IJALEL vol 5 no 3 2016

The Planning Policy of Bilingualism in Education in IraqAcquiring the English Causative Alternation: Evidence from the University of Jordan Ideology of Exile and Problematic of Globaliza

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print)

ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Pioneering in Language & Literature Discovery

ii

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

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Editors-in-Chief

· John I Liontas, University of South Florida, United States

· Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

· Zosia Golebiowski, Deakin University, Australia

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iii

IALEL Editorial Team Editor(s)-in-Chief

John I Liontas, University of South Florida, United States

Zosia Golebiowski, Deakin University, Australia

Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Managing Editor

Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Senior Associate Editors

Ahmad M Al-Hassan, Bremen University, Germany

Ali Miremadi, California State University, United States

Biook Behnam, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran

Christina Alm-Arvius, Stockholm University, Sweden

Eugenio Cianflone, University of Messina, Italy

Haifa Al-Buainain, Qatar University, Qatar

Hossein Farhady, University of Southern California, United States

John W Schwieter, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada

Juliane House, University of Hamburg, Germany

Kazem Lotfipour-Saedi, Ottawa University, Canada

Kimberley Brown, Portland State University, United States

María-Isabel González-Cruz, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Spain Mats Oscarson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Meixia Li, Beijing International Studies University, China

Mojgan Rashtchi, IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran

Moussa Ahmadian, Arak University, Arak, Iran

Nurten Birlik, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Roger Barnard, The University of Waikato, New Zealand

Ruth Roux, El Colegio de Tamaulipas & Universidad Autonoma de Tamaulipas, Mexico Sebnem Toplu, EGE University, Turkey

Seyyed Ali Ostovar-Namaghi, Shahrood University of Technology, Iran

Simin Karimi, University of Arizona, United States

Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Xitao Fu, Zhanjiang Normal University, China

Yolanda Gamboa, Florida Atlantic University, United States

Yuko Goto Butler, University of Pennsylvania, United States

Zdenka Gadusova, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia

Zia Tajeddin, Allameh Tabatabai University,Tehran, Iran

Associate Editors

Ahmed Gumaa Siddiek, Shaqra University, Saudi Arabia

Anne Dragemark Oscarson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Asghar Salimi Amirghayeb, Maragheh University, Iran

Bahman Amani, University of Malayer, Iran

Bilge Öztürk, Kocaeli University, Turkey

Christopher Conlan, Curtin University, Australia

Efstathios (Stathis) Selimis, Technological Education Institute of Kalamata, Greece Fan-Wei Kung, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Ferit Kilickaya, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey

Javanshir Shibliyev, Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Maryam Azarnoosh, IAU, Semnan, Iran

Naser Nayif AlBzour, Al AlBayt University, Jordan

Natasha Pourdana, Gyeongju University, South Korea

Obaid Hamid, The University Of Queensland, Australia

Rachel Adams Goertel, Pennsylvania State University, United States

Reza Kafipour, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Shaofeng Li, University of Auckland, New Zealand

Vahid Nimehchisalem, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

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Distinguished Advisors

Brian Tomlinson, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

Charles Goodwin, University of California, Los Angeles, United States Claire Kramsch, University of California, United States

Dan Douglas, Dan Douglas , Iowa State University, United States Hossein Nassaji, University of Victoria, Canada

Jalal Sokhanvar, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Roger Nunn, The Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Susan Gass, Michigan State University, United States

Advisors

Ian Bruce, The university of Waikato, New Zealand

Kristina Smith, Pearson Education, Turkey

Oytun Sozudogru, University of York, UK

Saeed Kalajahi, University of Göttingen, Germany

Steve Neufeld, Middle East Technical University, Cyprus

Editorial Panel

Abdolvahed Zarifi, Yasouj University, Iran

Ali Albashir Mohammed Al-Ha, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia Ali Asghar Yousefi Azarfam, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Bakhtiar Naghdipour, Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus Bora DEMIR, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

Cecilia Chu, Hong Kong Institute of Education, China

Dawn Rogier, Embassy of the United States of America, Philippines Ebrahim Samani, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Erdem AKBAS, University of York, UK

Farah Ghaderi, Urmia University, Iran

Farid Parvaneh, IAU, Iran

Gerry Loftus, University of Buckingham, UK

Hossein Saadabadi, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Isa SPAHIU, International Balkan University, Macedonia

Jiaoyue Chen, University of Southampton, United Kingdom

Mahdi Alizadeh Ziaei, The university of Edinburgh, UK

Neslihan Önder Ozdemir, Uludağ University, Turkey

Noelia Malla García, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain Önder ÇAKIRTAŞ, Bingöl University, Turkey

Orkun CANBAY, Qatar University, Qatar

Özge CAN, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

Reza Vaseghi, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Ruzbeh Babaee, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Seyyed Ali Kazemi, Islamic Azad University, Iran

Shannon Kelly Hillman, University of Hawaii, Hawaii

Tin T Dang, Vietnam National University, Vietnam

Yasemin Aksoyalp, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland

Book Reviews Editors

Marilyn Lewis, University of Auckland, New Zealand

The Planning Policy of Bilingualism in Education in Iraq

Acquiring the English Causative Alternation: Evidence from the University of Jordan

Ideology of Exile and Problematic of Globalization in Al Baraduni's Poetry

The Effects of Portfolio Use in Teaching Report Writing: EFL Students' Perspective

Revising and Metadiscourse in Advanced EFL/ESL Writing

Whole Language-Based English Reading Materials

Exploring EFL Learners’ Attitudes toward the Application of a Model of Writing

E-portfolio

Deleuzian Reading of Nomadology, War Machine and Transferring from Being to

Becoming in Mahmoud Dowlatabadi’s Kalidar

Genetic Study on Jade as the Origin of Chinese Civilization

The Illusion of Untranslatability: A Theoretical Perspective with Reference to the

Translation of Culture-Bound Euphemistic Expressions in the Qur'an

Cognitive Systematicity of Semantic Change: Cross-Linguistic Evidence

Developing the Basic English Language Skills in Nigerian Colleges of Education: A

Case Study of Three Colleges of Education

Wartime Women Rape: A Means of Moral Attack and Emasculation in Lynn

Nottage’s Ruined

Linguistic Parallelism in “La Belle Dame Sans Mercy” by John Keats and Urdu Poem

“Husan ki Divy” by Shevan Rizvi

Effects of English and Persian Subtitles on Oral Fluency and Accuracy of

Intermediate Iranian EFL Learners

IELTS and Academic Success in Higher Education: A UAE Perspective

The Effect of Orthographic Knowledge on Word Identification and Reading

Comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners

vi

The Effect of Thematic Classes on English Vocabulary Learning: A Study of Iranian

Junior High School Students

Evaluating the Effect of Metacognitive Strategy Training on Reading Comprehension

of Female Students at KAU

Linguistic Aspects of Arabic-English Code Switching on Facebook and Radio in

Australia

Human Connections in Red Badge of Courage

The Portrayal of Liberation and the Niger Delta Question in Arnold Udoka’s Akon,

Long Walk to a Dream and Iyene: A Dance Drama

Audiovisual English-Arabic Translation: De Beaugrande's Perspective

Literary Theory and Criticism: An Unaffordable Buzzword in English Literature?

