IJALEL vol 3 no 6 2014

6; November 2014 Table of Contents Articles A Comparison between the Use of Nominalization in Medical Papers by English and Iranian Writers The Relationship between Epistemological Be

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International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

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· Associate Professor John I Liontas, University of South Florida, USA

· Dr Zosia Golebiowski, Deakin University, Melbourne campus, Australia

· Professor Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

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Editors-in-Chief

Associate Professor John I Liontas, TESOL

University of South Florida, USA

Dr Zosia Golebiowski, TESOL Deakin University, Melbourne Campus, Australia Professor Jayakaran Mukundan, ELT

University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Managing Editor

Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, TESL, AIAC, Australia

Senior Associate Editors

Professor Hossein Farhadi, Assessment

University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA Professor Haifa Al-Buainain, Applied Linguistics Qatar University, Qatar

Professor Ali Miremadi, Language, Linguistics

California State University, USA Associate Professor Yuko Goto Butler, Educational Linguistics University of Pennsylvania, USA Professor Kazem Lotfipour-Saedi

Ottawa University, Canada

Associate Professor Kimberley Brown, Applied Linguistics Portland State University, USA

Professor Mohammad Ziahosseini, Linguistics

Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

Associate Professor Mojgan Rashtchi, Applied Linguistics IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran

Professor Khalid Alseghayer, Applied Linguistics

Imam University, Saudi Arabia

Associate Professor Shameem Rafik-Galea, Applied Linguistics University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Professor Biook Behnam, ELT

IAU Tabriz, Iran

Associate Professor María-Isabel González-Cruz, English Studies University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Spain Professor Juliane House, Applied Linguistics

University of Hamburg, Germany

Associate Professor John W Schwieter, Linguistics Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada

Associate Professor Huai-zhou Mao, Applied Linguistics

Changji University, China

Associate Professor Moussa Ahmadfian, English Literature Arak University, Arak, Iran

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Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia

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Professor Simin Karimi, Linguistics

University of Arizona, USA

Associate Professor Christina Alm-Arvius, Linguistics Stockholm University, Sweden

Professor Mats Oscarson, English Language Education

University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Associate Professor Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya, Literature University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Professor Meixia Li, Linguistics

Beijing International Studies University, China

Associate Professor Parviz Maftoon, TEFL IAU, Science & Research Branch, Tehran, Iran Professor Ruzy Suliza Hashim, English Literature

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Associate Professor Ali S M Al-Issa, Applied Linguistics Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Professor Ruth Roux, Applied Linguistics

El Colegio de Tamaulipas & Universidad Autonoma de Tamaulipas, Mexico

Associate Professor Ahmad M Al-Hassan, Applied Linguistics Petra University, Amman, Jordan

Professor Kourosh Lachini, Applied Linguistics

University of Qatar, Qatar Associate Professor Seyyed Ali Ostovar-Namaghi, TEFL Shahrood University of Technology, Iran Professor Sebnem Toplu, English Literature

Ege University, Turkey Associate Professor IAU, Mashhad, Iran Khalil Motallebzadeh, TEFL

Professor Eugenio Cianflone, TEFL

University of Messina, Italy Associate Professor Yolanda Gamboa, English Literature Florida Atlantic University, USA Professor Roger Barnard, Applied Linguistics

The University of Waikato, New Zealand Associate Professor Xitao Fu, Applied Linguistics Zhanjiang Normal University, China

Associate Professor leyli Jamali, English Literature

IAU Tabriz, Iran

Associate Editors

Dr Christopher Conlan, Applied Linguistics

Curtin University, Australia Dr Usaporn Sucaromana, TEFL Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

Dr Irene Theodoropoulou, Applied Linguistics

Qatar University, Qatar Dr Ramin Akbari, ELT Tarbiat Modares University, Iran

Dr Anne Dragemark Oscarson, Language Assessment

University of Gothenburg, Sweden Dr Ahmed Gumaa Siddiek, ELT Shaqra University KSA

Dr Nader Assadi Aidinlou, Applied Linguistics

IAU Ahar, Iran

Dr Reza Kafipour, ELT Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Dr Saeed Yazdani, English Literature

IAU Bushehr, Iran

Dr Vahid Nimehchisalem, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Shaofeng Li, Applied Linguistics

University of Auckland, New Zealand

Dr Natasha Pourdana, TEFL Gyeongju University, South Korea

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Dr Sasan Baleghizadeh, TEFL

Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Dr Nooreen Noordin, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

IJALEL Editorial Team

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Dr Minoo Alemi, Applied Linguistics

Sharif University of Technology, Iran

Dr Nasrin Hadidi Tamjid, Applied Linguistics IAU, Tabriz, Iran

Dr Javanshir Shibliyev, Linguistics

Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Dr Bilge Öztürk, Linguistics Kocaeli University, Turkey

Dr Masoud Zoghi, TESL

IAU Ahar, Iran

Dr Md Motiur Rahman, Applied Linguistics Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Dr Rachel Adams-Goertel, Composition & TESOL

Pennsylvania State University, USA

Dr Touran Ahour, TEFL IAU Tabriz, Iran

Dr Arshya Keyvanfar, TEFL

IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran

Dr Efstathios (Stathis) Selimis, Psycholinguistics Technological Education Institute of Kalamata, Greece

Dr Ferit Kılıçkaya, ELT

Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey

Dr Karen Janet McKinney, English Literature Girne American University, Cyprus

Dr Obaid Hamid, Applied Linguistics

The University Of Queensland, Australia

Distinguished Advisors

Professor Brian Tomlinson, Material Development

Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

Professor Dan Douglas, Applied Linguistics Iowa State University, USA

Professor Charles Goodwin, Applied Linguistics

University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Professor Roger Nunn, Communication The Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE Professor Hossein Nassaji, Applied Linguistics

University of Victoria, Canada

Professor Jalal Sokhanvar , English Literature Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Professor Susan Gass, Linguistics

Michigan State University, USA

Professor Claire Kramsch, Applied Linguistics University of California, Berkeley, USA

Advisors

Dr Ian Bruce, Discourse Analysis and Genre Studies

The university of Waikato, New Zealand Dr Steve Neufeld, ELT Middle East Technical University, Cyprus

Dr Kristina Smith, ELT

Pearson Education , Turkey Dr Sepideh Mirzaei Fard, English Studies National University of Malaysia

Dr Shadi Khojasteh rad, Applied Linguistics

University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Dr Atieh Rafati, ELT & literature Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Dr Saeed Kalajahi, English Literature

IAU Tabriz, Iran Dr Majid Hamdani, Educational Technology University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Meryem ÖZDEMİR, ELT

Çukurova University, Turkey Dr Oytun Sözüdoğru, ELT University of York, UK

Editorial Pannel

Dr Marilyn Lewis, Language Teaching

DALSL, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Dr Noelia Malla García, English Literature Complutense University of Madrid, Spain

Dr Omid Akbari, TESL

Imam Reza International University, Iran Dr John Wallen, English Literature University Of Nizwa, Oman

Dr Hassan Soleimani, Applied Linguistics

Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran Dr Shannon Kelly Hillman, Applied Linguistics University of Hawaii, Hawaii

Dr Isa SPAHIU, Linguistics

International Balkan University, Macedonia Dr Yasemin Aksoyalp, ELT Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland

Dr Azadeh Nemati, ELT

IAU, Jahrom, Iran

Dr Ali KARAKAŞ, ELT University of Southampton, UK

Dr İsmail Zeki Dikici, ELT

Muğla University, Turkey

Dr Ebrahim Samani, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Mahdi Alizadeh Ziaei, English Literature

The university of Edinburgh, UK

Dr Eleni Griva, Applied Linguistics University of Western Macedonia, Greece

Dr Ruzbeh Babaee, English Literature

University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Sima Modirkhamene, ELT Urmia University, Iran

Dr Fan-Wei Kung , TESOL

Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Dr Bora DEMİR, ELT Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

Dr Hossein Saadabadi, TESL

University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Kenan DİKİLİTAŞ, ELT

Gediz University, Turkey

Dr Haleh Zargarzadeh, English Literature

Urmia University, Iran

Dr Farah Ghaderi, English Literature Urmia University, Iran

Dr Orkun Janbay, ELT

Qatar University, Qatar

Dr Farid Parvaneh, English Literature IAU, Iran

Dr Tin T Dang, Applied Linguistics

Vietnam National University, Vietnam

Dr Erdem AKBAS, ELT University of York, UK

Dr Abdolvahed Zarifi, TESL

Yasouj University, Iran

Dr Afshin Soori, TESL IAU, Larestan, Iran

Dr Neslihan Önder Ozdemir, ELT

Uludağ University, Turkey

Dr Mohammad Javad Riasati, TESL IAU Shiraz, Iran

Dr Cecilia Chu, English Linguistic Studies

Hong Kong Institute of Education, China

Dr Reza Vaseghi, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Bakhtiar Naghdipour, ELT

Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Dr Ali Asghar Yousefi Azarfam, TESL IAU Tabriz, Iran

Dr Naemeh Nahavandi, TESL

IAU, Tabriz, Iran

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Vol 3 No 6; November 2014

Table of Contents

Articles

A Comparison between the Use of Nominalization in Medical Papers by English and Iranian Writers

The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Motivational Components of Self-Regulated

Learning Strategies of Male and Female EFL Learners across Years of Study

The Relationship between Self-efficacy Beliefs and Autonomy among Iranian Intermediate and Upper

Intermediate EFL Learners

New Historicism in Translation Studies

Self-perceived Listening Comprehension Strategies Used by Iranian EFL Students

Sara Nowrouzi Tam Shu Sim Gholamreza Zareian Vahid Nimehchisalem 35 Intermediate Level Learners’ Vocabulary Guessing and Recognizing through Sound Symbolism

A Gender-based Study of Iranian EFL Learners’ Pragmatic Awareness: The Role of Receptive

Skill-based Teaching

Blinds Bluffing of Vision: Paul de Man on Text

Iranian EFL Learners’ Familiarity with Reduced Forms in Spoken English based on their Proficiency

Level

A Critical Review of EFL Writing Syllabus at Tertiary Level in the Arab World

The End of Panopticon/panopticism in William Gibson’s Mona Lisa Overdrive : A Baudrillardian

Reading

vii

Applied Literature for Healing, Transformation and Empowerment

The Transcendental Selves of Women Characters in Katherine Mansfield’s “At the Bay”: The Case of

Linda

When Learning English is Compulsory at School: Fluctuations in L2 Motivational Self System

Motivation and Autonomy as Predictors of Foreign Language Proficiency among the Iranian Students of

Distance vs Traditional Universities

The Effect of Reading Involvement through Open-Ended Strategy vs Fill-in- the- Blanks Strategy on

Young EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension Ability

Rita Salehi Sepehr Esmaeil Bagheridoust Massood Yazdani Moghaddam 124 The Impact of Teaching Grammatical Structures on Writing Ability of Iranian Students

Is Knowledge of Semantic Macro-Structure Effective on Writing Performance of Iranian EFL Students?

Studying the Identity of Iranian Classical Effective Literature and Contemporary Impressible Literature

Proper Nouns in Translation: Should They Be Translated?

Relationship between EFL In-service Teachers’ Language Learning Strategies and their Beliefs toward

Teaching Methodologies

The Effect of Using Educational Computer Games on Recall and Retention of Spelling in Iranian EFL

Learners

viii

Colorful ESL Test Papers And Spatial Intelligence: Should One Simply Throw Paint on Exam Papers to

Ameliorate them in the Eyes of Spatially Intelligent Candidates?

