainstream Technology Tools for Students with

Learning Disabilities 66Appendix B A Resource Guide of Supplemental Technology-Based Tools for Students

with Learning Disabilities 126References 141

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Chapter 1INTRODUCTION

Background of the Problem

There are a variety of reasons that make it challenging for students with learning disabilities (LDs) to obtain and use assistive technology (AT), and the presence of AT in and of itself does not guarantee that these students will have access to technology

(Wimberly, Reed, & Morris, 2004) Although there is evidence that there is inadequate access to AT in higher education, students with LDs can circumvent barriers to AT

accessibility Mainstream technology (MT) as well as AT is rapidly changing

(Burgstahler, 2003) As technology evolves to become more powerful, less expensive,

and more portable, it becomes progressively more helpful in improving learning (Green,

2011)

The purpose of this project is to remove obstacles to AT access by creating

resource guides to promote awareness of accessible and affordable alternatives to AT and supplemental technology-based tools to enhance learning and productivity for students with LDs Resource guides will be available via web link to the author’s Google Drive account In this way, the resource guides will always be available to the public to view and download The first resource guide will provide the names of PC software and Appleapplications, price of software and applications, features of software and applications, a brief description of how they may benefit students with LDs, and tips for using the software and applications In addition, information for a device called Livescribe 2GB

Echo Smartpen will also be provided The second resource guide will include

supplemental technology-based resources to enhance learning and productivity

Transitioning from the secure regulated world of secondary education to higher education that requires greater independence, autonomy, and personal decision-making can be extremely difficult Handling this change can make students with disabilities feel even more anxious and overwhelmed Many students with LDs begin college unprepared

to manage the shift from others leading their learning to students leading their own learning (Connor, 2012) Students move from a K-12 environment, where the

responsibility for student success tends to lie with educators, to a college environment, where the responsibility for success lies with the students Therefore, high school

students with LDs transitioning to college must develop specific competencies, respond appropriately to their new environment, and develop independence (Hadley, 2006;

Hadley, Twale, & Evans, 2003) The increased planning and organizational demands of college, combined with a more flexible daily schedule with absence of a supervising parent, can significantly overload the student with a learning disability (LD) Persisting cognitive difficulties with planning and follow through on tasks, procrastination, and timemanagement may underlie some of the problems encountered by students with LDs in achieving their postsecondary goals (Wolf, 2001) AT is technology that is especially designed to assist individuals with disabilities in overcoming barriers in their

environment (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006)

AT is defined as any item, piece of equipment, or product that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional abilities of people with disabilities AT devices have

been effective in both the improvement and maintenance of learning, communication, anddaily living of students of varying age (Alper & Raharinirina, 2006) as they have featuresthat can help students with many different learning styles or needs (South Carolina Assistive Technology Program, 2012) In other words, AT is a term that describes a device that can help a person learn (Rabinovitz, n.d.) Increasing numbers of AT items have been developed and utilized by educators to support students with memory,

organization, problem solving, reading, writing, and math (Lee & Templeton, 2008)

Numerous research studies on both children and adults with LD have shown that

AT such as word processors, spell checkers, speech synthesizers, graphic organizers, word prediction programs, speech recognition systems, and OCR/speech synthesis (SS) systems can be effective in compensating for difficulties in both reading and writing Furthermore, AT can be helpful in school and at home, and promote independence in persons with LD (Raskind, 2013) Accessible technology creates greater access to

education for people with disabilities Students with disabilities who continue on to pursue a higher education must have access to high tech tools in order to compete with their non-disabled peers (Yeganhey, n.d.) To address the needs of this population, highereducation institutions use a variety of policies and practices designed to help ensure equalaccess to education through the purchase, development, and use of accessible technology (Oblinger & Ruby, n.d.)

The legislation that requires equal access to education, including reasonable accommodations, for students with LDs is different for K-12 schools than in higher education (Hadley, 2006; Hadley et al., 2003) Additionally, the authorization of various

federal public laws has impacted the educational programs and services that children withdisabilities receive (Assistive Technology Training Online Project, 2005a) For example, Johnson, Dudgeon, Kuehn, and Walker (2007) noted that K-12 students have more access

to AT than do students in higher education through schools and are also more apt to be eligible for medical insurance that may cover the needed devices As students with a LD prepare for college, it is important that they understand their rights and options regarding

AT as these students will need to self-advocate their needs (Rabinovitz, n.d.)