Ideological Traces in Political Texts: A CDA Approach towards News Representation

and Translation of Iran’s Nuclear Program in English and Persian Written Media

The Influence of Writing Beliefs on Two Chinese EFL University Students’ Use of

Peer Feedback: An Ecological Perspective

The Sacred Sin A Brief Analysis of the Narrative Structure of Dual Irony in The Spire

Effects of Board Game on Speaking Ability of Low-proficiency ESL Learners

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as Sociolinguistic and Sociological

Conception: Possibilities and Limits of Theoretical Framework

Mariia Rubtcova, Oleg Pavenkov, Irina Khmyrova-Pruel, Tatiana Malinina,

Irina Dadianova

272-281 The Perception of English Modals among Arab Language Learners

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 5 No 3; May 2016

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

The Planning Policy of Bilingualism in Education in Iraq

Bilal Huri Yaseen (Corresponding author) Al-Anbar Directorate of Education Ministry of Education, Iraq E-mail: byaseen2010@gmail.com

Hani Shakir Al-Anbar Directorate of Education Ministry of Education, Iraq E-mail: hanishakir.ird@gmail.com

YM Hajah Tenku Mazuwana Bt T Mansor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

E-mail: wana@upm.edu.my

Received: 06-11-2015 Accepted: 25-01-2016 Advance Access Published: March 2016

Published: 01-05-2016 doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.1 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.1

Abstract

Iraq as a multicultural and multilingual country has different languages as Arabic, which is the dominant language, and

it also has some other minority languages, such as Kurdish, Turkish, Syriac etc Over the last 80 years, Iraq which was involved in some political struggles, had faced many internal problems regarding the Arabic domination that occurred, and this was owing to the absence of clear language policy used Children learning in the Iraqi system, for instance, speak and study all courses in Arabic, while speaking and using their own culture at home tend to be done in their first language The minorities’ language usage in Iraq was ignored both inside the schools as well as in the curriculum

construction So this study focuses on the following issues: the first issue is, What is the strategy of language planning

policy in Iraq? the study discusses the strategy and the planning educational system that Iraq applies now, the second issue is, What is the status of minority languages in Iraq? Iraq is a multicultural county and has many minorities communities with different languages, the third issue is, What are the challenges of language in Iraq? as long as there is different languages within one country the study also focuses on the challenges that been faced in the planning policy system, and the last issue is, Is there a homogenous relationship during the current policy? How? the study shows the homogenous relationship inside the current policy and the researches give many suggestions and recommendations regarding to the current policy and what is needed for improving the educational planning policy system

Keywords: Planning Policy, Bilingualism, Education, Culture, Harmony, Language Shift

1 Introduction

It has been estimated through various estimations throughout the world that two out of three people all over the world are either multilingual or bilingual; or in other words, over half of the world population regularly use at least two languages in their daily communication

This new century comes together with social facts like Multiculturalism and Multilingualism evident in most school classes and play fields The interpretation of ‘bilingualism’ comes in different ways; for some, it highlights an opportunity to have the ability to communicate in two languages as with Bloomfield (1933, cited in Mackey, 2000), Macnamara (1967) and Weir (2000) For others, it simply suggests the ability to communicate in two languages, but with higher skills in one language as with Titone (1972, cited in the Harmers & Blank, 2004), states that Bilingualism serves as the capacity of an individual to speak a second language based on its structures and patterns, without any pragmatic transfer from the first language

Iraq as a multicultural and multilingual country has different languages as Arabic, which is the dominant language, and

it also has some other minority languages, such as Kurdish, Turkish, Syriac etc Over the last 80 years, Iraq which was involved in some political struggles, had faced many internal problems regarding the Arabic domination that occurred, and this was owing to the absence of clear language policy used

After the invasion by the Americans and the coalition forces of Iraq in 2003, a new era had begun, in which many international companies, NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations), and the emergence of oil and gas investors were established in the country to urge the government of Iraq to think seriously about many matters that had curbed the development of the new era Thus, due to the lack of clear policy, there were some internal and external needs to use the multilingual system such as adding English and Kurdish languages in the economic, commercial, education system, universities, communication, to name a few In relation to these needs and others from the Iraqi society to look after the

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

The mentioned is embedded in the new development that Iraq recently witnessed in all fields as education, trade, human resources, industries and companies and non-governmental organizations; which altogether gave the motive to the government to find feasible policies that serve and lead Iraqis toward upholding internationalism

2 The Study Questions

1 What is the strategy of language planning policy in Iraq?

2 What is the status of minority languages in Iraq?

3 What are the challenges of language in Iraq?

4 Is there a homogenous relationship during the current policy? How?

3 Statement of the Problem

Curriculum planners have identified bilingualism between both the home and school in Iraq as a problem, where it does not lead to balanced chance of language usage that may impose harmful troubles in the society, and also, it poses serious challenges for the Iraqi educational system

The educational planning system in Iraq has had to brave a number of difficulties and challenges in the last two decades, which negatively dented its efficacy The main difficulty lies in the fact that there was legislation, but it did not have clear execution; instructions or implementations plan because there was either no real interest to implement or due

to political problems like quotas and benefits of political parties and which may be used as a tool of political pressure

In effect, Arabic is still the dominant language in the educational system in Iraq, whereas the minorities like, Kurdish and Turkish were under the illusion that their language is formal in schools like the Arabic This opinion had led to a

problem in the use of the educational system in the schools

The minorities’ language usage in Iraq was ignored both inside the schools as well as in the curriculum construction They (minorities) were not given any choice to learn their mother tongue language outside homes, and just headed to learn the dominant language, which was the formal language "Arabic." However, other minorities still suffered in Kirkuk, Ninawa and some parts of Diyala where Arabic is the only language that was allowed to be taught, while there was an exception of Kurdistan Region schools (the north of Iraq) following the independence of this region from the central ruling of Iraq

This study characterized the linguistic diversity status in addition to the minority languages inside Iraq covering four stages:

1- 1925-1958: In this first stage, the Iraqi constitution, draws the basis of the language diversity, and it dwelt into the freedom of learning and using different languages in education with some hesitation to find the solutions to the problem, especially through the legislations and declaration of 1932 The constitutions guaranteed the right

of citizens of to get free education (Al-Hirmizi -2003) Unfortunately, all these hopeful legislations did not have a clear public policy

2- 1958-1970: In this stage, there was what is regarded as the ‘dark period’ due to the high ignorance for the minor groups’ languages and all other linguistics’ diversity in spite of different versions of the constitution and legislations issued during that stage of history

3- 1970- 2003: There was a series of political attempts in order to create the feeling of anger of the ethnic minorities towards the Iraqi government; for this reason, the government had to find and modify some articles

in the constitution In effect, there are some laws legislated to guarantee the linguistic diversity in addition to the languages of minority ethnic group as well Unfortunately, they were far from realistic; instead it was used

to suppress the minorities without offering any real solution or policy for this problem

4- 2003- until now: The constitution included many articles concerning the language of minority ethnic groups and the linguistic diversity with good public policy that had placed Iraq back on track; however, the implementation of these policies and legislation was delayed, as a result of the fight against terrorism and poor financial allocations

IJALEL 5(3):1-6, 2016 3

The development and the status change according to these four stages came about, as the people really need peaceful co-existence, and the increased sense of responsibility as citizens, and promote unity and solidarity between the multicultural groups Hence, the study lays an emphasis on the significance of this issue from different sides taking into account the aspects of national unity, sociocultural, economic, human rights and the danger of repeated remissness of this issue

4 Current Language Policy

The Iraqi constitution in its approved law in January 7, 2014 considers Arabic and Kurdish as the two official languages of Iraq In addition, it ensures the right of all Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongues This can

be materialized via public educational institutions or in private schools (Iraqi constitution 2014, Articles3, 4 and 7) The constitution establishes specifically what official languages mean and how this policy is to be carried out Firstly, the official gazette will be bilingual, Arabic and Kurdish All speech and official documents in government organizations such as the Council of Parliament will be in one of the two languages Moreover, it allows the opening of schools for all stages of teaching in Arabic or Kurdish or Turkmen or Syriac, or Armenian or Mandaean in government educational institutions, or any other languages in private educational institutions in lieu with educational guidelines Bank notes, passports and stamps as formal documents will also be bilingual (Iraqi constitution2014, Articles 4, 7 and 8)