Investigating the Manifestation of Textual Themes in Argumentative English Assignments Written by

Iraqi and Australian Postgraduate Students

Pronunciation Issues and Varieties of English from an EIL Perspective: A Survey of Outer and

Expanding Circle Learners’ Beliefs

P A Jungian Approach to Self-fragmentation of Twentieth Century in Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty Four

Crossing Metacognitive Strategy Awareness in Listening Performance: An Emphasis on Language

Proficiency

Nathaniel Hawthorne And The Social Morality

Exploring Non-Native EFL Teachers’ Knowledge Base: Practices and Perceptions

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 3 No 6; November 2014

Copyright © Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

A Comparison between the Use of Nominalization in Medical

Papers by English and Iranian Writers

Ali Mahbudi Paramedical school, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Ladan Mahbudi Fars Research and Science University, Iran Ehya Amalsaleh (Corresponding Author) Paramedical School, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

To this end, the abstract section of 20 authentic English medical articles written by native English writers and 20 abstracts written by Iranian authors, drawn from highly influential medical journals, were selected These abstracts were analyzed and compared based on the frequency of nominalization used and the level of lexical density in them The findings revealed that Iranian writers used less nominalization in their writings

Keywords: Grammatical metaphor, Nominalization, Medical writing, Lexical density

1 Introduction

Owing to the importance of scientific writings, in general, and medical writings , in particular, in sharing the findings of their studies, the present work intends to focus on nominalization used in medical writing to communicate with the target audience Scientific writing, as pinpointed by scholars ( namely, Galve (1998 and Biber, & Gray , 2010)), follows

a different structure, compared with the spoken version To Galve, one important feature of the written scientific register is the use of noun phrases or nominalizations He further argues that these nominal groups, which are very common in English medical journal texts, are not static They are, instead, dynamic resources enabling the representation of shared semantic components in different ways As systemic functional linguistics views nominalizations one of the prominent factors frequently used in formal scientific texts, this study is to compare and contrast this feature in medical papers by English and Iranian scholars

1 1 Systematic Functional Linguistics

Languages can be viewed from different perspectives A prominent viewpoint by which languages are analyzed and studied is Systemic Functional Linguistics (Halliday, 1985, Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004) This trend treats language

as a semantic configuration of meanings that are typically associated with a particular context In other words, language cannot be separated from either its speaker or its context

1.2 Metafunctions of language

Systemic functional linguistics is a functional theory of language in which language is viewed in terms of how it functions in reality, in our real life In other words, the basic question for studying language in this theory is how language helps us to convey our intentions the way we do Halliday (1985), the founder of the theory, interprets this functioning of language in terms of three metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual The whole model of systemic functional linguistics is based on the relationship and interaction between these three metafunctions The ideational metafunction of language deals with language as representation In other words, it focuses on the role of language in representing and shaping reality (Taverniers, 2004; Briones, et al., 2003) The interpersonal metafunction views language as interaction The textual metafunction is concerned with the textual organization of the language, i.e discourse The relationship and interaction between these three metafunctions is the basis of the whole model of systemic functional linguistics (Thompson, 1996) Each of these metafunctional representations of language can be

IJALEL 3(6):1-6, 2014 2

expressed through metaphorical expressions, introduced by Halliday (1985) Hence, we may have ideational metaphors

as well as those of interpersonal and textual

1.3 Grammatical Metaphor

1.3.1 Metaphor

The word metaphor is derived from the Greek meta-, which means “beyond” and pherein, which means “carry”

Therefore, metaphor is a kind of movement from one thing to another; that is, one thing is carried beyond itself to something else which is somehow different (Taverniers, 2004)

There are two types of metaphor, namely lexical and grammatical The former is a feature belonging to the vocabulary

of a language In fact, lexemes express new, metaphorical meanings (Taverniers, 2004) The following examples show how some words are used metaphorically:

The sky is crying./the face of a watch/The noise gave me a headache

Grammatical metaphors refer to grammatical forms or grammatical means of expression (Briones, et al., 2003) Generally, we realize people, places and things by means of nouns, actions by verbs and circumstances by prepositional phrases and adverbs However, all meanings may have more than one way of realization For example, in written language, particularly in the language of science the realizations of the semantic functions of the clause are not typical but marked This realization forms grammatical metaphor (GM) A GM is “the process whereby meanings are multiply-coded at the level of grammar” (Martin, 1993b:230) Thus grammatical metaphor is a substitution of one grammatical

structure by another, e.g “his discovery” instead of “he discovered” In this example, the lexical items change in

function but not in meaning Grammatical metaphor involves a type of metaphorical movement For example, a clause changes into a noun phrase or an adverb changes into an adjective In contrast to lexical metaphor, grammatical metaphor is, in fact, an alternative grammatical resource in language expressing the same meaning in another form or structure Note the following examples:

1 We could not investigate the ribosomes until the EM was developed

1a The investigation of ribosomes had to await the development of the EM

1.4 Nominalization

Halliday (1998) maintains that a clause is the most common form by which a process is normally expressed However, this process can metaphorically be expressed by means of a noun phrase In fact, the grammar’s potential for nominalizing, turning verbs and adjectives into nouns, is exploited to transcategorize, i.e to derive one grammatical category from another (Randaccio, 2004) Nominalization is the most common type of grammatical metaphor used in language, particularly in the language of science Scientific discourse is a highly nominalized discourse because nominalization can be used for categorization and taxonomic organization This grammatical metaphor can be used for reasoning and logical progression (Randaccio, 2004) According to functional linguists, nominalization is one of the primary means of creating grammatical metaphor which affects the expression of written English The use of nominalization in scientific articles helps to condense information Thus, in addition to saving the writer from repeating long descriptions, this linguistic device reduces longer phrasal constructions, making scientific language more compact, more functional Nominalizations produce a greater concentration of the experiential meaning and a smaller incidence

of interpersonal elements, such as personal pronouns and modal verbs, thus presenting information in a less personalized way (Taverniers, 2004 ) Furthermore, nominalization contributes to the formality of the text This, in turn, leads to the text lexical density, as claimed by Ure (1977) Hence, nominalization and lexical density both affect the formality of the text to a great degree Consider these examples:

The association between spontaneous hypoglycemia and mortality was eliminated after adjustment for comorbidities

In this sentence, the process ‘associate’ becomes a thing ‘association’ The verb associate is nominalized

These findings highlight that clarification is needed to guide choice of antithrombotic therapy for patients with both atrial fibrillation and acute myocardial infarction

In this example, the processes ‘clarify’ and ‘choose’ become things ‘clarification’ and ‘choice’ The verbs ‘clarify’ and

‘choose’ are nominalized

A subtype of scientific discourse is the language used in medical texts and articles As the use of nominalization varies

in different types of scientific discourse (i.e., engineering, physics.), this study intends to investigate the use of the nominalization as the subcategory of the grammatical metaphor and lexical density in the abstract sections of medical articles written by native English writers and their Persian counterparts

2 Review of the literature

The studies on the use of grammatical metaphors in scientific discourse have come to interesting conclusions in the

relevant literature Gotti, M (2002) analyzed a sentence taken from Newton’s Treatise on Opticks: “Now those colors

argue a diverging and separation of the heterogeneous rays from one another by means of their unequal refractions.” and concluded that the better flow of discourse and inclusion of more information in this sentence is due to the process

of nominalization In this regard, Randaccio, M (2004) in her analysis of scientific discourse comes to the conclusion that the concept of grammatical metaphor is not a simple rewording of another form or structure She maintains that when there is a shift in the metaphoric mode, grammar, in fact, creates new meanings She continues that a grammatical

IJALEL 3(6):1-6, 2014 3

metaphor gets into a text instantly for immediate requirement of a discourse This grammatical metaphor may then become a systematic construct, i.e something for the long-term requirement of the discourse Furthermore, Vu Thi, M (2012) in his MA thesis on the use of grammatical metaphor in English pharmaceutical discourse, finds out that English pharmaceutical discourse authors used grammatical metaphors in a large proportion of papers with a high frequency In fact, 95.45% of the clauses analyzed by the researcher has shown evidence of grammatical metaphor The researcher comes to the conclusion that English pharmaceutical authors mostly make use of ideational grammatical metaphor David Banks (2005) has also explored the origin of nominalization in scientific writings He maintains that although nominalization is a common feature of scientific style nowadays, it has not always been the case He further argues that different scientific branches, e.g biological and physical sciences, present dissimilar characteristics in their use of nominalization He attributes this difference in the increased use of nominalizations between various branches of science to their contexts However, he finds that the trend is towards an increased use of nominalizations in scientific discourse Susana Briones and her colleagues (2003) in their analysis of grammatical metaphors in scientific English maintain that language and science go together and when one learns science, they create a language to codify, extend and transmit scientific knowledge Finally, they argue that nominalization in general and grammatical metaphors in particular are far from being arbitrary features They are, in fact, essential resources through which scientific discourse

is constructed In another comparative study by GAO Wenyan (2012) on the use of nominalization in medical papers

by native speakers of English and Chinese writers of English medical papers, the researcher notices that Chinese writers

do not use nominalization as frequently as native English writers Investigating the frequency of the use of nominalization in medical papers and examining the lexical density in those papers, Wenyan (ibid) comes to the conclusion that metaphorical expression is more characteristic of the language of native English speakers than those with English as a second or foreign language like Chinese The definition of lexical density given by Halliday is "the number of lexical items, as a proportion of the number of running words" (Halliday1985:64) Yvonne Tsai (2013) in a study concerning the analysis of patent abstracts mentions that lexical density can be used as an indicator of text type by measuring the number of content words used in a text It is concluded that written texts are more formal than spoken texts, and thus it is reasonable to assume that written texts are lexically denser than spoken texts Technical texts and especially the science texts are texts with a heavy information load For this reason, the lexical densities of scientific texts may be considerably higher, depending on how lexical items are distributed in the grammatical structure

3 Method

As the purpose of the study was to compare and investigate the use of nominalization and lexical density in medical papers produced by native English writers and their Persian counterparts, the abstract sections of 40 authentic articles in the field of medicine, drawn from influential journals, were chosen for analysis Twenty of the English articles were written by native English authors and 20 by Persian writers The abstracts were selected through a random selection written in 2010 through 2013 Thus, all of the abstracts had an equal and independent chance of being selected The

medical journals from which the native English speakers’ abstracts were selected were The American Journal of Medicine (2010-2013) and British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research (2010-2013) and the journal from which the abstracts written by Persian authors were selected was Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal (2010-2013)

The reason why the abstract section was chosen was that this part of any article contains the most compact information The abstract, in fact, is the densest section of any article, so the use of nominalization in this part is more likely First, the frequency of the occurrence of nominalization and level of lexical density in each text were assessed The frequency of nominalization was obtained through the division of nominalization by the total words in the whole text A frequency of 1/13 for example means that nominalization occurs on average once every 13 words of the text This method has already been used by researchers for this purpose (Wenyan, 2012) Lexical density was measured by the number of lexical items divided by the number of ranking clauses Lexical density isa matter of degree, i.e., it is meaningful when compared with lexical density in another text This procedure was followed for all medical papers written by native English and Persian writers The frequency of the occurrence of the nominalization and lexical density

for the native English writers was then compared with that for Persian writers, both qualitatively and quantitatively

Some examples of lexical density are as follows:

1 a: Decreases of TC, LDL and TG may be related to tomato antioxidant effect This course in human required more

investigations

In these sentences, the nouns ‘decreases’ and ‘investigation’ derived from the verbs ‘decrease’ and ‘investigate’

(Lexical density= 4.5; 9 lexical items and 2 ranking clause)

The above sentence would be written as follows if the writer used the congruent version (i.e., the version in which grammatical metaphors, and hence nominalization are absent

1b: If TC, LDL and TG decrease, this may be related to tomato antioxidant effect Scientists should investigate this course in human

(Lexical density= 3; 9 lexical items and 3 ranking clauses)

In the above example, the lexical density of 1a is higher than 1b Therefore, example 1a is a more formal sentence