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is the law that provides K-12 students free instructional and support services, which possibly includes AT tools through an Individualized Education Program (IEP) Under this law, students are allowed

to receive services until they graduate high school or, as older high school students, up through age 21 (Rabinovitz n.d.) School districts are responsible for acquiring AT devices on behalf of the child and assist in training the child and anyone who may work with the child to effectively use the AT device This must be determined on a case-by-case basis at no cost to the parents (Assistive Technology Training Online Project,

2005b) Unfortunately, IDEA services do not extend into a two- or four-year college (Kaloi, n.d.) Accommodations that are required to be provided to youth with disabilities within the educational system significantly change as they transition from secondary to postsecondary education (Rehabilitation Research and Training Center [RRTC], n.d.)

When a student enters a postsecondary institution, the Americans with DisabilitiesAct (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act take over and, and they have the option to seek protection under the ADA (Cawthon & Cole, 2010; Rabinovitz, n.d.)

Therefore, students who were eligible for services under IDEA are not automatically eligible for services under Section 504 and ADA in college and university settings

(National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007) While ADA is a federal civil rights law that protects persons with disabilities from discrimination (Cawthon & Cole, 2010), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act is legislation that requires all colleges who receive federal funding to have disability services on campus for students with disabilities(Connor, 2012) These civil rights laws mandate that colleges provide access to

accommodations and an equal opportunity in the institution’s programs, activities, and services (Rabinovitz, n.d.)

While secondary schools adhere to both IDEA and to Section 504 of the

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, only Section 504 and the ADA affect postsecondary

institutions (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007) With the

differences in laws and funding for technology between high school and postsecondary school, students who were fortunate enough to have gained access to empowering

technology may not be allowed to take it with them when they exit high school

(Yeganhey, n.d.) Furthermore, colleges are not required to provide AT under the

following conditions: a similar and equally effective alternative is already available; the

AT device is not something that contributes to the individual’s learning needs; use of AT significantly alters the institution’s program or activity; or if the AT causes an undue financial burden to the college or university (Rabinovitz, 2013)

Funding for AT, therefore, remains one of the biggest obstacles to acquiring needed devices and services (Judge, 2000) Despite the benefits that AT provides

students with LDs, many struggle to find available financial resources to acquire these empowering tools (Gentry & Wallace, 2011) In the case that a college cannot provide

AT to meet the unique needs of students with LD, students can explore other resources for funding such as state and government agencies (Rabinovitz, 2013) Generally,

government programs, such as Social Security, Veteran’s benefits, or state Medicaid agencies and private health insurance will cover the cost of AT if it is prescribed by a doctor as a necessary medical device or used for rehabilitation Rehabilitation and job training programs may be another option as they may pay for AT and training to help people get a job (Assistive Technology Industry Association, n.d.; Rabinovitz, 2013) Unfortunately, college students with LD are not guaranteed funding for AT if they do not meet eligibility requirements for such programs Although funding under the Assistive Technology Act can supply technology-related needs, budgets are shrinking and

resources are limited (Judge, 2000) As a last resort, the student then has the choice to pay out of pocket In an analysis of the National Longitudinal Transitional Study 2 (NLTS2), Bouck, Maeda, and Flanagan (2012) noted that none of the students with disabilities in postsecondary school, including those with LD, had purchased AT even though 1.5% had indicated that AT was needed It is evident that efforts should be made

to support postsecondary students with disabilities who do not have financial resources for technology with computers, hardware, and software (Goodman, Tiene, & Luft, 2002) Although postsecondary schools often provide and not necessarily purchase AT to

students with disabilities, there are limited funding resources to help offset the cost of AT (Raskind, 2013)

AT is available to students with disabilities in a resource center or other isolated location (Burgstahler, 2002) The majority of higher education institutions in the

Sacramento area offer AT that are frequently used by students with LDs, such as

Kurzweil 3000, Inspiration, and Dragon Naturally Speaking, all of which are installed on

a desktop computer located in a specialized computer lab Participants in a study

reported that the ability to pay for equipment for home use would be advantageous, particularly because the setting at home would be superior to using AT in a crowded computer lab (Goodman et al., 2002) Furthermore, efforts to make time to use AT duringlab hours in between classes can be extremely difficult for those who are also employed

In 2003, data from the NLTS2 indicated 70.4% of students with disabilities were

employed at some point after high school (Bouck et al., 2012; Wagner, Newman, Cameto,Garza & Levine, 2005) Additionally, success in college requires strong time

management and organization skills (Green & Rabiner, 2012; Wolf, 2001) The lack of portability of AT on campus combined with specific operating hours further adds to the inaccessibility of AT for students who struggle to manage their school and work

schedules

Statement of the Problem

Access to AT for students with LDs may be limited First, there appears to be vagueness within the current laws and lack of clear, consistent guidelines on how servicesshould be provided (Lee & Templeton, 2008) Specifically, there is a disconnect betweenthe laws that govern secondary and postsecondary access to programs and services for individuals with LDs (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007)