Article 9: Turkmen language and Syriac language have two official languages in the administrative units that constitute

the Turkmen or Syriac as part of the population

Article 10:Each region or province has the right to take any other local language as additional official language if most

of the population give their approval through the referendum

Article 11: Finding a higher committee to adhere to the implementation of this law; and it would be attached to the Council of Ministers, chaired by a representative of the General Secretariat of the Council of Ministers, the membership

of a representative of the Kurdistan Regional Government, a representative of the Office of the Chamber of Deputies, assisted by a team of linguists, academics and representatives of the Turkmen and Assyrians and Mandeans and also

added, a representative of any other Iraqi languages

Article 12: The tasks and quorum of the Committee stipulated in Article 12 of this Law follow instructions thathave

been released by the Prime Minister

Article -13-: This law aims to:

- Firstly, guarantee Constitutional respect, other than activate and organize the use of the Republic of Iraq’s official languages

- Secondly, raise and spread the linguistic awareness, towards unifying the components of Iraq and a better instillation and consolidation of both humanitarian and national concepts

- Thirdly, achieve the spirit of pride in using their mother tongue

- Fourth, to make sure that there are equality and balance between Arab and Kurdish’s rights and privileges to enable them to be used in federal institutions

- Fifth, offer support and develop Arabic and Kurdish languages and other languages namely Turkmen, Syriac and Armenian, Mandaean

Article -14-

- Firstly, every Iraqi citizen or foreign citizen is entitled to teach his/her children their respective mother tongue

- Secondly, every Iraqi ethnicity has the right to establish colleges or institutes and cultural centers or scientific synagogues which uphold the development of language, as well as both culture and heritage

Article -15-: The Iraqi Academy of Sciences and the Kurdish Academy are the only reference for the interpretation of terms and words, should there be any misunderstanding

Article -16-: Anyone who violates the provisions of this law will be dealt with as follows:

- First, impose disciplinary sanctions against him/her if he/she happened to be an official employee

- Second, warning the unofficial employee to remove the violation in the duration of 15 days, and when he refused to be punishable by a fine of not less than (50) fifty thousand dinars for each day the removal of the violation will be deemed failed

- Third, for each affected, reinstate the right to move criminal claims when the provisions of this law are violated

Article -17- The Council of Ministers has to release the set of instructions to facilitate the implementation of the law provisions

Article -18- This law shall be published in the Official Gazette and implemented after ninety (90) days from the publication date

IJALEL 5(3):1-6, 2016 4

6 Socio-Cultural Effect

The development and spread of the ethnic languages were done by schools, and it was not allowed to open new schools

or cultural institutes by the minorities until January 2014 All similar schools that previously opened were under close monitoring of the government; hence, the Kurds, Turkmen and other minor groups were in obligation to study in Arabic For instance, during the period of Ba'ath party, which was in 1968-2003, Turkmen had had to succumb to the darkest era of their history They had to address the requests from the government through signed petitions to close all schools teaching the Turkish in Kirkuk and administrating their areas by Arab employees (Mofaq Kerkuklu, 2007) One can imagine the weakness and the untruthful desire of the Iraqi education system towards the ethnic minority regions before 2003 To spark controversy, in the USA, the government provides some concentrated programs for families and children as EHS (Early Head Start); these aim to consolidate children’s willingness and desire to learn their ethnic language As the families are culturally and linguistically varied their children required literacy experiences in multifarious ways Children under five years might have already been exposed to their mother tongue and their ethnic culture, which is the mother language used in their homes and communities If the reason is down to exposure, subsequent children aged 1-3 years can easily work on their first language, which is the non-English language(Centre,

E H 2001)

The minority languages or ethnic languages are not adequately cared for, like the other countries; for instance, in China, The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) is the main government committee, responsible for all planning strategies of linguistic minority languages in China, and it aims to keep these languages autonomous (Huang Xing, 2003)

The minority had given some bad reactions to this kind of injustice, and this reflects their behaviour towards the other people and their culture Obviously, it also reflects on the social status, especially in the marriages of Kurds, Turkman, Assyrian…etc and the Arabs in Iraq (Kerkuklu, M S 2009)

Without a doubt, the essential ways of communication with others lie in the language Learning languages, even under very experienced teachers, is usually placed under long-term programs It establishes the different ways of looking out into the world as well as the human communication It is also worthy of note that learning languages is one the most rewarding intellectual activities imaginable (Willems, 2002)

At the end, according to(Curran, 2003), people need to establish a great sense of relations between their communities and further confirm and glorify their linguistic diversity

7 Implications for Language Planning

"Language planning refers to deliberate efforts to influence the behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structural, or functional allocation of their language codes" (Cooper, 1989: 45) The initial implications of this study

rest on the status and the acquisition of English in Iraq’s educational system The study results have shown the worthy linguistic, cultural, political and educational aspects with regard to the profile of English in Iraq Schools and higher-education institutions are the basic frameworks in which languages are studied in a systematic way and which ensure maintenance and vitality Allowing diverse attitudes and receptiveness to a language policy can also motivate English learning

Prator (in Cooper, 1989: 31) has this to say: "language policy making involves decisions about the teaching and use of language, and their careful formulation of those empowered to do so, for the guidance of others." Thus, planning for

English involves both the planning acquisition and its status It is seemingly apparent that there is an urgent need for a strategic plan for a language policy of English principally spurred by ideological and political considerations The low linguistic capital value of English in Iraq deemed unable to draw stronger social elements is due to the perceived low instrumentality of the language and its linkage to supposed hostile elements Malice to its speakers must not evoke a sense of hatred to the language learning A strategic plan for English sees that the macro goals of learning English and the weak recognition of the consumers (users) are arranged At the national level, a rise in the demand for English would inexorably raise its linguistic major value From the sociological viewpoint, the promotion of English in Iraq is fundamentally a function of several factors: national necessity, scientific education media, ideological and political considerations A strategic plan must stress on implementing the motivation for the betterment of English learning The acquisition of English as a strategic plan should then be started It must be introduced with a set of definitions, parameters and positions, concluded after extensive studies, establishing a vision of the status of English and how it will

be in Iraq A strategic plan for English then might be called strategic preparation, because it constitutes a preparation for successful treatment of future linguistic and extra linguistic challenges and opportunities Hence, a strategic plan of Bilingualism for English in Iraq

8 Language Maintenance and Shift

Language maintenance and shift, as qualified by (Joshua Fishman, 1968) encompass the stability or set of exchange in language use in a particular cultural context of certain inhabited populations, who use more than one language or language variety of intra- or inter-group aims (as cited in Garcia, 2009) Garcia notes that language maintenance and shifts always occur under particular conditions in society:

 When there is more than one language being in use in a society

9 What this Means in Iraq

A language’s current condition tends to determine if it should be pertained or developed for future prospect Horberger writes that the situation of Planning is directed at determining the functions of language in a community, like in the case where languages are named in a constitution as the official language of the country (nationalized) This kind of planning

affects or influences the status of the language in the society, or how it stands, relative to other languages In the case

where the Arabic and Kurdish are the only two official languages named in the Iraqi constitution, their status is raised, while the statuses of other minority languages in the country are becoming marginalized Therefore,

language shift from minority languages to the dominant languages is more likely to take place as minority groups have the tendency to adopt the language with higher status

In addition, it is evident that the use of languages in schools can lead to language maintenance, shift, and revitalization While the constitution of Iraq shows and guarantees that children receive their education in their home language, we

have seen reports indicating that many minority groups do not happen to have access to schools that teach in their

language According to Giles’ (1977) framework, then, this lack of institutional support makes it easier for the language to become endangered As pointed out, having bilingual schools that teach in both the home language of the

child, and the dominant language in society will not find a paved path toward ensuring that the language will be revitalized