Tomato and tomato paste supplementation decreased TC, LDL and TG concentration significantly (P < 0.05) compared

to chole group

IJALEL 3(6):1-6, 2014 4

In the sentence above the verbs ‘supplement’ and ‘concentrate’ are changed to nouns supplementation and

concentration; in other words, they are nominalized

(Lexical density= 10; 10 lexical items and 1 ranking clauses)

Over the past decades, a considerable interest has developed in the identification of genes that contribute to the

etiology of orofacial cleft

In this example the verb ‘identify’ has been changed to noun, i.e., it is nominalized

(Lexical density= 5.5; 11 lexical items and 2 ranking clauses)

4 Results

4.1The Frequency of the occurrence of Nominalization in Each Text

To obtain the frequency of nominalization, we need to divide the number of nominalization by the number of total words in the whole text Table 1 displays the frequency of nominalization used by the native English writers in the field

of medicine As we can see, English native writers tend to make use of nominalizations frequently in their medical articles Moreover, Table 2 displays the trend of using nominalizations by Persian writes of medical articles

Table 1 Frequency of Nominalization in AB (abstract section) by native English Writers

Table 2 Frequency of Nominalization in AB (abstract section) by Iranian Writers

As the above Table shows, unlike native speakers of English, the Persian counterparts use such forms very sparsely

Tables 3 and 4 display lexical density in the medical articles written by English native speakers and their Persian counterparts, respectively A comparison of these Tables reveals the higher level of lexical density used by the former than that by the latter

Table 3 Lexical density in AS (abstract section) written by native English writers

Table 4 Lexical density in AS (abstract section) written by Iranian writers

Ir1 Ir2 Ir3 Ir4 Ir5 Ir6 Ir7 Ir8 Ir9 Ir10

As the purpose of this study was to compare the use of nominalizations and level lexical density used in medical articles

by English native speakers and their Persian counterparts, the abstract sections of 40 English articles (20 written by English writers and 20 by Persian writes) were selected for data analysis The analysis showed the more frequent use of such structures with higher level of lexical density by English writers The findings of our study are in compliance with what Wenyan (2012) has found In his study, Wenyyan found out thatin spite of the crucial role of nominalization in the cohesion and coherence of medical papers and the improvement of formality and the removal of ambiguity, Chinese academic writers in the field of medicine did not use nominalizations as frequently as native English writers Our study showed that the Iranian academic writers in the field of medicine used fewer cases of nominalization than their native English counterparts As Wenyan argues, it seems that the use of metaphorical expressions is more typical of the language of native English speakers than those with English as a second or foreign language like the Chinese or Persian academics This might be due to the fact these learners are not as fluent and competent in English as the native speakers In line with this, Thompson (2000) argues that as nominalization plays an important role in encapsulating the information, writers can contain a large amount of information in a comparatively small place through nominalization Those who have a good command of a language can do this more easily and more conveniently The finding may suggest that English writers tended to use more cases of nominalizations in their articles Likewise, Vu Thi Mau (2012) has found that the use of nominalization is a typical feature of pharmaceutical discourse produced by English writers

As is shown in Tables 3 and 4, the abstract sections by Iranian writers have lower lexical density than those of native academic writers This is mostly due to the fewer cases of nominalizations used by Iranian writers In other words, in medical articles written by Iranian authors, there are more ranking clauses to share the lexical items In fact, when one masters the language, he/she can combine two or more grammatical structures in one nominal group That is why we can find a far higher density of lexical items in the written language by natives As we have found, the second/foreign language writers who do not have a good command of the language do not make use of this strategy Generally speaking, in formal written language, there are fewer clauses; in other words, two or more grammatical structures are combined in one nominal group Halliday (1998) argues that the written language is typically more complex because it

is lexically dense This notion reveals the fact that lexical items are found at a far higher density in the written language

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pp 86-93

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 3 No 6; November 2014

Copyright © Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Motivational Components of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies of Male and Female EFL Learners across

Years of Study

Roya Nayebi Limoodehi Department of Foreign Languages, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran

E-mail:roya.nayebi11@gmail.com Abdorreza Tahriri (Corresponding author) Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities,

University of Guilan, Iran E-mail: atahriri@gmail.com

Received: 27-04-2014 Accepted: 09-06-2014 Published: 01-11-2014 doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.3n.6p.7 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.3n.6p.7

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between five dimensions of the epistemological beliefs regarding structure of knowledge, stability of knowledge, source of knowledge, ability to learn and, speed of learning and six measures of the motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies (intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, self-efficacy, control of learning, and test anxiety) among male and female EFL learners across years of study (freshman and sophomore students) The participants of this study were 101 EFL students studying English literature and English translation in the Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Iran, during the spring semester of 2013 The participants completed Persian version of Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia & McKeachie, 1991) and Persian version of Epistemological Questionnaire (Schommer, 1990) Results showed that, in general, the more nạve the epistemological beliefs of students, the less likely they are to use motivational learning strategies Moreover, there was no significant relationship between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female students On the other hand, a statistically significant relationship was found between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies for both freshman and sophomore students

Keywords: epistemological beliefs; motivation; self-regulated learning; EFL

1 Introduction

Throughout the history of learning and teaching in general, and second/foreign language teaching and learning in particular, different roles have been claimed for the learners in the process of learning based on a given theory or approach At the very beginning of the scientific era of educational psychology, i.e., behaviorism, learners were

considered as passive and dependent individuals However, since the 1960s, the framework for understanding the

psychological basis of learning has gradually moved from behaviorism to cognitivism (Anderson, Reder & Simon, 1995; Bredo, 1997) Gradually, learners have been viewed to have more responsibility for their own learning They are actively involved in organizing and reconstructing their old knowledge with the new knowledge (Perkins, 1992) This

“active, constructive process" (Pintrich, 2003, p 2) is called self-regulated learning (SRL) SRL can be defined in three distinct ways: First, as the learner’s ability to use metacognitive strategies or to control cognition In this regard, Pintrich, Smith, Garcia and McKeachie (1991) referred to the metacognitive strategies of planning, monitoring and regulating A second view refers to SRL as the learner’s ability to use both metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies (Schoenfeld, 1992) According to Pintrich (1999), rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies are seen as key cognitive strategies Finally, a third view highlights the importance of incorporating motivation, cognitive, and metacognitive components of learning (Tanner & Jones, 2003) Research based on the latter view indicates that SRL is related to motivation and, more specifically, that motivation develops and maintains SRL (Rheinberg, Vollmeyer & Rollett, 2000) In spite of the existing body of research, this study focuses on motivational components of SRL strategies in particular as a few studies have dealt with these components so far

The present study sought to explore the relationships between five dimensions of the epistemological beliefs (structure

of knowledge, stability of knowledge, source of knowledge, ability to learn, and speed of learning) and six measures of the motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies (intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation,

Value components refer to individuals’ goals for taking part in a task as well as their beliefs about the importance, usefulness, or interest of a task These components are divided into two sub-components which are goal orientation and task value

Goal orientation refers to students’ goals for a specific task (a midterm exam) as well as a general orientation to a course or a field In current motivation research, goal orientation is divided into two sub-components which are discussed under various names such as target and purpose goals (e.g., Harackiewicz, Barron, & Elliot, 1998; Harackiewicz & Sansone, 1991), or task-specific goals and goal orientations (e.g., Garcia & Pintrich, 1994; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Wolters, Yu, & Pintrich, 1996; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997) Target and task-specific goals (extrinsic

goal orientation) focus on the specific outcome the individual is attempting to accomplish such as trying to get an A on

a midterm exam (grades achievement and recognition from others) In contrast, purpose goals or goal orientations

(intrinsic goal orientation) focus on more general reasons individuals do a task and are related more to the research on achievement motivation (Elliot, 1997; Urdan, 1997)

Students’ task value beliefs are divided into three components as important in achievement dynamics, which are the individual’s perception of the importance of the task, his or her personal interest in the task, and his or her perception of the utility value of the task for future goals (Eccles, 1983)

Expectancy components refer to perceptions and beliefs of the students in order to organize and accomplish their academic tasks according to their learning objectives (Bandura, 1986; Hsu, 1997; Lynch, 2006 & Pintrich et al., 1991)

If students believe that they have some control over their skills and the task environment and if they are confident in their ability to perform the necessary skills, they are more likely to choose to do the task, be cognitively involved, persist at the task, and achieve at higher levels This component consists of two sub-components which are control of learning beliefs and perceptions towards self-efficacy for learning (Lynch, 2006; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990)

Individuals’ beliefs about the contingency between their behaviors and their performance in a situation are related to student learning and achievement In a classroom context, this means that students’ motivational beliefs about the connection between their studying, self-regulated learning behavior, and achievement will affect their actual studying behavior In fact, if students believe that their effort in studying can make a difference regardless of their actual aptitude for the material, then they will be more likely to study the material Accordingly, these beliefs have motivational force because they influence future behavior In this regard, Bandura (1993) claimed that control of learning beliefs has given

a positive effect to the development of academic activities and the amount of effort put in by the students in the learning process

In contrast to control beliefs, self-efficacy concerns students’ beliefs about their ability to do the task, not the connection between their doing it and the outcome Bandura (1982, 1986) and Schunk (1985) defined self-efficacy as individuals’ beliefs about their performance capabilities in a particular area Although self-efficacy and control beliefs are separate constructs, they are usually positively correlated In addition, they may combine and interact with each other to influence student’s self-regulation and outcomes

Affective components concern the students’ emotional reactions to the task and their performance (i.e., anxiety, pride, and shame) and their more emotional needs for self-worth or self-esteem, affiliation, and self-actualization (Covington

& Beery, 1976; Veroff & Veroff, 1980) This component consists of two sub- components, i.e., cognitive and emotional Cognitive part refers to the students’ way of thinking that negatively affects their performance while emotional part refers to the students’ affective and psychological aspects that are caused by test anxiety (Pintrich et al., 1991)

1.2 Epistemological Beliefs (EB)

Personal epistemology refers to beliefs and theories that individuals hold about knowledge and the process of knowing (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997) Research on personal epistemology continued Perry’s (1970) early effort to identify developmental stages in students’ epistemological thinking (Baxter Magolda, 1992; King & Kitchener, 1994) However, those who now study personal epistemology within educational psychology owe much to Marlene Schommer, who was the first person to use quantitative assessments to study how epistemological beliefs are related to academic cognition and performance (Schommer, 1990)

According to Schommer (1990), personal epistemology is defined as a system of independent beliefs These beliefs are conceptualized as beliefs about the simplicity, certainty, and source of knowledge, as well as beliefs about control and speed of knowledge learning In Schommer’s conceptualization, the three first dimensions fall under the definition of personal epistemology as beliefs about the nature of knowledge (simplicity, certainty) and knowing (source) (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997); however, the two last dimensions have been controversial because they concern beliefs about intelligence (control) and learning (speed) Hofer and Pintrich (1997) suggested that epistemology should be defined

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more purely, with two dimensions concerning the nature of knowledge (what one believes knowledge is) and two dimensions concerning the nature or process of knowing (how one comes to know)

In this view, the dimensions of simplicity of knowledge, and certainty of knowledge, both concerning the nature of

knowledge, correspond to the certainty and simplicity dimensions as defined by Schommer (1990) The dimension of simple knowledge ranges from the belief that knowledge consists of more or less isolated facts to the belief that knowledge consists of highly interrelated concepts and the dimension certainty of knowledge ranges from the belief that knowledge is certain and unchanging to the belief that knowledge is tentative and evolving Within the area of nature of knowing, the dimension source of knowledge ranges from the conception that knowledge originates externally and exists in external authority, from which it may be transmitted, to the conception that knowledge is constructed by a person in interaction with others This dimension parallels the source dimension as described by Schommer (1990) The final dimension in Hofer and Pintrich’s (1997) view, justification for knowing, also concerns the nature of knowing, with this dimension referring to how people justify or evaluate knowledge claims It seems that justification for knowing seems to have no clear parallel within Schommer’s (1990) belief system Moreover, Hofer and Pintrich (1997) considered both speed and control of knowledge acquisition to fall outside the construct of personal epistemology Research on epistemological beliefs, i.e., learner’s beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing, on learning processes and outcomes has expanded considerably over the recent decades (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999; Hofer,