Secondly, eligibility for AT services, vary considerably (Raskind, 2013) Students must present comprehensive documentation to validate a LD and their need for

accommodations to colleges and universities in order to receive disability support

services (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007)

Limited funding for AT is also an issue Consumers and service providers identifythat one of the biggest barriers to AT access is the lack of funding (Burgstahler, 2002) Additionally, AT devices represent a significant investment in time and money (Assistive Technology Training Online Project, 2005b) Not only can AT be expensive, but trained personnel must make AT recommendations to the user and provide services to help them use it effectively (National Council on Disability, 1993) Products such as speech

recognition software may require several hours of training with a computer or AT

specialist (Raskind, 2013) For example, software and equipment for Kurzweil 3000, which is frequently utilized by students with LDs costs up to $1500 and requires training (C Houston, personal communication, October 10, 2013) Training time varies on an individual basis For example, in one study, the specialist trained students to use

Kurzweil 3000 or Dragon Naturally Speaking (DNS) for 35–45 minutes Basic sessions with the specialist was spent scanning, reading, and annotating text with Kurzweil 3000

or dictating and composing documents with DNS (Silver-Pacuilla, 2006) High costs of such products and time invested in training with a specialist poses another obstacle to AT access for college students with LDs who cannot afford to purchase AT for home use

Furthermore, AT availability on campus is campus-specific; not all college

campuses offer the same AT Even so, the operating hours of the college campus’

adaptive lab may conflict with a student’s school and/or work schedule An isolated location then creates a lack of portability Such difficulties accessing AT can further perpetuate dropout rates for students who may already be struggling in an environment that requires independence and self-advocacy While this population is adjusting to the more demanding environment of higher education, it is necessary to instill hope for and

to assist these students by educating them on ways in which they can use MT as

compensatory tools that can enhance their success in higher education

Limitations

This project has limitations to the time, geography, population, and author bias The first limitation addresses the time in which this project was completed Because technology is rapidly advancing and evolving, this project will be outdated as new

updates and versions of software become available The second limitation to this project

is geography This project is intended and created for students with LDs in the

Sacramento area However, students with LDs may be able to access this project via internet by navigating to the California State University, Sacramento (CSUS) library website and selecting the Scholar Works web link or Google Drive web link This geographical limitation introduces the third limitation to this project, which is population

As mentioned before, this project’s target audience was students with LDs in higher education LDs are commonly co-morbid with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the difficulties that both populations experience with learning are often similar to those of other disabilities As such, students with varying disabilities may also benefit from this project Finally, the author’s bias poses a limitation As a student with

LDs, the author’s experiences and opinions have influenced the creation and development

of this project Furthermore, given that MT is rapidly advancing, the author feels that standard AT programs used by students with LDs on college campuses are no longer a novelty; that the use of MT and its universal design (UD) is just as comparable, more costefficient, and convenient Additionally, it is the author’s opinion that use of MT can both remove any stigma students with LDs may feel when using AT in public or a classroom setting and empower the student with a greater sense of confidence and independence

Definition of Terms

Accommodation

An adjustment or modification to make a product or environment accessible to an individual with a disability (Burgstahler, 2011)

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Prohibits discrimination and ensures equal opportunity for persons with

disabilities in employment, State and local government services, public

accommodations, commercial facilities, and transportation Specifically Title II

of the ADA, mandates the establishment of auxiliary aids and services, which includes but is not limited to: qualified interpreters, note takers, open and closed captioning, assistive listening devices, taped texts, brailed materials, screen readersoftware, magnification software, optical readers, and accessible electronic and information technology (Department of Justice, 2010)

Assistive Technology (AT)

“Any item, piece of equipment, or product, whether acquired commercially or off the shelf, modified or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a person with a disability” (Robitaille, 2010, p 5).Assistive Technology Act of 2004

Also known as the Tech Act, it is the reauthorization of the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 Its purpose is to raise awareness of AT devices and services, and access to, AT devices and services to persons with disabilities as defined under any federal law (Bausch, Mittler, Hasselbring, & Cross, 2005)