Fishman and Giles both agree on the fact that the use of languages in government and employment can also lead to

language maintenance, shift, or revitalization A number of minority languages like Aramaic, and Turkmen had

been excluded from government institutions, workplace speech and documents, while Arabic and Kurdish have

their place in these domains Additionally, the likelihood of the shift from minority languages to the dominant ones and the endangerment of minority languages is undeniably high Finally, Giles pointed out that languages can be affected

through regional distribution We acknowledge how ethnic minority groups in Iraq have been forced to flee their

communities in pursuit of an asylum Some have been internally displaced while others found out solace in

neighbouring countries This is said to be the result of the fragmentation of speech communities, increasing the

likelihood of language shifts to the dominant language Fishman has noted that "Face to face, interaction with a real family embedded in real community is the real secret weapon of RLS" (as cited in Garcia, 2009) If community

members are segregated, the interaction needed for language revitalization will be close to impossible

10 Language Planning: Harmony in Bilingual Education

Iraq is diverse linguistically; so the mono-glossic method to bilingualism would not be regarded as timely This method

holds firmly that a second language is improved separately from the first language It ascribes to a monolingual ideology that children begin as monolinguals in one language and end up either monolingual in the second language or

bilingual in the first and second languages (Garcia, 2009) An example of this type of method is a transitional

program, aiming to facilitate the transition of the student from his or her home language to that of the dominant

language This should not be the target of Iraqi schools What we should do instead is to encourage the students to

maintain their home language(s) such as Aramaic or Turkmen and at the same time, develop competency in the

dominant languages (Arabic or Kurdish)

In order to include minority languages in Iraqi education, a heteroglossic approach appears to be the most feasible

approach A heteroglossic model seeks to develop bilingualism while acknowledging that many children and communities are not strangers to bilingualism and diverse languages and they do not present themselves at school as monolinguals (Garcia, 2009) This approach recognizes the multiplicity of many speech communities, and seeks to boost the interaction and co-development of children from various linguistic backgrounds (Garcia, 2009) Under this type of approach, learning languages are not only a home agenda, but it is reinforced at school as well They are based

on the beliefs and practices of people who see languages as coexistent, not isolated from each other (Garcia, 2009)

This model of bilingualism is confirmed to be appropriate in many communities in the linguistically diverse Iraq Depending on the area in Iraq, minority children could be educated in their language and the dominant language (Arabic) with the help of a recursive or dynamic theoretical framework The aim of this model is to activate the home language of a community that has all the while been suppressed At this point, the child might not be proficient in his/her ancestral language, but he or she is definitely not starting from scratch However, in a recursive model, a child’s ancestral language is not added as a whole but is developed in pieces and is reconstituted for new, modern functions (Garcia, 2009) This model may be appropriate in areas in Iraq, where there are cases of certain language repression, such as happening to the communities of the Turkmen

An example of a type of bilingualism that adheres to the recursive model is immersion revitalization, occasionally

referred as "heritage language immersion" Minority children who come from speech communities that have

experienced language shift, or moving away from their ancestral language could also be taught this way The goal is to reignite the functions and the situation of a language and reverse language shift The point is not only to reclaim a heritage language that has undergone a language shift, but also to improve the curricula to combine the local knowledge

IJALEL 5(3):1-6, 2016 6

and culture (Garcia, 2009) We have seen that the curriculum in many Iraqi schools tends to lean more towards the dominant groups

11 Conclusion, Solution and Recommendations

The issue of bilingualism in the home and school in Iraq establishes steady challenges for educationists and relevant parties in Iraq The study of language groups in Iraq justifies that despite the considerable difference in the language behaviour, all groups share the same value of the knowledge of Arabic, the common language used in the everyday communication as well as the official language used in the educational areas and other formal establishments Simultaneously, all minority groups have expressed a strong desire for keeping and using their mother tongue To cater for this desire, the education gate-keepers in Iraq had designed a modified legislation, law on 2005article (4) in 2009 where the law asserts that the educational system is to value not only majority languages but also minority languages such as Kurdish and Turkish

In sum, the study suggests the recommendations below in order to instigate the education policy makers to improve and develop the bilingual education system in Iraq

1 The Iraqi government should provide access to bilingual education for minorities in several areas that have a lot of

minority groups These schools should not be transitional in nature, or in other words, they should not pursue the

ultimate goal of transitioning the child from their home language to the dominant language Instead, these schools should advocate teaching in both the home language(s) of the student and the dominant language (either Arabic or Kurdish) and should ideally uphold either a recursive or a dynamic bilingualism model

2 Review and revise school curricula all across the country to make them more representative of the minority groups' culture, history, and language People representing ethnic minority groups should have very good involvement in the development of the curriculum

3 Remove the requirement for minority teachers to work for three years outside their community This way, they can be with their own people in their communities and teach in their language

4 Provide Kurdish language training for linguistic minorities, especially in the northern part of Iraq

5 Increase the number of minority representatives in the provincial councils so that minority groups can take part and have more voice in more language planning

6 Collaborate with the minority to create a detailed anti-Discrimination law, and provide strong enough means of enforcement This includes ruling out that language discrimination is one of the prohibited grounds of discrimination

7 Eliminate the violence and intimidation faced by minority groups by creating a set of more stringent punishments for those who make the minorities their target This will curtail further displacement and fragmentation of the latter

8 Add 'Language' as one prominent ground for discrimination in the constitution (Article 4)

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Solidarity

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Xing, H (2003) Minority language planning of China in relation to use and development Khadar, H S (2007).The legal status of Kurdish language in Iraq Niqash: briefings from inside and across Iraq Retrieved from http://www.niqash.org/articles/?id=2057

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 5 No 3; May 2016

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Acquiring the English Causative Alternation: Evidence from

the University of Jordan

Aseel Zibin School of English Literature, Languages & Linguistics Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne/England E-mail: a.zibin@newcastle.ac.uk

Abdel Rahman Altakhaineh (Corresponding author) School of English Literature, Languages & Linguistics Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne/England E-mail: a.r.m.s.altakhaineh@newcastle.ac.uk

Received: 02-11-2015 Accepted: 26-01-2016 Advance Access Published: March 2016

Published: 01-05-2016 doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.7 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.7

Abstract

The main objective of the current study was to test whether Advanced Jordanian EFL learners have acquired the English causative alternation To this end, we used a Grammaticality Judgment Task (GJT) to determine whether the participants would be able to distinguish between alternating and non-alternating causative/inchoative verbs The verbs

used in the GJT were chosen based on their frequency in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) The

sample of the study consisted of eighty advanced Jordanian EFL learners, studying English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan The results revealed that the participants have not acquired the English causative alternation (total mean=61%) Specifically, the results showed that the participants encountered some difficulties with certain verbs that do not alternate and were used ungrammatically on the GJT We proposed that these difficulties could be attributed

to the differences between English and Jordanian Arabic (JA) in terms of the semantically-based constraints that govern the causative-inchoative alternation in English and JA The participants transferred the argument structure of verbs in

JA into English without realising that the two languages are different in terms of the verbs that are allowed to alternate and those that are not The study concludes with recommendations for further research

Keywords: lexical semantics, causative-inchoative alternation, argument structure, second language acquisition,

Jordanian EFL learners

1 Introduction

The causative-inchoative alternation has been subject to wide debate in the last couple of decades (Pinker; 1989; Croft, 1990; Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1994; Wolff, 2003; Koontz-Garboden, 2009; Haspelmath et al., 2014; among others) Research in this area has focused mainly on the rules that allow some verbs to alternate between two types of structure

In the case of the causative-inchoative alternation, the alternating verb is allowed to be used in two structures, as in examples (1a, b):

(1) a my sweater shrank

b the water shrank my sweater

The two variants of the verb shrink (i.e., transitive and intransitive), are derived from the same room (Haegeman, 1991)

The intransitive verb in (1a) describes the change of state that took place, i.e shrinking Simply put, the state of the

theme or the argument affected by the action (i.e., my sweater) changes without specifying the cause of that change

This type of meaning is called inchoative Example (1b), on the other hand, shows the transitive variant of the verb

shrink, which describes the cause that brought about the change of state Consequently, it is called the causative variant

(Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 2011, Horvath & Siloni, 2013; among others) However, the main problem in this type of alternation lies in the fact that not all intransitive verbs have associated causative transitive forms (Pinker, 1989;

Haegeman, 1991) For example, the verb smile can only be used inchoatively, as in (2a):

(2) a The girl smiled

b *Jessica smiled the girl

In a similar vein, not all transitive verbs have intransitive forms In other words, not all transitive verbs inchoativise An example of this is the following:

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

IJALEL 5(3):7-15, 2016 8

(3) a the storm destroyed the bridge

b *the bridge destroyed

Based on the above, it is suggested that the fact that some verbs in English alternate between two types of structures, while others do not, may cause acquisition problems to EFL learners, especially with regard to differentiating between alternating and non-alternating verbs (Alotaibi & Alajmi, 2015) Using a Grammaticality Judgement Task (GJT), this study aims to investigate the ability of Jordanian EFL learners to distinguish between alternating and non-alternating verbs in English The focus of the present study is essentially on the causative-inchoative alternation

2 Literature review

2.1 Overview

In his discussion of the four lexico-syntactic alternations (i.e., dative), locative, passive and causative that exhibit a learnability problem similar to that discussed by Baker (1979), Pinker (1989) noted that verbs select the number and type of arguments that are permitted to accompany them Put differently, verbs have different argument structures For

example, the verb give is similar to the verb donate in meaning, but they do not appear in the same structures, as shown

in examples (4-5):

(4) a Jack gave the newspaper to Jennifer

b Jack gave Jennifer the newspaper

The verb give subcategorizes for [NP PP], shown in (4a) and [NP NP] in (4b) This means that the verb give alternates between the two structures On the other hand, the verb donate, which has a similar meaning to the verb give,

subcategorizes for [NP PP] only:

(5) a Peter donated ten thousand dollars to the institute

b * Peter donated the institute ten thousand dollars

This type of alternation is referred to as the dative alternation The acquisition of dative alternation by first and second language learners has received great attention (Anderssen, et al., 2014) Among the researchers who investigated the dative alternation is Hamdan (1994) In his study, Hamdan (1994) investigated the effect of L1 on the acquisition of dative alternation by speakers of Jordanian Spoken Arabic (JSA)

In addition to the dative and the causative alternation, Pinker (1989) examined two other kinds of lexico-syntactic alternations, namely the passive, demonstrated in (6), and the locative in (7) Below are illustrative examples of the two types of alternation, respectively:

(6) a Nick ate the apple

b The apple was eaten by Nick

c Chris resembles his father

d *His father is resembled by Chris

(7) a Mike piled the papers on the desk

b Mike piled the desk with papers

c Mike spilled coke onto the table

d *Mike spilled the table with coke

Examples (6a, b) show that the verb eat can be passivised; it appears in the active and the passive structures, whereas the verb resemble in examples (6c, d) does not Similarly, examples (7a, b) demonstrate that the verb pile appears in [NP on/onto NP] structure and [NP with NP structure], while the verb spill appears only in the former structure In other

words, it does not alternate

Among the researchers who investigated the acquisition of the passive alternation by Arab EFL learners are Alotaibi and Alajmi (2015) In their study, the two researchers examined whether 50 advanced Kuwaiti EFL learners have the ability to distinguish between alternating and non-alternating verbs, using a Grammaticality Judgement Task (GJT) The results showed that the participants' accurate answers on the test, especially with respect to the verbs that passivise, can

be attributed to positive transfer from L1 That is, if the verb in L1 alternates, the participants would transfer their knowledge of the argument structure of that verb from L1 to L2 and the result would be correct Alotaibi and Alajmi (2015) noted, however, that verbs that do not passivise in English presented a challenge to the participants Over-generalisation of the passivisation rule or confusing non-causative verbs with the passive construction were the main reasons behind the errors made by the participants Overall, the results demonstrate that the participants have not acquired the English passive alternation

IJALEL 5(3):7-15, 2016 9

In another study that explored the acquisition of the locative alternation by Arab EFL learners, Al-Wahaib (2004) paid special attention to whether Jordanian EFL learners encounter any problems in the process of acquiring locative alternating verbs For the purpose of the study, Al-Wahaib (2004) conducted a Grammaticality Judgment Task (GJT) on sixty 4th year Jordanian students, studying English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan He discovered that participants did face serious difficulties in acquiring these verbs, based on their poor achievement on the GJT The study concluded that these difficulties might be due to interlingual and intralingual reasons Interlingual transfer is caused by L1 interference, whereas intralingual transfer is the result of partial learning of L2 (Erdoğan, 2005, p 265) The fact that some verbs alternate in Arabic but not in English lies within the area of the former, whereas the lack of knowledge of certain argument structures in L2 is related to the latter (see section 4)

In the past, the focus of acquisition studies in Arabic has mainly been on syntactic structures Only recently has the focus shifted to investigate lexical items Several researchers have examined various aspects of lexical items in Arabic,

in addition to their acquisition (e.g Altakhaineh & Zibin, 2014a; Zibin & Altakhaineh, 2014; Altakhaineh & Rahrouh, 2015) Furthermore, different types of lexico-syntactic alternations have been investigated (Hamdan, 1994; Alotaibi & Alajmi, 2015) However, to the best of my knowledge, little attention has been given to the area of causative-inchoative alternation and its acquisition by EFL learners in general, and by Jordanian EFL learners in particular Thus, this study explores the acquisition of the English causative alternation by advanced Jordanian EFL learners The following section provides an overview of the English causative alternation

2.2 English causative alternation

According to Pinker (1989, p 48), a lexical causative is a "transitive verb signifying causation that is identical in form

to an intransitive verb signifying the caused event." Lexical causatives are semantically governed, that is, they only operate in cases of causation in which physical or direct contact exists (Ammon, 1980) This is referred to as the

"directness effect" as opposed to periphrastic causation, in which the intransitive or inchoative verb appears as a

complement of a causative verb, such as make (Pinker, 1989, p 48) The following is an example of a periphrastic

causative verb:

(8) a Penny frowned

b *Fred frowned Penny

c Fred made Penny frown

Since the verb frown cannot causativise (example 8b), a causative verb, made, is used instead to convey the causative meaning The directness effect is missing in the verb frown; thus, it does not alternate According to Pinker (1989, p

88), in the causative alternation, the causative verb is derived from the inchoative verb by adding an argument to the latter In particular, an argument, namely, the causer or the agent, is added to the argument structure of the inchoative verb, specifying the cause behind the change of state Additionally, the broad range-rules, which change the argument structure of the inchoative verb, changes the theme argument of the inchoative verb into the patient or the argument that undergoes the change of state The addition of the causer and the transformation from theme to patient can be captured

by a lexical rule which takes the following structure "X changes, acts, or moves" and changes it into another structure, (i.e., “Y acts on X, causing X to change, act, or move”) Therefore, verbs which act voluntarily or which are internally

caused, e.g laugh do not submit to the rule, since the presence of an internal cause would prevent any external one

(Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 2011) The problem here is that not all verbs can undergo the change mentioned above Specifically, the lexical rule, which changes one structure into the other, does not apply to some verbs in English However, since there are many verbs that cannot be causativised, the broad-range rules are not enough for the alternation to happen; a verb should meet a narrow-range rule or semantically-based rule that allows the verb to alternate Therefore, Pinker (1989, p 130) indicated that there are three main classes of intransitive or inchoative verbs that are causativisable, or in other words that meet the narrow-range rules or the semantically-based rules in English These classes are shown below:

a) Verbs of extrinsic change of physical state e.g open, close

b) Verbs of contained motion that takes place in a particular manner e.g roll, float

c) Verbs that undergo a semantic change These are divided into two subclasses:

a Verbs that involve manner of locomotion e.g run, gallop

b Verbs that signify the instrument of transportation and in the causative use signifies enabling and

accompanying the transportation E.g motor, cycle

These classes of verb are the only ones that can alternate in English The question here is: would Jordanian EFL learners

be able to decide which English verbs alternate and which do not? Thus, the current study aims at providing answers to the following research questions:

1) Can advanced Jordanian EFL learners distinguish between verbs that alternate between the causative and inchoative structures in English and those that do not?