1999, 2000; Hofer & Pintrich, 1997; Ryan, 1984) One important theoretical assumption in this field of research is that learners’ epistemological beliefs develop from ‘nạve’ towards ‘sophisticated’ beliefs (Schommer, 1998) Those who have nạve beliefs think that the knowledge is certain, absolute, and can be transferred by a person with authority, like a teacher; on the other hand, those who have sophisticated beliefs think that knowledge is relative, contextual, flexible and a complex network They believe that knowledge is uncertain and changeable and can be actively constructed by the individual (Brownlee, Purdie, Boulton & Lewis, 2001) In this regard, researchers found that students with more

‘sophisticated’ beliefs learned more than students with ‘naive’ epistemological beliefs (Windschitl & Andre, 1998) Moreover, it was also found that “students who held sophisticated beliefs of knowledge were more motivated by personal interest in the subject matter” (Rozendaal, Brabander & Minnaert, 2001; cited in Phan, 2008, p 162)

As Hofer (Hofer, 2000, 2002; Hofer & Pintrich, 1997) mentioned, there is a need to examine possible linkage between epistemological beliefs and students’ strategic choices and motivation Based on this assumption, the present study investigates the relationship between five dimensions of the epistemological beliefs and six measures of the motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among EFL learners

2 Studies on Motivational Components and Epistemological Beliefs

Several primary studies in this area have indicated that students’ epistemological beliefs may be related to their engagement in either motivational cognitive or behavioral aspects of SRL In this regard, Paulsen and Feldman (1999) investigated student motivation and epistemological beliefs They found that students' motivation to learn is related to their epistemological beliefs and teachers can promote student motivation by designing learning activities that facilitate student development of more sophisticated epistemological beliefs Moreover, Paulsen and Feldman (2005) examined the conditional and interactional effects of each of the four dimensions of epistemological beliefs of college students on the six measures of the motivational components of SRL strategies They found that students with more sophisticated beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning were more motivated and strategic than their peers in their learning They also found that beliefs about one’s ability to learn and the structure of knowledge had the most important effect on students’ use of self-regulated motivational strategies In another study, Phan (2008) examined the predictive state of learning approaches and epistemological beliefs on students’ self-regulatory processes He found that various dimensions of epistemological beliefs were connected to student’s self-efficacy beliefs, mastery goal orientation, and self-regulatory strategy use Phan concluded that “deep motive to learning related positively with motivational and strategic processes, whereas deep strategies were found to relate with students’ self-efficacy beliefs” (p 158) Valle, Cabanach, Nunez, Gonzalez-Pienda, Rodriguez and Pineiro (2003) also described the relationship between motivational and volitional dimensions of learning They pointed out that a one-dimensional measure of epistemological beliefs about learning was related to students’ use of two types of motivational strategies

In this regard, most of the research about epistemological beliefs focused on academic performance Through a series of studies (Schommer-Aikins, 1990, 1993; Schommer-Aikins, Duell, & Hutter, 2005; Schommer-Aikins, Duell, & Barker, 2003; Schommer-Aikins & Hutter, 2002), Schommer and her colleagues found that specific dimensions of epistemological beliefs are related to learning In these research projects, students who believe in quick learning tend to make oversimplified conclusions, get poor test scores, and have overconfidence on a test (Schommer-Aikins, 1990, 1993) However, students who consider certain knowledge tend to create absolute conclusions (Schommer-Aikins, 1990) In addition, it was mainly revealed that students who believe in tentative knowledge accept multiple perspectives and revise their thinking (Schommer-Aikins & Hutter, 2002); students who believe in quick and fixed beliefs study without strategy and have low grade point averages (Schommer-Aikins, et al., 2005)

In a study, Sadeghi and Zarafshan (2006) explored the effects of attitude, motivation, and years of study on the use of language learning strategies by Iranian EFL university students Analysis of the results revealed that the participants of the study reported the employment of metacognitive, social, affective, and compensation strategies more frequently than memory and cognitive strategies Also in this study, attitude proved to influence the use of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) significantly That is learners with positive attitude used LLSs more frequently than those with negative attitude Furthermore, seniors showed greater use of LLSs than freshmen

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There have also been a series of research focusing on gender differences in epistemological beliefs, but their results are inconclusive In some studies, females showed more advanced beliefs than males (Lodewyk, 2007; Mason et al; 2006; Schommer & Dunnell, 1994; Schommer, 1993a).On the other hand, there are other studies that find almost no gender differences in epistemological thinking of beliefs (Phan, 2008; Buehl et al 2002; Hofer, 2006; Kuhn et al; 2000; King

& Kitchener, 1994) In this regard, Marzooghi, Fouladchang, and Shemshiri (2008) carried out a study to investigate gender and gender level difference in epistemological beliefs of undergraduate students in an Iranian university Results indicated that males had some more naive epistemological beliefs than females In addition, first year students viewed learning as quick and knowledge as simple more than last year students

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between dimensions of the epistemological beliefs and measures of the motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female EFL learners across year of study In the following, the problem that provided the impetus for the present study is stated and the purposes and significance of the study are explained

3 Statement of the Problem, Purpose, and Significance of the Study

In recent years, many of today’s college students appear to be less well prepared for the challenge of university education In many ways, the university environment is less structured than that of most high schools, and therefore demands for high level of independent learning in many students can be overwhelming These findings perhaps reveal the fact that higher order self-reflective learning skills are rarely taught in the context of the school curriculum (Gall, Jacobsen, & Bullock, 1990) On the other hand, some researchers believe that what students believe about knowledge and learning may influence how they interpret the task, how they interact with text, and ultimately the strategies they select Thomas and Rohwer (1987) claimed that students’ beliefs serve as the ‘filter’ through which students decipher and interpret other components of learning

The purpose of this study is to investigate how differences in epistemological beliefs of EFL learners might help explain variation in their motivational component of learning strategies In particular, five dimensions of the epistemological beliefs consist of structure of knowledge, stability of knowledge, source of knowledge, ability to learn and speed of learning and six motivational components of self-regulated learning include intrinsic goal orientations, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, self-efficacy, control of learning and test anxiety Furthermore, the study aims at investigating the effect of EFL learners’ year of study and gender on the dimensions of their epistemological beliefs and motivational components The findings from this study may contribute to understanding epistemological beliefs as well as learners’ perception of self-directedness

The significance of this investigation lies in the paramount role of EFL learners’ epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies Therefore, the findings of the present study will hopefully add to an understanding of both epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated strategies in students In fact, when teachers are aware of the structure of epistemological beliefs of students, this may facilitate the design of instruction which will develop the students’ epistemological beliefs, and thus make it easier to foster educational reforms (Brownlee, 2001; Chai, Khine & Teo, 2006) Meanwhile, they can provide more successful learners and suitable learning environments that consequently enhance their learning with having enough knowledge

about learning strategies To achieve the research goals, the following two research questions were posed:

Q1 Are there any statistically significant relationships between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female EFL learners?

Q2 Are there any statistically significant relationships between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among EFL learners’ across year of study (freshman and sophomore levels)?

Based on the aforementioned research questions, two null hypotheses are put forward:

1: There are no statistically significant relationships between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female EFL learners

2: There are no statistically significant relationships between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among EFL learners across year of study (freshman and sophomore levels)

4 Methodology

4.1Participants

The randomly-selected participants of this study were 101 EFL students studying English literature and English translation in the Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Iran, during the second half of the spring semester of 2013 Almost half of the participants were freshmen (51) and half of them were sophomores (50) There were 37 male and 63 female participants The mean age was 21.35 All 101 participants responded to all items of the questionnaires It should

be noted that since the present study dealt with self-regulated learning strategies and epistemological beliefs of the participating EFL learners, their year of study was also taken into consideration The normality of distribution was also checked to make sure parametric tests could be run

4.2 Instrumentation and Procedure

4.2.1 Instruments

As mentioned before, two major variables were investigated in this study: five dimensions of EFL learner’s epistemological beliefs and six measures of motivational learning strategies Therefore, two instruments were used to gather the necessary data on these two variables: Persian version of Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire

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(MSLQ) (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia & McKeachie, 1991) and Persian version of Epistemological Questionnaire (Schommer, 1990)

4.2.1.1 Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ)

MSLQ is a self-reporting tool with 81items divided into two broad categories: a motivation section and a learning strategies section The motivation section consists of 31 items that assess students' goals and value beliefs for a course, their beliefs about their skill to succeed in a course, and their anxiety about tests in a course The learning strategy section includes 31 items regarding students' use of different cognitive and metacognitive strategies In addition, the learning strategies section includes 19 items concerning students’ management of different resources The MSLQ consists of 15 sub-scales, six within the motivation section and nine within the learning strategies section The instrument is completely modular, and thus the scales can be used together or individually, depending on the needs of the researcher, instructor, or student Students rate themselves on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 (not at all true of me) to

7 (very true of me) with no specific labels for the other response categories Table 1 lists the six sub-scales that comprise the motivation scales in MSLQ:

Table 1.Items comprising the 6 MSLQ motivation sub-scales

Motivation Scales No of Items Item Comprising the Scale

1 Intrinsic Goal Orientation 4 1, 16, 22, 24

2 Extrinsic Goal Orientation 4 7, 11, 13, 30

3 Task Value 6 4, 10, 17, 23, 26, 27

4 Control of Learning Beliefs 4 2, 9, 18, 25

5 Self-Efficacy for Learning & Performance 8 5, 6, 12, 15, 20, 21, 29, 31

6 Test Anxiety 5 3, 8, 14, 19, 28

Total Number of Items 31

4.2.1.2 Epistemological Questionnaire (EQ)

Schommer (1990) created the 63-item EQ by developing two or more subsets of items to capture each of the five proposed dimensions of beliefs, for a total of 12 subsets Students answered each item by rating it on a 5-point Likert scale format in which respondents show their degree of agreement with each item on the instrument The items on the questionnaire were designed to measure students’ epistemological beliefs on five distinct and largely independent dimensions: simple knowledge, certain knowledge, Omniscient authority, innate ability, and quick learning Table 2 lists the 12 subscales that comprise them in EQ:

Table 2 Items comprising the 12 subscales in EQ

Dimension Subscales Items Comprising the Dimensions

Simple knowledge Seek single answers 11, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 30, 33, 56, 58, 59

Avoid integration 3, 14, 18, 35, 37, 38, 54, 63

Certain knowledge Avoid ambiguity 9, 41, 42, 44, 61

Knowledge is certain 2, 12, 21, 27, 34, 48

Omniscient authority Depend on authority 5, 29, 36, 40

Don’t criticize authority 6, 7, 13, 31, 45, 46

Innate ability Success is unrelated to hard work 26, 32, 43, 49

Ability to learn is innate 8, 47, 55, 57 Can’t learn how to learn 4, 15, 25, 28, 62

Learn first time 20, 24, 52 Concentrated effort is a waste of time 51, 53 Total number of items 63

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4.3 The Pilot Study

To make sure that the participants had no problem in understanding the questionnaires, they were translated from English into Persian by the present researchers Moreover, in order to avoid the translation task from having any biased effect on the results of the questionnaire, the procedure of back translation was used to validate the Persian questionnaire In doing so, two MA students studying English translation translated the Persian questionnaire into English and then an expert on translation was asked to validate the translated English version For the items the translation of which was found to be problematic, some modifications were made to ensure the validity of translation Then, a pilot test was administered among 30 participants in order to assess the internal consistency reliability of the items included in the translated questionnaire to see if directions were clear and sufficient, how long it takes to respond

to the inventory and if the items are clear and comprehensible to the participants Half of the participants were freshmen and half of them were sophomores (20 female and 10 male) After the pilot test, the ambiguities and misunderstanding

of items were recognized and some of the items were revised to assure a higher reliability The required time to complete the inventory ranged from 25- 30 minutes