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Neurobehavioral disorder that interferes with a person's ability to stay on a task and to exercise age-appropriate inhibition (cognitive alone or both cognitive and behavioral) Some characteristics of ADHD include failure to listen to

instructions; inability to organize oneself and school work; fidgeting with hands and feet; talking too much; leaving projects, chores, and homework unfinished; and having trouble paying attention to and responding to details There are several types of ADHD: a predominantly inattentive subtype, a predominantly hyperactive-impulsive subtype, and a combined subtype ADHD is usually diagnosed in childhood, although the condition can continue into the adult years (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2013)

Dragon Naturally Speaking

Voice recognition software that allows the user to input data and execute

commands by dictating into the computer or a Nuance-certified handheld device Users can also create emails, documents, and search the web simply by speaking (Green, 2011)

Higher Education

Education or learning at a college or university (Higher Education, 2014)

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

National law that governs how states and public agencies provide early

intervention, special education and related services to children ages 3-21 years old(U.S Department of Education, n.d.) Additionally, the law ensures that services

be provided to children with disabilities For example, Sec 300.105 requires that

AT devices and/or services are made available to this population (U.S

Department of Education, 2006b)

Inspiration

Graphic organizer recommended for visual learners Specifically used for visual mapping, outlining, writing and making presentations (Inspiration Software, Inc., 2014)

Kurzweil 3000

An assistive technology, text-to-speech learning tool to assist with reading,

writing, test-taking, and study skills It is particularly appropriate for students

with learning disabilities, and those who struggle with reading (Kurzweil

Mainstream Technology (MT)

Any technology that is intended for use by the general population rather than for use entirely or primarily by people with disabilities (Institute of Medicine [U.S.] Committee on Disability in America, 2007)

Postsecondary Education

All instruction for persons who have completed or discontinued secondary

education and are beyond the age of compulsory school attendance (Putnam, 1981)

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

National law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of a mental or physical disability All entities that receive federal funding from the Department of

Education, including higher education institutions, must provide auxiliary aids to

“to ensure that no handicapped student is denied the benefits of, excluded from participation in, or otherwise subjected to discrimination under the education

program or activity operated by the recipient” (Office for Civil Rights, 1998, para.4).

Specific Learning Disorder (SLD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder with a biological origin that affects the brain’s ability to perceive or process verbal or nonverbal information efficiently and accurately (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) For the purpose of this project, SLD will be used interchangeably with LD

Universal Design (UD)

An item or product with that it can be used by individuals with or without

disabilities and without any additional adaptation (Lee & Templeton, 2008)

Organization of the Project

This project consists of four chapters and two appendices Chapter 1 presented anintroduction, which includes the background and statement of the problem, project limitations, and the organization of the project Chapter 2 includes the review of the literature to present a definition of LD and the various types, the impact of LDs in higher education, and an overview of the laws that ensure equal access to accommodations and

AT in higher education In addition, a summary of the types of AT used by persons with

LD is discussed as well as the various barriers that students with LD encounter in

accessing accommodations, including AT in higher education Chapter 3 describes the methodology used to develop and create the resource guides The summary and

recommendations for future research is provided in Chapter 4 Finally, Appendix A will include the resource guide of mainstream technologies that are comparable alternatives to

AT, and Appendix B will include the resource guide of supplemental technology-based tools to enhance and personalize learning and productivity Each appendix will provide aweb address to the author’s Google Drive account where they will be made available to students with LDs to view and download.

Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature as it pertains to students with

learning disabilities (LDs) in higher education First, a broad definition of LDs is

presented, followed by the types of LDs that exist Additionally, this chapter describes how LDs can impact student success in higher education and the federal laws that

mandate equal access to education and accommodations for students with LDs This chapter also provides an overview of assistive technology (AT) and how each type of learning disability (LD) can benefit from AT Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the barriers that hinder access to accommodations, which include AT in postsecondary school

Definition of Learning Disabilities

In 2007, the most prevalent disability among students ages 6 through 21 was specific learning disabilities (43.6%) (U.S Department of Education, 2006a) Between Fall 1998 and Fall 2007, the percentage of the population ages 6 through 21 under the disability category specific learning disabilities decreased from 4.4% to 3.9% (U.S Department of Education, 2006a) According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2011), approximately 8–10% of American children under the age

of 18 have some type of LD and 4% of adults are diagnosed with LDs (American

Psychiatric Association, 2013)

The term LD refers to an array of disorders in the domains of listening, speaking, reading and writing, mathematics, and reasoning (Givner & Brodwin, 2009) These disabilities affect an individual’s ability to store, process, and produce information and are often hidden by the individual’s general level of functioning (Givner & Brodwin, 2009) Willingham, Ford-Martin, and Frey (2011) noted that there are four types of difficulty with mental processing: input, or taking in information through the senses; integration, or making sense of the inputs; memory, or the storage of information in the brain; and output, which is the ability to express knowledge.