2) Do they encounter difficulties with certain types of verb? If yes, why?

of data collection (i.e., the summer semester of the academic year 2013-14), the participants had completed at least

80-90 credit hours of Advanced English courses such as, Syntax, Vocabulary, and Translation The selection of this age group of participants was based on our belief that the participants at this age would have reached an advance level of English proficiency that would qualify them to be part of this study A significant number of participants were essential for the assumptions of the statistical analysis to be satisfied and to ensure that the judgment of atypical participants does not distort the results

3.2 Data collection

A Grammaticality Judgment Task (GJT) in English was chosen as the data elicitation tool in the current study Several researchers, investigating other lexico-syntactic alternations attested in various languages, have adopted GJTs in their

research (Mazurkerwich, 1984; Choi & Lakshmanan, 2002; Tremblay, 2005; Alotaibi & Alajmi, 2015; among others)

The tool has asserted its validity in differentiating between production problems, e.g slips and grammatical problems

on the one hand, and separating the structural features of the language in which the researcher is interested, through minimising the effect of the communicative functions of the language, on the other (Schütze, 1996) In order to test the validity of this tool, we gave a preliminary version of the GJT to 10 native speakers of British English On the basis of their answers, in the final version of the GJT, we only included those sentences which received similar judgments by 80% and above of the native speakers The GJT consisted of a total of 31 items, including 16 verbs; 6 verbs that do alternate, another 9 that do not, and one dative verb that was used ungrammatically as a distracter The items were pseudo-randomised, so that the order in which they appeared is counterbalanced The full list of verbs in the GJT was as follows:

1- Alternating verbs (n=6)

Open, melt, shrink, run, slid, motor

2- Non-alternating verbs (n=9)

a Verbs that do not causativise; used only intransitively (n=5)

Disappear, laugh, entre, cry, die

b Verbs that do causativise; used only transitively (n=4)

Raise, kill, create, convince

3- Distracter: Non-alternating dative (n=1)

Donate

The verbs used in the GJT were selected based on their frequency in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) The purpose of this procedure was to ascertain the occurrence of these verbs in contemporary speech No minimum frequency level was established However, the frequency was taken into consideration in the discussion of the results Table 1 below shows the frequency of the verbs in (COCA) between the years 2010-2015

Table 1 The frequency of the verbs on the GJT in (COCA) in the years 2010-2015

In the case of the alternating verbs, each one appeared in two sentences that were both grammatical In contrast, each non-alternating verb appeared in one sentence that was grammatical and another that was ungrammatical, as in the following examples (see Appendix A):

(9) a God created various species of animals

b *Various species of animals created

The results obtained from the experiment are presented and discussed in the following section

4 Results and discussion

Out of the 2400 judgments (excluding the distracter) provided by the participants, 1470 were accurate Hence, the percentage of accuracy on the whole task was 61% The results showed that the participants' performance varied with regard to certain verbs; this difference could be due to various reasons which are explained in this section Table 2

shows that with the exception of motor, the alternating verbs seem to be responsible for the high percentages obtained

on the GJT Conversely, non-alternating verbs in English yielded the low percentages on the GJT The following table presents the number and percentage of accurate judgments on the alternating verbs

Table 2 Numbers and percentages of accurate judgments on the alternating verbs

Table 2 demonstrates that in addition to their high frequency in (COCA) (see Table 1), the fact that these verbs alternate

in JA could be responsible for the high percentages on the GJT Specifically, the high number of accurate answers could

be accounted for on semantic grounds Verbs of extrinsic change of physical state, e.g open (92%), melt (89%) and shrink (81%), verbs of contained motion, e.g slid (80%), and verbs that involve manner of locomotion, e.g run (83%)

alternate in both English and JA The same semantic constraints controlling the causative shift in the English verbs above also operate in JA, yielding a high percentage of accurate judgments (see section 2.2) An example of an alternating verb in JA is presented below:

Ahmad opened.MSG the-door

‘Ahmad opened the door’

the-door opened.MSG

‘The door opened’

Since the verb open alternates in both English and JA, the participants only had to literally translate the English example (see the examples below as they appeared on the GJT) into JA to arrive at the conclusion that open also

alternates in English:

21 Jena opened the door to see who was outside

4 The door opened while she was reading the novel

IJALEL 5(3):7-15, 2016 12

The similarity between the two languages vis-à-vis the applicability of the two structures responsible for the causative shift contributed positively to the participants’ performance on the GJT Making use of this similarity between English and JA increased the percentage of accurate judgments on the GJT (cf Alotaibi & Alajmi, 2015) This type of transfer where the structure of the L1 is transferred into the L2, in which such structure is considered correct, is referred to as positive transfer (Saville-Troike, 2012) The fact that the participants only needed to translate the English verb into JA,

in which that verb can also alternate, suggests that they have not acquired the English causative alternation

From another perspective, even though verbs that signify the instrument of transportation alternate in English, the verb

motor generated the lowest percentage of judgments on the GJT in the category of alternating verbs Here, an

explanation that pertains to interlanguage difficulties is in order (cf Al-Wahaib, 2004) Lack of familiarity with verbs

that indicate the transportation instrument in English, e.g motor, ferry, boat, etc resulted in an unsatisfactory

performance on the GJT The absence of these verbs from the lexicon of JA verbs can be taken in part as an argument that an additional level of difficulty on the GJT was created, clouding the participants’ judgment on sentences

containing such verbs (i.e., motor (46%))

Despite the low percentage of motor, a look at the total mean of accurate judgments (i.e., 79%) suggests that alternating

verbs were, generally, not a stumbling block for the participants Moving to the non-alternating verbs, Table 3 presents the numbers and percentages of the accurate judgments on the non-alternating verbs that do not causativise and appeared in grammatical sentences

Table 3 Numbers and percentages of accurate judgments on the non-alternating verbs that do not causativise and used in grammatical sentences on the GJT

Table 4 below reports the numbers and percentages of accurate judgments on the same non-alternating causative verbs, which were used in ungrammatical sentences on the GJT (i.e., used transitively)

Table 4 Numbers and percentages of accurate responses on the non-alternating verbs that do not causativise and used in ungrammatical sentences on the GJT

Tables 3 and 4 clearly show that the percentages of accuracy for the non-alternating verbs were higher for grammatical sentences (mean: 87%) than for the ungrammatical ones (mean: 34%) Table 4 provides indisputable evidence that the participants encountered difficulties with English verbs that can only be used inchoatively, since the percentages of accuracy for the non-alternating verbs were fairly low, in comparison to those used in grammatical sentences However,

it is observed that the non-alternating verbs in English do alternate in JA, as in:

Lana cried-FSG 'Lana cried.'

lit Yezzan cried Lana 'Yezzan caused Lana to cry.'