4.4 Reliability and Validity Issues

MSLQ has been found to be a reliable and valid instrument (Pintrich, Simith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993; Pintrich et al., 1991) The questionnaire has been used in numerous studies (Bandalos, Finney, & Geske, 2003; Brookhart & Durkin, 2003; Ommundsen, 2003; Seibert, 2002; Zusho, Pintrich, & Coppola, 2003) Internal reliability coefficient (Cronbach alphas) for the six scales of MSLQ used in the present study was calculated: 76 Intrinsic goal orientation, 62 Extrinsic goal orientation,.87 Task value,.65 Control of learning beliefs, 91 Self-efficacy for learning & performance,.65 Test anxiety As shown in Table 3, these reliabilities ranged from 62 to 91 It can be concluded that

MSLQ has relatively good reliability in terms of internal consistency

Table 3 Reliability statistics for motivation sub-scales

Motivation Scales No of Items Cronbach’s Alpha

Control of Learning Beliefs 4 .65

Self-Efficacy for learning & Performance 8 .91

Test Anxiety 5 .65

The validity and reliability of the EQ have been verified previously in a number of ways The underlying four-factor structure of the questionnaire has been replicated with different samples of university students (Bendixen et al., 1994; Schommer, 1990; Schommer et al , 1992), adults of high school, faculty, or graduate school levels of education (Schommer, 1998), and high school students (Schommer, 1993; Schommer & Dunnell, 1994) In addition, in this study Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated to be.87 for the entire scale of the EQ Thus, the results show that the internal reliability of the instruments is acceptable

5 Results and Discussion

In order to describe the data received from administering the MSLQ and EQ, descriptive statistics (mean, medium, mode, and standard deviation) and Pearson’s correlation coefficient formula were used To answer the first and second research questions and check the first and second hypotheses of the study, Box’s Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were applied

5.1Results

After administering the questionnaires, 101 students were found to have provided complete answers and as such, they were included in the final data analysis In order to find answer to the research questions, descriptive statistics were used, and mean score and standard deviation for motivation components and dimensions of epistemological beliefs were calculated (Table 4& Table 5)

According to Nik Mohd Rahimi (2004), category of means for seven Likert scales in motivation is as follows: 1.00 to 3.00 mean score belong to low category; 3.01 to 5.00 mean score belong to moderate category and 5.01 to 7.00 mean score belong to high category In Table 4, five scales were at the high category of mean score of which the highest is Task value (M=6.0350, SD=.94743) followed by Control of learning belief (M=5.8903, SD=.93697), Self- efficacy (M=5.5091, SD=1.04881), Extrinsic goal orientation (M=5.5050, SD=1.08569) and Intrinsic goal orientation (M=5.4752, SD=1.11271) On the other hand, one scale, i.e., anxiety was at the moderate category of mean score (M=4.1490, SD=1.47482)

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Table 4 Descriptive statistics for motivation sub-scales

Intrinsic-m Extrinsic-m Task value Control Self-efficacy Anxiety

According to Birisci, Metin and Karkas (2009), categories of means for five Likert scales in epistemological beliefs is

as follow: The interval width of 1-1.80 shows very low level (strongly disagree); 1.81-2.60 interval shows low level (disagree); the 2.61-3.40 interval shows medium level (undecided); the 3.41-4.20 interval shows high level (agree) and the 4.21-5.00 interval shows very high level (strongly agree) of agreement with the statement on the survey Table 5 presents the participants’ mean scores and the standard deviations of the five sub scales Participants scored the lowest

on simple knowledge (M=3.4225, SD=.37064), indicating that as such the participants have sophisticated beliefs about simple knowledge The mean scores of participants beliefs about quick learning, omniscient authority, Innate ability, and certain knowledge sub scales were (M=3.4922, 3.5449, 3.6556 and 3.6664) respectively The means scores indicated that the participants have a high (agree) belief about simple knowledge, certain knowledge, omniscient authority, innate ability and quick learning The participants scored highest on the certain knowledge subscale (M=3.6664, SD=.52242); as such, the participants have nạve beliefs about certain knowledge

Table 5 Descriptive statistics for Epistemological Beliefs sub-scales

Simple Know Certain Know Authority Ability Quick learning

so most of the components have normal distribution and a parametric test can be used

Table 6 One-Sample Kolmogorov- Smirnov Test (Motivation sub-scales)

Intrinsic-m Extrinsic-m Task-value Control Self-efficacy Anxiety

Std.Deviation 1.11271 1.08569 94743 93697 1.04881 1.47482 Most Extreme

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Table 7 One-Sample Kolmogorov- Smirnov Test (Epistemological Beliefs)

Simple know Certain Know Authority Ability Quick learning

Table 8presents the bivariate correlations between the five dimensions of the epistemological beliefs and all six motivational components of learning strategies, indicating the statistical significance for each of the bivariate correlations estimated These results provide an introductory perspective on the relationships under study The statistically significant correlations in Table 8 can be classified as being in the modest range (r < 20), the moderate range (.20 < r < 30) or the more substantial range (r > 30)

Table 8.Epistemological beliefs and motivational self-regulated learning strategies: Bivariate correlation analysis

Intrinsic-m Extrinsic-m Task value Control Self-efficacy Anxiety

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2tailed)

In interpreting negative and positive signs in Table 8, consistent with Schommer’s work (1990), the epistemological belief scales yield higher scores for students with more nạve beliefs and lower scores for those with more mature or sophisticated beliefs This indicates that, in general, the more nạve the epistemological beliefs of students, the less likely they are to use motivational learning strategies that in prior research have been shown to be consistently related to learning outcomes Moreover, students who are more sophisticated in their beliefs about the nature of knowledge and its acquisition are more likely to use educationally productive motivational learning strategies (Hofer, 1999; Paulsen & Feldman, 1999a 1999b; Schutz, Pintrich &Young, 1993)

The findings of Table 8 indicate that compared to students with sophisticated beliefs that the structure of knowledge is based on complex interrelationships between many concepts and ideas, students with more nạve beliefs that the structure of knowledge is simple i.e., comprised of facts in the form of isolated bits and pieces of information (simple knowledge) are more likely to maintain an extrinsic goal orientation (r = 379) and to experience test anxiety (r = 206) Compared to students with sophisticated beliefs that the nature and structure of knowledge is tentative and constantly evolving, students with more nạve beliefs that the nature and structure of knowledge is absolute and unchanging or constant over time (certain knowledge) are more likely to maintain an extrinsic goal orientation (r = 291) and to experience test anxiety (r = 360) Finally, compared to students with sophisticated beliefs that the source of knowledge may be constructed by a person in interaction with others, students with more nạve beliefs, that is, the conception that knowledge originates outside the self and resides in external authority, are more likely to maintain an extrinsic goal orientation (r = 245) and to experience test anxiety (r = 378) Moreover, these findings show that correlation between simple knowledge and extrinsic motivation is significantly higher than the correlation between certain knowledge and omniscient authority with extrinsic motivation; as such, students in simple knowledge have more nạve beliefs than certain knowledge and omniscient authority in relation to extrinsic motivation Furthermore, the correlation between omniscient authority and anxiety is higher than the correlation between simple knowledge and certain knowledge with

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anxiety; as such, students at omniscient authority have more nạve beliefs than simple knowledge and certain

knowledge in relation to anxiety

5.1.2 Relationships between Epistemological Beliefs and Motivational Components of SRL strategies across Gender

(The First Research Question)

In order to answer the first research question which was concerned with relationships between dimensions of

epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female EFL

learners, different tests were conducted:

Box’s Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices checks the assumption of homogeneity of covariance across the groups

using p < 01 as a criterion In this study, there is no concern, as Box’s M (71.811) was not significant and

p (.605) > 01indicating that there is no significant differences between the covariance matrices Therefore, the

assumption is not violated and Wilk’s Lambda is an appropriate test to use (Table 9)

Table 9 Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices

The Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances tests the null hypothesis that the variances of each variable are equal

across the groups (called homogeneity of variance) If the resulting P-value of Levene's test is less than the critical value

(typically 0.05), this means that the assumption has been violated and data should be viewed with caution or the data

could be transformed so as to equalize the variances Based on Table 10 (p >.05), the null hypothesis of equal variances

is accepted and it is concluded that there is no difference between the variances in the population

Table 10 Levene's test of equality of error variances

The following is the MANOVA using the Wilk’s Lambda test Wilk's lambda is a test statistics used in multivariate

analysis of variance (MANOVA) to test whether there are differences between the means of identified groups of

subjects on a combination of dependent variables Using an alpha level of 05, Table 11 shows that the result is not

statistically significant (p >.05) Therefore, there is no significant relationship between dimensions of epistemological

beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female students

Table 11 Multivariate Tests

Partial Eta Squared

IJALEL 3(6):7-21, 2014 16

As it can be seen in Table 12, there is a pairwise comparison between male and female for dependent and independent variables The findings show that there is no significant difference for any of the components between male and female students (p > 05)

Table 12 Pairwise comparison between male and female students

Variable gender gender Mean Difference Std Error Sig

Intrinsic-m male female 021 233 928

Extrinsic-m male female -.319 221 152

Task value male female -.144 197 467

Control male female -.175 195 373

Self-efficacy male female 068 219 756

Anxiety male female -.441 304 150

Simple know male female -.061 077 431

Certain know male female -.068 109 531

Authority male female -.163 094 086

Ability male female -.138 079 086

Quick learning male female -.063 078 425

5.1.3 Relationships between Epistemological beliefs and Motivational Components of SRL across Year of Study (The Second Research Question)

In order to answer the second research question which was concerned with relationships between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among freshman and sophomore EFL learners, the following tests were run

Table 13 shows Box’s Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices checks the assumption of homogeneity of covariance across the groups using p < 01 as a criterion This table shows Box’s M (67.846) was not significant, [p (.688) >.01], indicating that there is no significant difference between the covariance matrices Therefore, the assumption is not violated and Wilk’s Lambda is an appropriate test to use

Table 13 Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices

The Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances tests the null hypothesis that the variances of each variable are equal

across the groups (called homogeneity of variance) Table 14 shows that the null hypothesis of equal variances is

accepted and it is concluded that there is no difference between the variances in the population (p > 05)

Table 14 Levene's test of equality of error variances

IJALEL 3(6):7-21, 2014 17

The following is the MANOVA using the Wilk’s Lambda test Table shows that this difference is significant (p < 05) Therefore, there is significant relationship between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational

components of self-regulated learning strategies among freshman and sophomore students

Table 15 Multivariate Tests

Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig Partial Eta Squared

As it can be seen in Table 16, there is a multiple comparison between motivational components and dimensions of

epistemological beliefs among freshman and sophomore students In terms of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation,

control learning beliefs, self-efficacy, anxiety, simple knowledge, certain knowledge, authority, learning ability, the

difference between freshman and sophomore student is not significant (p > 05) In terms of task value and quick

learning the difference between freshman and sophomore students is found to be significant (p < 05)