While LDs are considered to be neurological disorders that reflect difficulty with information processing in the brain, they are not automatic indicators of low intelligence (Willingham et al., 2011) In one study, Arceneaux (2006) noted that although they have difficulty performing literacy tasks, individuals with LD have average or above average intelligence Interviews with postsecondary students revealed that some never had difficulty in school prior to postsecondary school, and in some cases achieved honors andadvanced placement in classes Denhart (2008) went so far as to self-disclose that as a dyslexic, he was misunderstood as being “lazy.” However, in spite of his illiteracy, he holds a doctorate in educational policy

In addition, students with LD frequently have trouble with time management, focusing on a task and completing tasks (Givner & Brodwin, 2009) Persons with LD, especially dyslexia, have difficulty with executive functioning (Newhall, 2008)

Executive function allows people to perform activities such as planning, organizing,

strategizing, paying attention to and remembering details, and managing time However,

in persons with LD, especially dyslexia, executive functioning is impaired (National Center for Learning Disabilities Editorial Team, 2013b) In a study, Arceneaux (2006) found that those with a dual diagnosis of dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) reported extreme difficulty paying attention in class.

LDs can be lifelong conditions that vary in severity (National Institute of

Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2011) While some people have several overlapping LDs, others may have a single, isolated learning difficulty that may not significantly impact their lives (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2011) In addition to learning challenges, persons with LDs are frequently diagnosed with other developmental disorders such as AD/HD (Wolf, 2001) In a study that included 367 participants with LD, Arceneaux (2006) noted that almost half had a comorbid diagnosis

of AD/HD (49%)

Types of Learning Disabilities

According to Willingham et al (2011), the most common LDs affecting academic achievement are reading disorder (dyslexia), disorder of written expression (dysgraphia), and mathematics disorder (dyscalculia) Each type of LD is described below

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is defined as a language-based processing disorder that affects reading, writing, spelling, and sometimes verbal communication (National Center for Learning Disabilities Editorial Team, 2013b) According to Willingham et al (2011), persons with

LD experience a wide array of problems, including difficulty identifying groups of letters, difficulty relating letters to sounds, reversals and other errors involving letter

position, difficulty spelling, trouble with breaking words into syllables (syllabication), failure to recognize words, hesitant oral reading, and word-by-word rather than

contextual reading

People with dyslexia can also have problems with spoken language They may find it difficult to express themselves clearly, or to fully comprehend what others mean when they speak (International Dyslexia Association, 2007) Additionally, some may even mispronounce words (Givner & Brodwin, 2009) In an interview with college students with LD, Denhart (2008) found that lip-reading and speaking in a southern belle

or New York accent were among strategies used to understand spoken words For those who had trouble communicating verbally, students expressed an inability to speak their thoughts

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is the term used to describe writing disabilities or disorder of written expression (Willingham et al., 2011) An individual with dysgraphia may have trouble with the physical act of forming letters and words using a pen and paper and the

production of legible penmanship (DO-IT, 2004) For example, many children with dysgraphia must labor with written work much longer than their classmates, only to produce large, uneven writing that would be typically be appropriate for much younger children (Willingham et al., 2011) Additionally, those with dysgraphia also have

problems with repetitions and omissions of letters or words, punctuation and

capitalization errors, forming letters backwards from right to left, and spelling problems (Willingham et al., 2011)

Dyscalculia is a LD that involves mathematics (National Center for Learning Disabilities [NCLD] Team, 2013d) Persons with dyscalculia have average to above average intelligence but have difficulty with numbers or remembering facts over a long period of time (Job Accommodation Network [JAN], 2013) Summer (2011) noted frequent mistakes in math intelligence among students with LD According to

Willingham et al (2011), dyscalculia tends to be diagnosed around eight years of age and after reading and writing problems because language skills are needed long before the child begins school The authors also add that children with dyscalculia may have

trouble counting, reading and writing numbers, and measuring sizes or quantities of items However, persons with dyscalculia particularly have difficulty mastering basic operations of mathematics, remembering the sequence of steps in algorithms, and solvingmultistep mathematical problems (Givner & Brodwin, 2009)

In addition, this type of disability may also involve problems with nonverbal learning, including spatial organization (Willingham et al., 2011) According to JAN (2013), those with spatial problems may have difficulty aligning numbers into proper columns or may reverse numbers Additionally, persons with LD may have trouble with the telling of time, following a schedule, estimating grocery costs, and balancing a

checkbook (NCLD Editorial Team, 2013e)