Example (11) above shows that the verb cry, which does not alternate in English (see the examples below as they

appeared on the GJT), alternates in JA:

IJALEL 5(3):7-15, 2016 13

1 Christina cried last night

17 *Robert cried Christina last night

The fact that the verb cry does not alternate in English but does in JA suggests that if the participants translated the English verbs literally into JA, they would conclude that the verb cry alternates in English; thus, provide erroneous

judgments on the GJT This means that the participants would judge sentence (17) on the GJT as correct The same

applies to the other verbs, disappear, laugh, entre, and die, because all of these verbs also alternate in JA, but do not in

English This type of transfer in which the structure transferred from L1 into L2 is considered incorrect is called negative transfer (Meisel, 1997; Helms-Park, 2001; Al-Wahaib, 2004) The differences between the two languages in

terms of the verbs that are allowed to alternate are responsible for the low percentages on the GJT (i.e., cry (30%), disappear (45%), laugh (24%), entre (40%), and die (33%)) In this regard, one may suggest that JA has different

semantic constraints that stipulate which classes of verb are allowed to alternate other than those in English Because these constraints are different in both languages, it can be argued that the semantic structure of the verbs plays a major role in the problems encountered by Jordanian EFL learners, most notably in relation to the causative-inchoative alternation phenomenon Thus, a study that specifies the semantic constraints that allow verbs in JA to alternate is required However, this issue will not be pursued here any further, since it is beyond the scope of this study

Finally, Tables 5 and 6 display the numbers and percentages of the accurate judgments on the non-alternating verbs that

do causativise and appeared in grammatical sentences on the GJT

Table 5 Numbers and percentages of accurate judgments on the non-alternating verbs used only transitively and appeared in grammatical sentences on the GJT

non-JA verbs but not to English verbs In this respect, certain verbs in English only appear in the causative form, disallowing the change to the inchoative form Conversely, the same categories of verbs that do not accept the inchoative form in English do alternate in JA, giving rise to a plethora of problems for Jordanian EFL learners In fact, all the verbs presented in Table 6 alternate in JA, as in:

'God created humans'

IJALEL 5(3):7-15, 2016 14

b l-baʃar nxalaʔu1

the-humans created.PL lit humans created

(intended meaning 'humans became created')

The fact that these verbs alternate in JA but not in English resulted in low percentages on the GJT (i.e., raise (15%), kill (34%), create (25%), and convince (21%))

5 Conclusion and recommendations

The present study tested whether eighty advanced Jordanian EFL learners would be able to distinguish between causative verbs that alternate (i.e., used transitively and intransitively) and other verbs that do not (i.e., used either transitively or intransitively), using a Grammaticality Judgment Task (GJT) The results showed that their achievement

on the GJT was not satisfactory (mean: 61%) The high percentages on the alternating verbs were attributed to positive transfer The fact that these verbs alternate in both English and JA encouraged the participants to literally translate the English verbs into L2, in which the structure happens to be correct In contrast, the participants encountered certain difficulties with acquiring non-alternating verbs, either those that can only be used inchoatively or those that can only

be used causatively (i.e., disappear, laugh, entre, cry, die, raise, kill, create and convince) These difficulties were

particularly apparent when these verbs were used ungrammatically The main reason for the low percentages on the non-alternating verbs was ascribed to the fact that these verbs alternate in JA, but not in English It was suggested that the semantic constraints, governing the causative alternation in JA are different from those in English Therefore, the participants' negatively transferred some structures from JA into English, resulting in erroneous answers Finally, the study recommends the examination of the semantic constraints that allow verbs to alternate in JA This kind of study may shed light on the syntactic and semantic structures of causative and inchoative verbs in Arabic in general, and JA in particular

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Appendix A

Grammaticality Judgment Task

Read the following sentences Put a tick (✓) next to any sentence you think grammatical and a cross (✕) next to any sentence you think ungrammatical Your first decision is the one we want Please do not change your answers

11 Mr Smith donated the orphanage 20 thousand dollars ✕

18 Jacob motored his girlfriend to California last summer ✓

29 Eva laughed the audience because of her bad acting ✕

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 5 No 3; May 2016

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

Ideology of Exile and Problematic of Globalization in

Received: 07-11-2015 Accepted: 27-01-2016 Advance Access Published: March 2016

Published: 01-05-2016 doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.16 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.16

Keywords: exile, ideology, globalization, postcolonial, Al Baraduni, Yemeni, problematic, poetry

1 Introduction

Late Al Baraduni is one of the pioneers in the area of literature, particularly poetry in Yemen and in the Arab world in general He is open and considers one of the advocates of women rights in the era of democracy that led him to receive death threats from religious fanatics who considered him an infidel Abdallah Al Baraduni was born in Baradun, 1929

in Dhamar, northern part of Yemen At very early age, Al Baraduni got blind after contracting small pox This incident would not halt his aspiration to be something in his community At early of his age, he joined the Grand Mosque and later moved to Dar Ulum in 1940 to study literature He studied Arabic literature and Shari 'a to obtain a degree in this area of interest He graduated from Dar Ulum with distinction in the area of Shari' a and Arabic language He initiated his academic and professional life as a teacher of Arabic literature in Dar Ulum which led him to address many political issues in his poems that caused him problematic with the countrymen For such reasons, he was imprisoned in different periods of the three decades (1950, 60s, and 70s)

His talent in poetry appeared early when he was thirteen years old He began to read the classical poems of the great poets in the past and he attempted to write his own poems He has written many books and articles that address many literary and political issues; however, his passion to poetry leads him to give priority and special concern to poetry which goes beyond the Yemeni borders to encompass the regional and international interests He has published six books on literature, culture and politics, in such books he makes the picture clear about a man who bears a concern of a

nation Al Baraduni has published a host of studies, including Yemeni Issues, A Journey in Modern and Ancient Yemen Poetry, Popular Culture, Yemeni Experience and Sayings, Popular Culture in Yemen, From First Poem to the last Bullet: A Poetic Study of Zubairi's Poetry and His Life, and Culture and the Yemeni Revolution

He has published twelve volumes of poetry which address his experiences and beliefs in social and political life and

reflect the reality of political and social life of Yemeni and Arab communities He has published On The Path of Dawn, From the land of Sheba, The City of Tomorrow, Journey to The Green Days, Smokey Faces in Night Mirrors, The Quality of Time, Creatures of Second Nostalgia, The Return of Wiseman, Bin Zaid, Answer to the Ages…etc Al

Baraduni lived very simple life and he wrote about what he believed in transparently After 1962 revolution, he worked

in Sana'a Broadcasting Radio to be a manger in 1969 and then the head of the programs department to 1980 He was in charge of presenting a literature program called' Magazine of Thought and Literature' He continued in this program to

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

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his death in 1999 Further, he supervised the Army Magazine from 1969 until 1975 and he had a weekly article 'Thought and Literature Issues', he wrote another weekly article for Al Thawra Newspaper entitled 'Cultural Issues' The focus and the issues discussed in Al Baraduni's poems do not exceed the concern of the Yemeni and the Arab citizens who long to an honorable life and he explains such issues in his poems and the political corruption which hinders the progress of Yemeni people to catch up with the civilization He criticized the Imamates in some of his poems which have been circulated secretly in 1948; however, such poems led him to spend nine months in the prisons

of Imamate governors He was interested in women's issues in his poetry and his daily life; he worked for two years, 1954-1956 as a lawyer of women He got benefit from his information in the area of Sharia which was a part of his study to defend the issues and the rights of divorced women to be known later as 'divorcees' lawyer'

Al Baraduni is one of the greatest poets in Arab world and he is known more in Yemen in particular He managed to write what the sighted people could not see; this deep insight engraved a name for Al Baraduni in the world of Arabic literature He was able to combine between classicism and modernism between Ancient and contemporary in his poems His special techniques and style add special flavor to his poems, specially the images and the simplicity of the language that reflect the reality of Yemen and the Arab world He depicts the daily lives of the people and the routines they may

go through in their country His small nation, Yemen, and big world of Arab people catch his attention to write about the social and cultural issues, sacrifices and the sufferings to reach an honorable life under corruption of the rulers or exile and globalization enforced them to live different lives that are not matched with their simple dreams and their optimistic look to the future Al Baraduni'e's literary writings, whether in the area of poetry or culture or literature in general, provide the readers with a profound insight and deep analysis into the realities of Yemenis and the Arab life in general, portraying the virtue and the vice, the triumphs and the defeats, aspirations and frustrations, sufferings and sacrifices However, corruption in the community, the waves of globalization and exile that make the Yemeni lives a strange life that is not matched with his culture and social conventions For this reason, such issues have been given a priority in his poems and literary writings New aspects of invasion are dominating on the human life and they are practiced by the Arab people consciously or unconsciously All aspects of human life are influenced in one way or another with the tides of globalization and the exile that are dominating on a great segment of Arab people The language, the technique, the style, literary expression, symbolism, irony, and touching image are combined together to make the picture a live in the reader's mind