Table 16 Pairwise comparison between first and second year students

Dependent Variable Year year Mean Difference Std Error Sig

6 Discussion

In this section, the results elicited from the collected data will be explained and interpreted with reference to the

previous studies

Table 8 shows the correlation between epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning

strategies This indicates that students with more nạve beliefs about simple knowledge, certain knowledge, and

omniscient authority were more likely to maintain an extrinsic goal orientation and experience test anxiety This finding

of the present study confirms that of Paulsen and Feldman (2005) who investigated student motivation and

epistemological beliefs They found that students' motivation to learn and their epistemological beliefs are linked to

each other In their study, it was found that teachers could enhance students’ motivation through designing activities

that maximize learners’ development of more sophisticated epistemological beliefs They also examined the conditional

and interactional effects of each of the four dimensions of epistemological beliefs of college students on the six

measures of the motivational components of SRL strategies They found that students with more sophisticated beliefs

about the nature of knowledge and learning were more motivated and strategic than their peers in their learning Beliefs

about one’s ability to learn and the structure of knowledge had the most significant effects on students’ use of

self-regulated motivational strategies Bell (2006) also indicated the effect of SRL behaviors and epistemological beliefs on

learner outcomes in the online learning environment However, he did not find epistemological beliefs as a significant

predictor of academic achievement; there was reliable evidence to support the association of SRL skills with positive

academic achievement among online learners In another study, Phan (2008) examined the predictive state of learning

approaches and epistemological beliefs on students’ self-regulatory processes He found that various dimensions of

epistemological beliefs were connected to student’s self-efficacy beliefs, mastery goal orientation and self-regulatory

strategy use Phan concluded that “deep motive to learning related positively with motivational and strategic processes,

whereas deep strategies were found to relate with students’ self-efficacy beliefs” (p 158) In addition, Valle, Cabanach,

Nunez, Gonzalez-Pienda, Rodriguez and Pineiro (2003) described the relationship between motivational and volitional

IJALEL 3(6):7-21, 2014 18

dimensions of learning They pointed out that a one-dimensional measure of epistemological beliefs about learning was related to students’ use of two types of motivational strategies The findings of the present study also highlighted the relationship between some sub-scales of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies This sheds light on how we can gain further insights into the relationship between these two variables and take it into consideration in order to enhance the quality of instruction In this regard, Hofer (2001) suggested a general framework of how epistemological beliefs influence learning According to this framework, learners’ epistemological beliefs influence their use of strategies and their motivation Motivation in turn influences strategy use as well Finally, motivation and strategy use are connected to other learning processes

Generally, as illustrated in Table 11, there was no significant relationship between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female students (p >.05).On the other hand, Table 15 shows that there was significant relationships between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among freshman and sophomore students (p < 05)

As the findings revealed, gender did not modify the relationship between the variables under investigation This might

be due to the limited number of male and female participants in the study It is suggested that further studied be conducted to determine the role gender as far SRL and epistemological beliefs are concerned As it was already mentioned, a series of studies have focused on gender differences in epistemological beliefs the results of which are inconclusive In some studies, female participants were found to have more advanced beliefs than their male counterparts (Lodewyk, 2007; Mason et al; 2006; Schommer & Dunnell, 1994; Schommer, 1993) However, there are some other studies that did not identifyany gender differences in epistemological beliefs (Phan, 2008; Buehl et al 2002; Hofer, 2006; Kuhn et al; 2000; King & Kitchener, 1994).The findings of the study are also indicative of the role of year

of study as a moderator variable It is found that the EFL learners’ beliefs and motivation change over time This finding highlights the role of the EFL instructors in influencing the students’ epistemological beliefs and SRL EFL instructors can design learning activities in way that they could positively influence the learners’ motivation and beliefs

In terms of task value and quick learning, the difference between freshman and sophomore participants of the study was found to be significant These differences need to be taken into account to maximize learning opportunities In a study

by Sadeghi and Zarafshan (2006), they explored the effects of attitude, motivation, and years of study on the use of language learning strategies by Iranian EFL university students seniors showed greater use of LLSs than freshmen In the following section, the conclusions of the study are explained and some suggestions for further studies are also put forward

7 Conclusions and Implications

The first question of the study concerned the relationship between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of self-regulated learning strategies among male and female EFL learners The results showed

no statistically significant relationship Gender did not play a moderating role in this study and male and the relationship between motivational components of SRL and epistemological beliefs was not to be statistically different across genders

The second question of the study dealt the relationship between dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of SRL strategies across years of study (freshman and sophomore EFL learners) The results showed a statistically significant relationship In terms of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, control learning beliefs, self-efficacy, anxiety, simple beliefs, certain knowledge, authority, learning ability, the difference between freshman and sophomore students was not significant (p > 05) In terms of task value and quick learning, the difference between freshman and sophomore students was found to be significant (p < 05) It can be concluded that dimensions of epistemological beliefs and motivational components of SRL strategies are related to each other to some extent However, due to the inconsistencies of the findings, further studies are required to consolidate the findings of the present study It might be the case that some other factors such as background knowledge, socioeconomic status, etc are at work that modify the findings of the present study

In general, the results of this study have three main implications for language teachers and students First, the result of this study may be helpful to language teachers to be familiar with college students’ beliefs about knowledge, or epistemologies, and how those beliefs influence motivation and how they can be supported by teachers Second, the findings of this study may contribute to understanding the fact that the effects of students’ epistemological beliefs on motivational components are directly related to their academic performance and necessary to improve their learning Third, epistemological beliefs of students play a significant role in the successful implementation of standards-based curriculum in higher education

Future studies should include more participants from different universities in order to make better comparisons and arrive at more generalization It is suggested that researchers compare different years of study such as freshman, sophomore, junior and senior Researchers can also focus on the relationship between second and third components of MSLQ, the cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies, with epistemological beliefs

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International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 3 No 6; November 2014

Copyright © Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

The Relationship between Self-efficacy Beliefs and Autonomy among Iranian Intermediate and Upper Intermediate EFL

Learners

Azar Mojoudi (corresponding author) English department, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University

Isfahan, Iran E-mail: Mojoudi_a@yahoo.com Omind Tabatabaei English Department, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

To do so, Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used To figure out the same relationship between the mentioned values among upper intermediate EFL learners, the same procedure was followed The results of the second research question indicated that there is a somehow strong correlation between the mentioned values among upper intermediate EFL learners In addition, it was found that the mean score of the two variables is rather stronger among upper intermediate learners than the intermediate ones At last, the findings of this study indicated that there is not a significant difference between the obtained correlation coefficients of intermediate and upper intermediate learners By being aware of the importance of self-efficacy and autonomy in the area of language learning, and also the positive association between these values, language experts, teachers, and many learners will be guided toward the right direction in their track of teaching and learning

Keywords: autonomy, self-efficacy beliefs, autonomous learners, motivation

1 Introduction

Nowadays, as the need for interaction among nations is increasing, the need for a common language for communication has been more profoundly felt Consequently, language researchers are seeking the ways to have better language teaching and learning results Since language learning is a lifelong journey, this process should be autonomous and learners should find out how to be autonomous because there is not always a teacher available (Quinn, 1974, cited in Yalcin Tilfarlioglu & Seyma Ciftci, 2011)

In recent years, it has been a matter of importance for many language experts and ESL teachers to find the ways to make language learners more autonomous It is because of the great shift in language learning and teaching approaches During the last two decades, by exploring more communicative approaches, learners’ roles have been more highlighted and teaching and learning situations have moved toward more learner-centered classrooms As a result, learners are considered as the origin of information and researchers are seeking ways to identify the significance of training learners

to be more autonomous (Yang, 1998, cited in Fahim&Behdani, 2011)

One of the most prominent researchers in this area is Henry Holec He defined autonomy as “the ability to take charge

of one’s learning” (Holec, 1981, p.3, cited in Benson &Voller, 1997, p.1) In 1983 he defines autonomy in this way,

“the learner’s willingness and capacity to control or oversee his/her own learning” (Holec, 1983, cited in Thanusolus

2000, p.117) Based on Benson’s 2006 point of view, autonomy can be described as “a capacity to take charge of, or take responsibility for, or control over your own learning Form this point of view autonomy involves abilities and attitudes that people possess and can develop to various degrees” (p.1)

Since learner’s autonomy reveals whether a person has arrived at his/her potential or not, it has become one of the prominent issues in the field of second and foreign language teaching and learning (Dafei, 2007) Regarding the importance of learner’s autonomy, Sharader (2003) declares that autonomy is sometimes named as “the ABC’s of learner’s improvement” (p.1) In addition, Dafei (2007) states that learner’s autonomy plays a part in learners’ language

IJALEL 3(6):22-28, 2014 23

proficiency Benson (2001) avows that by entering theory and practice of language teaching and learning into a new era., guiding the learners to be autonomous in their language learning has become one of the worthwhile matters in the field of second and foreign language teaching and learning What is clear is that an autonomous learner should be capable of planning, monitoring, managing, and reflecting on the process of language skills (Fleming & Walls, 1998) The mentioned concept is related to the learner’s attitude to take control of language learning process and assume responsibility in this process In order for a learner to be able to apply autonomy he/she needs to develop an understanding of the nature of language learning and of his/her role in this process and, as another component of this, to develop an appropriate repertoire of language learning strategies (White, 1995) These requirements are much the same

as Wenden’s conceptualization of autonomy consisting of “the use of self-instructional techniques” and “an internal change of consciousness” (1987, p.12)

The common agreement among many researchers (Benson, 2001; Dickson, 1987, 1995; Gremmo & Riley, 1995) is that learners have to take responsibility for their learning in the learning process The ability to take responsibility in learning process is resultant from possessing both knowledge about different learning strategies and gaining mandatory skills for exploring the best strategy choice

Autonomy supplies the learners with some kind of beliefs and abilities to deal with a specific task in learning process

As a result, teachers in educational systems should provide some opportunities for the learners to have more responsibility in their learning process to move toward more autonomous learning

One of the inseparable components of learners’ autonomy is their self-efficacy beliefs Bandura (1999) declares that learners’ self-efficacy determines their performance since it affects their thought and motivation It can determine their behavior as well Bandura (2002) adds that learners’ self-efficacy affects learners’ psychological states and it can help the learners at different decisional points Bandura (1981) defines self-efficacy as “people’s judgment of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (p.391) The important point is that self-efficacy is related to learner’s future capabilities in doing a specific task in a specific situation, not about his/her past achievements Based on recent findings self-efficacy is completely a flexible concept not a rigid one (Klassen, 2004) As it is mentioned, autonomy and self-efficacy are two important concepts in the learning process Therefore, in this study it has been tried to focus on the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among intermediate and upper-intermediate EFL learners

1.1 Statement of the problem

Providing learners with better learning opportunities and reaching better educational results have always been crucial matters for educators and language experts There are plenty of influential factors in this area that some have gained special importance these days Self-efficacy and autonomy are two important elements that have caused to provide some controversy in recent years, but they have been overlooked in Iranian context especially in learning processes at different academic levels

There are numerous studies (e.g Magogwe & Oliver, 2007; Yilmaz, 2010; Rahimi & Abedini, 2009; Mango, 2009) searching for the relationship between self-efficacy and different variables such as learning strategies and proficiency, and also many studies ( e.g Dafei, 2007; Fahim & SheikhiBehdani, 2011; Thanasoulas, 2000) investigating the relationship between autonomy and various variables such as proficiency, critical thinking and learning; however, little attempt has been made to investigate the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy That is why it has been decided in this study to focus on this gap and find the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate and upper intermediate EFL students

1.2 Research Questions

The above mentioned objectives of the study generate the following research questions:

1) Is there any significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate EFL students? 2) Is there any significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian upper intermediate EFL students?