Impact of Learning Disabilities in Higher Education

The American Psychiatric Association (2013) reported that persons with LDs experience lower rates of postsecondary education Similarly, in an analysis of the

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), McAllister (2008) determined that as recently as 2005, students with LD continue to have a significantly lower rate of

postsecondary enrollment than individuals with other learning or physical impairments and individuals without a disability Although overall enrollment may be low, individualswith LDs are more likely to enter vocational or two-year college programs and less likely

to enter four-year college programs Descriptive traits of students with LDs enrolled in postsecondary were also analyzed Results showed that individuals with LDs have lower levels of education and academic expectations, are more likely to be male, less likely to

be Hispanic/ Latino, to have a lower mental health score, and lower GPA

In a study that compared educational supports of undergraduate and graduate students with LD, Montoya (2009) discovered pre-existing conditions that led to the needfor support services The pre-existing conditions are as follows: (a) difficulty completingexams and course assignments during and outside the classroom setting; (b) difficulty completing specific types of exams (essay exams and multiple-choice tests); (c) the need for additional time to understand and learn the subject-matter; (d) inability to concentrate during class lecture and exams as well as remaining on task while performing

assignments independently; (e) poor study, organization, time management, listening, communication skills and test taking strategies; (f) difficulty with reading comprehensionand an established slow reading rate; (g) inability to complete required reading

assignments in a timely fashion; (h) difficulty with note taking and copying from the board; (i) math, language, and handwriting deficits; (j) failing to understand directions and recall information; (k ) difficulty memorizing facts; and (l) adjusting to the academic

demands of coursework in the college setting Many of these pre-existing conditions are evident in students with AD/HD According to Summer (2011), students with AD/HD experience similar problems to those with LD, such as slow and inefficient reading, slow essay writing, and frequent errors in math calculation and the mechanics of writing In addition to reading, writing, and math difficulties, DuPaul, Weyandt, O'Dell, and Varejao (2009) found that students with ADHD perceive themselves as struggling with both studyand organizational skills In sum, students with both LD and AD/HD reported some common problems.

Unfortunately, students with LD who do attend postsecondary schools experience low graduation rates Symonds, Schwartz, and Ferguson (2011) indicated that for

students without disabilities, the rate for graduation from a two-year institution (29%) is almost half the graduation rate for students at four-year institution (56%) While these statistics appear low, even for the general population, they are even smaller for students with LDs For example, Azarva (n.d.) reported that the postsecondary success rate for students with LDs is half that of the general population (28%) The U.S Department of Education (2006a), Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, and Office

of Special Education Programs reported that, annually, approximately 40% of students with LD drop out of postsecondary school

The three most common academic skill areas affected by LDs are reading,

writing, and arithmetic (Willingham et al., 2011) Denhart (2008) found that many students with LDs expressed difficulty with organization of concepts for reading and writing, oral and written comprehension, verbal communication, and different thought

processes Students specifically spoke of difficulty transferring their thoughts into written words, difficulty composing sentences, and identifying key information from large texts.

According to the NCLD Editorial Team (2013a), students with dysgraphia

particularly have trouble expressing written ideas in an organized manner, transferring thoughts into written words, and even misspell common words Arceneaux (2006) found that for students with LDs who reported problems with spelling and handwriting also reported difficulty with note-taking For example, class notes can be so illegible that the student cannot make any sense of them (Arceneaux, 2006) In another study conducted at

a private four-year college in the Midwest, Hadley (2007) found that all 10 students identified with dyslexia or reading difficulty admitted to feeling challenged by college writing expectations as compared to high school Students further reported having soughtextra time for tests, writing assistance, and assistance from note-takers to aid with writingassignments

Findings from a study by Denhart (2008) showed that a common theme among students with LDs is that they must put in extra time and effort when completing

assignments Students also expressed fear that while they were spending longer hours to complete assignments, their efforts go unnoticed by instructors Furthermore, 72% of thestudents noted that albeit their excessive workload, the product was not reflective of their efforts In another study, Arceneaux (2006) found that many students with LDs reported the need to do homework assignments well in advance as to not fall behind

According to Sullivan (2005), students with LDs become discouraged when they fall behind in their mathematics class, and withdraw Additionally, for those who spend great amounts of time and effort and take advantage of college tutoring services and faculty office hours, fail the course In addition, Sullivan (2005) observed common characteristics among these students were writing and/or copying number of figures incorrectly; difficulty with sequences of math steps; difficulty naming math terms,

concepts, and operations; incorrectly decoding math context into math symbols; incorrectinterpretation and use of numerical symbols and arithmetic signs; incorrect computations;trial-and-error sequence of calculator keystrokes; and immature appearance of work on paper Furthermore, students were unable to explain their methodology to problem solving despite achieving correct answers