1.3 Research Hypotheses

In order to investigate the mentioned research questions, the following null hypotheses were formulated:

H 01) There is no significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate EFL students

H 02) There is no significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian upper intermediate EFL

students

1.4 Significance of the study

Over the last decade, autonomy has become one of the controversial issues in the area of foreign and second language learning Entering the theory and practice of language teaching into a new era and establishing learner centered teaching philosophy led to putting emphasis on helping language learners to become more autonomous in their learning process

So, learners' autonomy has become a significant matter for educationalists and language experts (Benson, 2007) Dafei (2007) states that researchers have become aware of the fact that independent self-directed learning has a great positive effect on L2 achievement There are some affective factors in this area Self-efficacy is considered as one of the influential factors in learning autonomy It is an important element in forming behavior through influencing human's

2 Method

2.1 Participants

In order to find out the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate and upper intermediate EFL students, a sample of 112 students contributed to this study The participants, both male and female, were randomly selected out of 7 intact classes of intermediate and 5 intact classes of upper intermediate students in one

of the institutes in Esfahan After administrating OPT, 46 intermediate and 38 upper intermediate EFL learners consisting of 35 male and 49 female were selected We have two almost homogeneous groups of students in terms of proficiency based on the results of their performances on OPT Sex and age variables were not considered in this study

2.2Instrumentation

To accomplish the aims of this study, 3 types of instruments were used:

1) Oxford Placement Test( Allen, 2005)

2) The Morgan-Jinks Student Efficacy Scale (MJSES, 1999)

3) An autonomy questionnaire ( Cotterell, 2000)

The process of collecting data started with application of OPT (Allan, 2005, see appendix A) in order to select two homogenous groups of students, almost at intermediate and upper-intermediate levels The OPT consists of 200 items including 100 grammar items For the purpose of this study, only the grammar part was used It took the students about

1 hour to complete the test After administrating the test, the obtained results were estimated based on the OPT associated rating levels chart and those who received scores from 50 to 66.9 were considered as intermediate learners and those who received scores from 67 to74 in this test were considered as upper-intermediate learners

The second data collection tool was Morgan-Jinks Student Efficacy Scale (MJSES, 1999, see appendix B), which is a four-point Likert Scale questionnaire with the aim of determining self-efficacy beliefs of students It has 34 items under

3 subscales which are talent, effort, and context The students answered the questions using a four-interval scale of really agree, kind of agree, kind of disagree, and really disagree This questionnaire has high reliability and validity Its reliability is 0.82 and the reliability of each of its subscales is 0.78, 0.66, and 0.70 respectively Furthermore, the word

“English” was added to some of its questions to clarify the aims of the study

The last data collection tool is an autonomy questionnaire (Cotterell, 2000, see appendix C) It is a four-point Likert Scale which was used to collect students’ beliefs about autonomy It contains several dimensions that some of them are related to this research Four factors were selected and the obtained results were investigated These four parts have thirty items with these titles:

1) teachers' role

2) self-efficacy

3) nature of language learning

4) strategy of language learning

The participants answered these questions on one of these alternatives:

1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) disagree 4) strongly disagree

2.3 Procedure

At first, two homogeneous groups of intermediate and upper intermediate learners were selected out of students through employing an OPT The scores of selected intermediate students were from 50 to 66.9 and the upper intermediate students’ scores were from 67 to 74 Accordingly, 46 intermediate and 38 upper intermediate students were selected

Permission was gained from institute authorities Then the researchers distributed self-efficacy questionnaire to the students and the students answered 34 items of this four-point Likert Scale questionnaire Finally, they responded to the items of autonomy questionnaire by choosing one of the alternatives on the four-point scale

The researcher helped the students with the probable difficulties with the items in questionnaires, but she stuck to the detailed procedure of the administration and collecting the data of questionnaires in order not to disturb the reliability of the study

IJALEL 3(6):22-28, 2014 25

2.4 Data analysis

There are two types of variables in this study: efficacy and autonomy To investigate the relationship between efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate EFL students and also upper intermediate learners which were the aims of the first and second research questions the Pearson Correlation Coefficient procedure was utilized

self-3 Results

3.1 The First Research Question

Question 1: Is there any significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate EFL

students?

To answer the first question, the data obtained from self-efficacy and autonomy questionnaires were processed These data were gathered from 46 Iranian intermediate EFL students These data, which were in qualitative format, were changed to quantitative ones ranging from 1 to 4 in order to be used in statistical process of analysis To decipher the existence and degree of relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy at this level of proficiency, the Pearson correlation was run The r-observed value is 0.296 a probability (two-tailed significance) of 0.046 which is less than the level of significance set for this research (0.05) As a result, it can be concluded that there is a very weak correlation between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate EFL learners So, the null hypothesis predicting no significant relationship between these two variables at this level is rejected These results are displayed in table 3.1

Table 3.1 Correlation Coefficient between Intermediate learners’ Self-Efficacy and their Autonomy

Autonomy Pearson Correlation 0.296(*) Self-Efficacy Sig (2-tailed) 0.046

N 46 *means the correlation coefficient is significant at 05 level

3.2 The Second Research Question

Question 2: Is there any significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian upper intermediate

EFL students?

Data collected by administering self-efficacy and autonomy questionnaires at upper intermediate level of proficiency were drawn on to answer this research question These data were gathered from 38 Iranian upper intermediate EFL students The same as the first question, to find the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy this group of participants, the Pearson correlation coefficient was computed, too The results indicate that, with the correlation coefficient of 0.536 and the probability of 0.001, there is a somehow strong positive association between these two variables among the participants of this group Consequently, the second null hypothesis predicting no significant relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among upper intermediate learners was rejected

It is worth mentioning that the common variance for this group of students is 28.7 percent

The findings are demonstrated in table 3.2

Table 3.2 Correlation Coefficient between upper Intermediate learners’ Self-Efficacy and their Autonomy

Autonomy

Pearson Correlation 0.536 (*)

Self-Efficacy Sig (2-tailed) 0.001

N 38

*means the correlation coefficient is significant at 05 level

The next table which is table 3.3 shows the general association between self-efficacy and autonomy among EFL learners in both groups of intermediate and upper intermediate

Table 3.3 Correlation Coefficient between both intermediate and upper Intermediate EFL learners’ Self-Efficacy and their Autonomy

Atonomy Pearson Correlation 0.339 (*) Self-Efficacy Sig (2-tailed) 0.002

N 84 *means the correlation coefficient is significant at 05 level

Table 3.4 Kolmogorov–Smirnov test

As it is clear in table 3.4, their Asymp levels of significance are higher than 0.05, which makes them possible to be

used in the Pearson correlation analysis

4 Discussion

Through investigation in literature review of language learning and previous researchers’ findings, it can be inferred that there is a statistically positive relationship between students’ self-efficacy and their language ability (Huang & Schanamo, 1996; Templin, 1999; Guile & Okuma, 2001; Anstrom, 2000) Also, review of the same literature indicated that there is a positive relationship between autonomy and language learning ability, likewise (Dafei, 2007) Consequently, self-efficacy and autonomy can be considered as two influential constructs in language learning ability Since learners self-efficacy has some effects on their psychological status and their thought process, it can affect their motivation, decision making, and performance in a specific action (Bandura, 1999) Considering the effects of self-efficacy on learners’ performances, it can be considered as an indispensible part of learners autonomy It was endeavored in this study to shed light on the great significance of these two variables and add another aspect to the body

of existing literature about the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate and upper intermediate EFL learners

In the first part of this research, by means of the results of correlational analysis, it was found that there was a very weak association between self-efficacy and autonomy among intermediate EFL learners It means that intermediate students’ autonomy increases very slightly when their self-efficacy is enhanced

In addition, the findings revealed that there was relatively a high correlation between upper intermediate students’ efficacy and their autonomy This result can be interpreted in this way that when upper intermediate students self-efficacy is boosted, there will be a considerable upturn in their autonomy Therefore, the obtained correlation for the second group (0.536) is obviously higher than that of first one (0.296) The results of data analysis in table 3.3 showed a medium correlation between these two variables with the association of 0.339 among all participants regardless of their proficiency

self-In the main, it seems that the findings of this study are in line with what other researchers have obtained Tilfarlioglu and Ciftci (2011) alert that there is a positive correlation between self-efficacy and autonomy with the correlation coefficient of r=0.667 and p˃0.01 They investigated the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among 250 preparatory level students from some universities in Turkey Their study unveiled that when learners self-efficacy increases, their potential to be autonomous learners enhances, as well Although the outcomes of are somehow the same, it is clear that the magnitude of the correlations is not always the same

Interpreting these statistics reveals that overall, EFL learners self-efficacy is linked to their autonomy An acceptable justification for this is that since self-efficacy interacts with people’s feelings and behavior, the more efficacious learners have better performance in a particular task (Bandura, 2001) Accordingly, referring to self-efficacy definition, the more efficacious learner has better judgment of his/her ability in carrying out a specific task, which leads to higher motivation and higher level of self-confidence, and consequently, a higher level of autonomy In other words, efficacious learners set challenging goals for themselves and endeavor to accomplish these goals (Bandura, 1997b) As they believe in their capability in doing this and are confident of their accomplishment, they boost their confidence which leads to more self-directed or autonomous learners

These claims are also in accordance with Schmenk (2005) assertions Schmenk (2005) asserts that self-efficacy is a prerequisite for learner autonomy for they can control their own learning and take responsibility in this issue when they become aware of their abilities

5 Conclusion

These years, many researchers have concentrated on some psychological concepts that play an influential role in language learning Self-efficacy and autonomy, which have attracted many language experts including Dafei, Cotteral, Bandura, Thanasolus and etc, are among crucial concepts in this area In this study, it was tried to display the relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy among Iranian intermediate and upper intermediate EFL learners The findings of the study can provide pedagogical implication in Iranian context

IJALEL 3(6):22-28, 2014 27

The subjects of the study were 84 intermediate and upper intermediate EFL students of an institute in Esfahan By means of two self-efficacy and autonomy questionnaires, the researcher’s data were gathered Correlational analysis was run on the collected data to discover the relationship between the mentioned values for the targeted two levels of proficiency The results of the study indicate that, with the correlation coefficient of o.339, there is a moderate association between these two constructs among all participants in both groups in general In addition, it was found that there is a very weak correlation (r=0.296) between these concepts among Iranian intermediate EFL learners On the other hand, the results of the study unveil a somehow strong association between the values at upper intermediate level Accordingly, the more efficacious the learners are, the more autonomous they become to some extent

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ed., pp 154-196) New York: Guilford

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Learners’ Grades JALT Journal 21(1).112-121

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history of an idea System 23.2, 151–164

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comprehension and listening proficiency.Novitas Royal, 3(1), 14-28

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at http://iteslj.org/Articles/Shrader-Empowerment.html, accessed 13 July 2012

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International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 3 No 6; November 2014

Copyright © Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

New Historicism in Translation Studies

Mir Mohammad Khadem-Nabi (Corresponding Author)

Shahid Beheshti University E-mail: mi.khademnabi@gmail.com Elaheh Gharesoufloo Azad Tehran University, Central Branch, Iran E-mail: e.gharesoufloo@yahoo.com

Received: 18-04-2014 Accepted: 14-06-2014 Published: 01-11-2014 doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.3n.6p.29 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.3n.6p.29

representation in translation, narratives of translation and translation historiography

2 Historicism and New Historicism

Historicism is defined as understanding all cultural and literary artifacts in their historical context (Malpas, 2004: p.55) This means no cultural or literary artifact can be read without reference to the historical context in which it is produced This view has come under criticism from different scholars including Walter Benjamin who sees two drawbacks in historicism: first, it considers past as given and unmediated by the present and secondly, it subscribes to the evolution notion of progress (Brooker, 2003: p.123) Hamilton presents a good description of the term:

Firstly, it is concerned to situate any statement – philosophical, historical, aesthetic or whatever – in its historical context Secondly, it typically doubles back on itself to explore the extent to which any historical enterprise inevitably reflects the interests and bias of the period in which it was written On the one hand, therefore, historicism is suspicious of the stories the past tells about itself; on the other hand, it is equally suspicious of its own partisanship It offers up both its past and its present for ideological scrutiny (Hamilton, 1996: p.3)

When the adjective “New” is added to historicism, it gains a new meaning Before the poststructuralist theories of history, like Michel Foucault’s skeptical thinking, acted on literary studies, most of the scholars had been subscribing quite naively to a view that “upheld a quasi-positivist belief in the objectivity and the unproblematic representability of the historical past” (Pieters, 2000: p.21) New historicism, an approach that challenges such a view, first surfaces in the 1980s and as a consequence of its skepticism toward objectivity has “a reciprocal concern with the historicity of texts and the textuality of history” (Montrose, 1998: p.781): while “textuality of history” means “no access to a full and authentic past”, the “historicity of text” is “the social embedment […] of all modes of writing” (ibid.) In sum, this approach posits an interest in history as “telling a story about the events of the past” rather than simply “the events of the past” (Selden and Brooker, 1997: p.188)

IJALEL 3(6):29-34, 2014 30

From the perspective of historical representation we can see, following Pieters, two trends in the postmodern

historicism: narrativist and heterological He borrows the term narrativisi from Frank Ankersmit by which he “means a historiographical practice whose descriptions and interpretations of the past are characterized by an ‘absolute accuracy’, yet which is conscious throughout of the fact that historical descriptions and interpretations can in no way equal the object (the past itself)” (Pieters, 2000: p.24); so the historical idea is transferred from the “ontological level of the past”

to the “discourse of the historical text” (ibid: p.28) The heterological trend which has psychoanalytical undertones aims

to “get ‘in touch with’ or ‘lay bare’ the ‘other’ of history” (p.28) by analyzing which “the historian attempts to find the repressed of the past” (pp.28-29) Pieters concludes that the new historicist interest in anecdote is clearly a conjunction

of these two trends.ii

New historicism has borrowed three main schemes from Foucault: discontinuity of history, history as a site of conflict, and a new way of dealing with “power” (Malpas, 2004: p.60) Discontinuity of history and the notion of conflict have led new historicists to reject the traditional historicist work in literary studies that describes a period in terms of a

“closed set of overarching beliefs”iii (p.61) Foucault’s notion of power as something that emanates from everywhere and not just from the ruling classes leads to a kind of analysis whose aim is “to carefully disentangle the myriad ways in which power is produced and organized in a society or period, how it circulates in that culture to generate particular identities and institutions, and how alternative ways of thinking and being, resistances, might be made available” (ibid.) Following poststructuralist ideas of “human behavior, practices and knowledge” as “constructs and inventions”, and texts “as participating in the production of ideology and culture”, this approach has it that “there is no division between text and context, or between literature and politics” (Brannigan, 1998: p.19) New historicism tries to “treat texts as a space where power relations are made visible” (p.6) Poststructuralist schools, including new historicism, “focus on language in texts of all kinds, not just literary ones, in order to expose or demystify its workings” (Diengott, 1998: p.497)

Finally, the anthropological turn new historicism takes is important: while “the past is a foreign country”, as L.P Hartley famously says, “approaching the sign system of the past”, in the new historicist thinkers’ view, is “analogous with anthropologists approaching the sign systems of another culture” (Brannigan, 1998: p.31) A method used by new historicist to contextualize the works they study and to shed light on the power relations, thick description is a concept

in anthropology that means “descending into detail” (Geertz in Brannigan, 1998: p.35) Thick description is in close relationship with the anecdotal method that takes into account literary as well as non-literary texts (like medical, law texts)

3 New Historicism and Translation Studies

3.1 General trends

Having given a brief account of new historicism, we come to the question the whole paper is about: What is the significance of these trends in translation studies? Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere, two prominent theorists of translation in the cultural paradigm, believe translations “are never produced in an airlock where they, and their originals, can be checked against the tertium comparationis in the purest possible lexical chamber, untainted by power, time, or even the vagaries of culture” (Lefevere, 1995: p.7) It is a fact that translation, whether considered as a first-order or second-order production, is a textual and discursive practice that is under the impact of the ideological and historical context in which it emerges.iv The tertium comparationis, against which these scholars define their work, is

the spirit of fully linguistic approaches to translation that take positivist stands.v

New historicism with its legacy of Foucauldian interest in micro-histories and thick description has turned to case studies Addressing the issues of literary translation studies in the descriptive paradigm, Theo Hermans asserts this point: “just as literary studies grew skeptical about grand historical narratives and discovered the micro-stories of New Historicism, descriptivists have relished the detail of individual case studies” (Hermans, 2003: p.88) This influence, of course, is an invisible one that has turned a commonsense practice among translation scholars

Therefore, the task of a historicist translation researcher can be bringing out the workings of ideology in the context of translation or “historicize comparatism and comparatize historicism” (Coldiron, 2001: p.100) One such view can be found in Venuti’s “Introduction” to Rethinking Translation, where he asserts that drawing on different cultural practices

in analyzing translations “means embedding cultural forms and practices in historical narratives which are thick with archival detail, but called forth by the present” (Venuti, 1992: p.10) Yet what remains important here is the historicity

of the researcher According to new historicists even the commentator himself is conditioned by the historical moment

in which he lives Hermans extends this argument to translation scholars drawing on the concept of Venuti’s “domestic representations” that determine the interpreter’s view about the nature of translation, norms, etc (see relative autonomy below) (Hermans, 2003: p.382)

3.2 Narratives of Translation

As regards translation history, scholars have not ignored the fact that in writing histories of translation the historian encounters some theoretical problems Paul Bandia deals with the issue of postmodernist historiography from a methodological perspective in his “The Impact of Postmodern Discourse on the History of Translation” The cline on which different approaches to translation are positioned is the one that begins from reconstructionism through constructionism to deconstructionism.vi The consequences of the postmodernist or deconstructionist approach to history can be immediately seen here: the accounts of the past are mere representations

Richardson’s Pamela, in preface to which he assumed, in Venuti’s words, “an accurate translation conformed as much

as possible to the foreign author’s ‘intention’ and verbal ‘manner’ or style” (ibid: p.802) He reduced the novel to lesser volumes, omitted and manipulated the text flagrantly according to the “interpretation” he had of the book yet called his version a “translation”.vii “A French translator today”, Venuti concludes, “might also ground a claim of accuracy on such categories as authorial intention and style, yet with the very different argument that a translation can conform to them only by rendering every word that the foreign author included in the foreign text” (ibid.)

Also Venuti’s account of translation in the Anglo-American context harks back to the Foucauldian tradition His The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation uses a genealogical approach to translation practice that rejects

teleology and objectivityviii (p.39) Genealogy, as opposed to teleology, is a form of historical representation that illustrates a “discontinuous succession of division and hierarchy, domination and exclusion, which destabilize the seeming unity of the present by constituting a past with plural, heterogeneous meanings” (ibid.) The deconstructionist, postmodernist trend of skepticism toward the historical truth can be seen here The historical representations are for Foucault “a cultural political practice” and a genealogical approach is “unique in affirming the interested nature of its historical representation” (ibid.) It is against such a background that Venuti explains in the following pages his methodological approach to translation history: he claims the book will “intervene[…] against the translator’s situation and activity in contemporary Anglo-American culture by offering a series of genealogies that write the history of present” (ibid, 40) His aim is to search “the past for alternative theories and practices” in translation traditions (ibid.)

He begins with this assumption that translation is marginalized in the context of the Anglo-American culture (and by extension, we might say, in many other cultures), rendering the translators “invisible”, the term he uses throughout his poststructuralist and Marxist project Douglas Robinson comments on Venuti’s historicism:

Venuti’s historicizing discourse is so fluent that it is extremely difficult to remember his intended heterogeneity The book is argumentatively counter- hegemonic, tracing the suppression of dissident voices under the dominant regime of fluency, but rhetorically quite hegemonic, undermining dissident claims by suppressing its own centrifugal impulses, its own polyvocity, its own stammers and stutters and lost trains of thought (Robinson, 2001: p.103)

As for the “(in)visibility” of the translator in the Anglo-American culture, Venuti traces (as was mentioned above) the discourse on and of translation in this context to reveal when the transparent discourse surfaced for the first time and marginalized the strategy he favors most in the contemporary situation, i.e., “foreignizing” He does this by revealing the major breaks in English translation history like Ezra Pound’s translations from Chinese

3.3 Translation and Representation

In studying the works of those authors that fall in the realm of history, particularly postmodernist history, we are actually dealing with translation as “a historical process” (Howland, 2003: p.48) The works mostly associated with this

kind of approach is Niranjana’s Siting Translation: History, Poststructuralism, Colonial Text that is concerned with the

issue of representation Howland believes that since colonial powersix have representation at their own behest they are

in “a position to construct the forms of indigenous and subject identity” (ibid.), but according to the postmodernist skepticism regarding the issue of textual and historical representation we would better cast doubt on such a representability: “Informing this metaphorical equation between textual representation and the historical experiences”, Howland asserts, “is a principle of mimesis—that texts mirror historical events” (ibid.) This approach runs the risk of reducing experience to meaning (Toew in Howland 2003: p.48)

Niranjana discusses William Jones’ translation of laws of Manu “as a means of providing the Indians with a coherent set of their own rules” (ibid, p.49) She believes that Jones was not expressing the desires of British Empire, instead, his

“remarks about the pagan Indians as impure, disgusting, and so on, are constitutive representations of Indians” (ibid.)

As is clear in the statements above, textual representation replaces the reality, that is, these narratives of the colonized are (mis)taken for the lived experience The principle that new historicists are against, namely, that the texts sufficiently represents the world is evident here Here, it is translation, rather than an original, that is implicated in history and is an inevitable part of that history In other words, for history to be completed, dealing with translations is necessary

In her article “Censorship as Cultural Blockage: Banned Literature in the Late Habsburg Monarchy” (2002), Michaela Wolf draws on the concept of “cultural blockage” introduced by Stephen Greenblatt and the constructed-ness of identities in a culture She takes Habsburg monarchy as a case to apply her model and claims at the outset that she “will analyze some agents in force within the translation process as well as the moments when blockage mechanisms become effective” (p.47) The Habsburg considered Italy an Other and tried to censor its image through complex selection machinery and paratextual strategies Those in charge of selection and delimiting the account of the Other are patrons, publishers and, as a result, translators themselves who are involved with a sort of self-censorship (p.49) After classifying translations in a certain historical period as texts which could unsettle the construct of Italy in Austria and texts which were “harmless”, she uses a statistical methodology and comes up with this point that translations belonged mostly to the latter group:

It can be said that Italian publications written for entertainment and that conserved an image rooted in the Renaissance and Romantic periods were selected at the expense of contemporary publications reflecting political and social realities that were blocked (p.51)

She then analyses some instances of cultural blockage in translational interactions between the Habsburg and Austria using the “the discursive strategies adopted in paratexts” (p.55) She draws on Greenblatt, claiming that “the strategies adopted in the encounter of cultures heavily marked by asymmetrical power relations either lead to the acceptance of the Other in the Self and the Self in the Other or to the explicit articulation of the radical differences between these cultures” (ibid)

In another article by the same author (“Cultural Pluralism through Translation? Imagining the Italian Other in the Habsburg Monarchy”) we see the issue of representation of the Other at the heart of the matter In this piece she evaluates the translation practices under the same monarchy but here she juxtaposes literary and non-literary texts or historical and literary texts “The image of Italy in the Habsburg Monarchy in the late nineteenth century”, Wolf argues,

can be regarded as a mixture of the images produced in the various preceding historical periods The image produced by Goethe’s Italian Journey was still present and was gradually — although timidly —being interlaced with images determined by persistent political and ideological tensions between Italy and the Habsburg Monarchy (Wolf, 2001: p.166)

After conducting a quantitative and qualitative research she concludes that “The choice of the titles banned clearly reflect the image of the Other that is not admitted” She gives the themes that were likely to be filtered through the choice and exclusion mechanism:

political ideas which (especially after 1866) mirror developments in the new Italian realm; other, more radical, political ideas closely related to the advent of socialist and anarchist ideology; publications generally aiming to empower the working class or the most underprivileged people; texts which recall the process of the Italian independence from Austria; any sort of writing against the Catholic Church; and texts rooted in Italian patriotism (p.177)

As is underpinned by Wolf, all these activities arise from the socio-cultural milieu and reflect, either in macro or micro analysis, the ideology that shaped them