Federal Laws in Higher Education

According to Griffiths (2003), LDs can affect classroom performance, making it difficult for these students to succeed without supplemental classroom accommodations

He further noted that supplemental educational services came about as a result of the civilrights movement to provide students with disabilities equal access to educational

opportunities In higher education, students with LDs are assured services by Section

504 of The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of

1990 (Hadley, 2007) The following sections discuss the federal laws that seek to provideaccommodations to students with LDs in higher education In addition, the federal law that seeks to ensure persons with disabilities access to AT is also reviewed

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is a federal law designed to protect the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal funding from the U.S Department of Education (The Chicago Office of the Office for Civil Rights, 2003) According to the U.S Department of Justice (2009), Section 504 states that “no qualified individual with a disability in the United States shall be excludedfrom, denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under” (para 4) any program or activity that either receives federal financial assistance or is conducted by anyexecutive agency or the United States Postal Service

Each federal agency has its own set of Section 504 regulations that apply to its own programs (U.S Department of Justice, 2009) Agencies that provide federal fundingalso have section 504 regulations covering entities that receive federal aid (U.S

Department of Justice, 2009) Common requirements to these regulations include

reasonable accommodation for employees with disabilities, program accessibility,

effective communication with people who have hearing or vision disabilities; and

accessible new construction and alterations (U.S Department of Justice, 2009) Because most school districts and higher education institutions in the country receive federal aid, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act protects all students in public education from discrimination or limited access to services on the basis of a disability (Cawthon & Cole, 2010) Section 504 has generally been the basis for disabilities protections in the nation’spublic schools because Section 504 preceded the enactment of the ADA by nearly 20 years (Cortiella & Kaloi, 2009)

As it pertains to postsecondary schools, Section 504 requires schools to provide necessary accommodations for students with disabilities (Cawthon & Cole, 2010) According to Cortiella and Kaloi (2009), institutions of higher education are required to provide qualified students with appropriate academic adjustments and auxiliary aids and services that are necessary to provide the student an equal opportunity to participate in a school’s program Furthermore, they noted that schools use Section 504 to support students with LDs who need instructional accommodations Givner and Brodwin (2009) stated that reasonable accommodations include equal opportunity for acceptance,

providing or modifying equipment, and modifying instructional methodology and

examination procedures to ensure equal opportunities to learn

In addition, the Galvin Group (2014) cautions that it is very complicated to determine if a specific service is required by state and federal law since accommodations should be provided on an individualized basis, after engaging in an interactive process with the student with a disability However, institutions are not required to provide an academic adjustment that would fundamentally alter the nature of a service, program, or activity or impose undue financial hardship (Duncan, 2011) In the case that an

accommodation is found to be unreasonable, schools are only required to provide the most basic accommodation (Cawthon & Cole, 2010)

Americans with Disabilities Act

The ADA was passed in 1990 and was the first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities (Cortiella & Kaloi, 2009) According to the U.S Department of Justice (2009), the ADA “prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in

employment, State and local government, public accommodations, commercial facilities, transportation, and telecommunications” (para 1) The ADA defines disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities (U.S Department of Justice, 2009).

Effective on January 1st, 2009, Congress then passed the Americans with

Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA) of 2008 (NCLD Public Policy Team, 2014) According to Cortiella and Kaloi (2009), prior to ADAAA, the definition of major life activities included but was not limited to the following: caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working The ADAAA now acknowledges activities such as eating, sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending, reading, concentrating, thinking, and communicating (Cortiella & Kaloi, 2009)

According to the NCLD Public Policy Team (2014), there is no specific mention

of LDs in ADAAA However, under the law, learning, reading, thinking, and

concentrating are all considered major life activities among others listed in the law (NCLD Public Policy Team, 2014) The ADAAA requires a broader interpretation of disability by schools, testing agencies and employers than the original law As a result, individuals with LD should have an easier time qualifying for accommodations (NCLD Public Policy Team, 2014) Additionally, Cortiella and Kaloi (2009) noted that a student with LD who is performing well academically may still be a qualified individual under both the ADAAA and Section 504

Title II of the ADA prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in all

state and local governmental entities, including public colleges and universities

(Disability Rights California, 2012) Once an individual has been identified as having a disability, they are entitled to accommodations that enable him/her to participate in activities at an equal playing field as their non-disabled peers (Cawthon & Cole, 2010) However, entitlement to protection under the ADA is dependent upon the student to inform the school of his/her disability in order to request accommodations (Cawthon & Cole, 2010) In addition, Lindstrom (2007) noted that although guided by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the process by which accommodation decisions are made for individuals with LD in

postsecondary settings varies across institutions of higher education

Assistive Technology Act

The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act is a national law that provides AT to individuals with disabilities The law was enacted and signed by President Reagan on August 19th, 1988 (National Association of Special

Education Teachers, 2009) Also known as the Assistive Technology Act (ATA), it is the only U.S federal legislation that provides funding for AT programs (Council for

Exceptional Children, 2005) The purpose of the ATA is to assist state governments in addressing the needs of persons with disabilities, of all ages, by promoting awareness of, and access to, AT so that they could participate on an equal playing field in all

environments, including postsecondary school (National Dissemination Center for

Children with Disabilities, 2009)

On June 14th, 2004, the ATA of 1998 was reauthorized The ATA of 2004 requires states to use the bulk of federal funds to assist individuals in acquiring AT (Council for

Exceptional Children, 2005) Each state receives a grant to fund an Assistive TechnologyAct Project (ATAP) to ensure that services are provided to persons with disabilities for their entire life span, as well as to their families or guardians, service providers, and agencies and other entities that are involved in providing services such as education and employment to persons with disabilities (Relton, 2005) The Assistive Technology Act of

2004 defines an AT device as “any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities” (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, 2009, para 4)

Accommodations

Lindstrom (2007) noted that accommodations are a critical aspect of access to andopportunities in higher education for students with LDs According to Harris (2013), services to California community college students with disabilities include the following:

Test-proctoring, learning disability assessment, specialized counseling, interpreter

or captioning services for hearing-impaired or deaf students, mobility assistance, note-taker services, reader services, speech services, transcription services, on-campus transportation, specialized tutoring, access to adaptive equipment, job development/placement, registration assistance, special parking and specialized instruction (p 1)

In addition, Griffiths (2003) noted that standard institutional modifications for students with LDs include institutional modifications, such as priority registration, taped textbooks, note-taking modifications (note-takers, lecture notes provided by the

instructor), tape recorders or laptop computers (provided by the student); testing

modifications (extended time, alternative location, different formats, readers, oral exams),use of word processor, use of aids during exams (spell-checkers, enlarged tests, adapted answer sheets), auxiliary aids and equipment including computer screen, and readers or voice recognition

According to Lindstrom (2007), for students with reading and writing disabilities enrolled in postsecondary institutions, it is important that accommodations are

individually determined and based on the functional impact of the condition and its likelyinteraction with the environment (e.g., course assignments, program requirements,

academic setting, etc.) In addition, gathering background information about the

student’s history of accommodation use (e.g., frequency, effectiveness, training, etc.) is critical As such, accommodation recommendations may vary among individuals with the same disability diagnosis

In a study that surveyed the necessity of accommodations of first-year college students with reading disabilities, Hadley (2007) found that while most students utilized atesting center to take their exams for the distraction-reduced environment and privacy it offered, all students reported using the extra time accommodation for testing on a regular basis and underscored its importance Several students indicated this testing

accommodation as particularly helpful during essay exams or in-class writing

assignments In addition, access to class notes was an essential accommodation as the majority of students admitted that they were unclear on what to write down during class lectures

Assistive Technology

AT is an accommodation that meets the demands of students with LD because they can enhance the individual’s learning abilities by circumventing deficits (Day & Edwards, 1996) AT has the potential to enhance the quality of life for students with LDs

by providing them with a means to circumvent their deficits and highlight their abilities (GreatSchools Staff, 2007) According to Jendron (2013), AT can support both

compensatory and remedial approaches for a student She explained these approaches with the following examples:

A compensatory approach might be when a student listens to a digital version of the book for English class to answer questions about it, with the goal of bypassing

a reading problem, not of learning how to read If the student listens to the book

or has a computer reading a scanned or digital version of the book while

following along with the text and trying to learn unfamiliar words, this would be aremedial approach, designed to improve areas of deficiency Both approaches have value Using only the remedial approach (sometimes with little benefit) can lead to burnout Discouraged students benefit more from more immediate

solutions to particular problems For example, it may be best to give up the goal

of learning to spell, in favor of using a “spell check,” so that a student can focus

on getting thoughts on paper and not mechanical details that can become

overwhelming barriers to self-expression (para 9)

In a review of AT services, Lee and Templeton (2008) found that studies

consistently show that AT use among persons with disabilities promotes self-confidence,