Irony and satire in Al Baraduni's poetry have occupied a large space and they are employed to serve the criticism of

social, cultural, and political reality He has selected an ironic title for many of his poems, including: Vacuum Pioneer, Behind the Wind, Astonishing the Astonishment, We: Our Enemy, A Song of Wood, Sana'a in A Plane, Struggler in The Bed, Lightening Hunter, Winds Friend, Bad Advice, From Exile to Exile, Invasion from Inside…etc Such titles mock

the miserable reality which the Arab people live in and find themselves in a situation they would not able to change or goes beyond its circle

The article addresses two poems of Al Baraduni: From Exile to Exile and Invasion from Inside These two poems will

be analyzed to recognize to what extent the poet succeed to depict the two postcolonial concepts and what are the techniques used to make the picture closer to the mind of the readers, using very simple language and alive images to make the readers understand the message behind such poems

2 Al Baraduni in the Eyes of Critics and Intellectuals

Abdel Aziz Al Maqaleh pointed out "the great poet Abdullah Al Baraduni's passing away has left a great void in the area of poetry, the void can be filled only by his works, which were and will remain the subject of unlimited interest of the coming generation in Yemen" The ex-minister of Culture Mohammed Abu Bakr Al Maflahi stated "Al Baraduni is one of the most important symbols of global culture in the second half of 20th century He is one of those who raised the name of Yemen in the Arab and international forum Yemen now has a prominent location on the map of Arab culture"

He continued to confirm" Al Baraduni took upon himself to upgrade, develop, and renovate Arab poetry to become one

of the best known poets" (Saba News Agency, 1999)

Al Baraduni has his own unique style and technique in painting the poetic images He was a literary school by himself Ali Aqla (2010) pointed out "Al Baraduni was a man of a nation, not a man of himself, he felt the people and he was not flattering or praising any one for his own interest He hates humiliation of his nation…; he calls for dignity, freedom,

courage, and struggle, declaring in such words the genuine sense of life" (qtd Al Salum's Poets under the Light) Waleed Mushwah (2000) argued in his book 'The Poetic Image in Al Baraduni's Poetry' "Al Baraduni considers a

modernist and a renovator in the context of classic school, he is creative and establish everything innovatively so that he deserved to be predecessor of Emru' Al Qais, the deluding king" The poems and poetry of Al Baraduni stimulate many critics and scholars to write about his unique literary school and his satiric approach in most of his poems Al Baraduni has very supreme position in the hearts of millions of Yemenis and his efforts and deduction to his fair issues have engraved a name for him in the area of poetry and the area of literature in general The critic Fawaz Haju (2010) discussed al Baraduni's distinction in his words and his images "Al Baraduni has his own voice and his own color, his poem are distinctive with symmetric music known for his lovers, and known by his voice layers He does not belong to

any literary school, he owns his own project"(qtd Al Salum's Poets under the Light)

Al Maqaleh (2003) in his article "The Big Poet is Creative to the End", Al Thawra Cultural Attachment, called the scholars to address Al Baraduni's poetry in their master and PhD researches to go deeply to the beautiful expressions, the images, the senses and to argue "examples of Al Baraduni's poems, particularly, the late ones that have taken an

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artistic and human dimensions, more aspiring to represent the poetry in its modern style, and sometimes the postmodern

ones" (4) Muhyi Aldin Saeed (2003), in his article " Al Baraduni is cheaper than Sawti" (Sawti is the worst and cheapest types of Qat –green leaves- are chewed by Yemenis) argues that " the truth should be confessed, we have lost

Al Baraduni in our life, we have lost him a giant, a human, a poet, a critic, an artistic rebellion of the first type, but from

a type could not be found yet" (6) In this article, Muhyi Aldin mentioned that Al Qa'ud addressed Al Baraduni that his

books are available anywhere and they are cheap, the late Al Baraduni replies "they are cheaper than Sawti"

In Al Baraduni's fourth death memory, Abaid (2003), Al Thawra Cultural Attachment, pointed out that "the literary works of Al Baraduni followed one another which have immortalized his name as one of the poets who enrich the Arabic poetry and enrich Arabic literature with his distinctive and creative literary works Al Baraduni is one of the modernists of the column poem and he is the most brilliant poet in the second half of twentieth century" (3) Al Baraduni participated from 11-15 December 1971 in celebrating the millennium memory of Abu Tammam, held in

Mosel, Iraq, and he obtained the festival's prize for his famous poem "Abu Tammam and Arabism of Today" On 30

August, 1999, came to put an end to the big poet of Yemen, as he was called by Al Maqaleh

3 Exile and Globalization in Postcolonialism

Ashcroft and et al (2002) pointed out "the condition of exile involves the idea of a separation and distancing from either

a literal motherland or from a cultural and ethnic origin" (P 92) Al Barduno has his own view and understanding to the concept of exile which is expressed in many of his poems and how the person would be exiled in his home and he is attempting to escape from such exile to another one He could not feel that security he supposed to feel in his motherland The citizen of the Arab country may find himself/herself a stranger among his/her people and his/her culture

Regarding globalization, Ashcroft and et al (2002) argued "globalization is the process whereby individual lives and local communities are affected by economic and cultural forces that operate world wide" (P.110) The idea of globalization comes as a substitute of the imperialism which practices its domination through the military forces The metropolitan power of western countries envelope their influence on the other culture and economy by brilliant name that make the Arab world and the other helpless countries drift with their intellectual and cultural invasion At the beginning such powerless countries called such interference in their culture and community a sort of intellectual invasion, however, the imperialist power and the dominating forces initiate in marking such interference with brilliant names such as globalization, secularization and hegemonization Consequently, the Arab people become followers and implementers to such ideologies which lead them far away of their language, culture and religion in the name of modernism or in the name of coping with the tide of civilization

Imperialists make it easy to themselves by propagating to such ideologies that shift the reality of the Arab people through such lovely names Many of Arab people have embraced such ideologies, but they begin to call to such ideologies in the name of openness to the global world as a response to the requirements of development and the fast growing changes in the world A huge change has occurred to the powerless communities and they may not be able to protect themselves from such globalization problematic The communities that own the power, they are the communities that make the change for their interest, but sometime they impose such change on the powerless communities As a result, the transformation in the lives of the local communities drives them far away of their language, culture, religion and social traditions, they are drifted with the tide of the dominating power that controls the economy and the technology of the contemporary era

4 Exile as an Ideology: From Exile to Exile

Al Baraduni is one of the greatest contemporary Arab poets who are distinguished by his style and his techniques that make the critics put him as a literary school by itself The political, cultural and social situations that get the country to the worse make Al Baraduni's poems blended with the tone of irony in most of his poems, if not all The title of the poem is selected creatively The reader may touch the ironic and satiric tone even from the titles of most of his poems and collections that reflect the suffering and struggling of the people and the corruption of Arab nations which has taken varied aspects In the selected poems, this article focuses on the reality of globalization problematic and the ideology of

exile in Al Baraduni's poems From exile to Exile is one of the poems that will be analyzed and highlighted to probe

deeply into the poet's projection and views of such postcolonial terms which they have taken a new trend to be spread and practiced with excessive passion

Al Baraduni's poems express the concern of Arabs in general and the concern of Yemenis in particular His dignity and love for his country, his codes and ethical criteria make the poet stands against the corruption which is embodied in the Arab Rulers and their practicing corruption and exile against their citizens He struggles with the power of words and the power of poems which makes him one of the great nationalists who endeavors everlastingly to uncover the lies and tricks of the rulers who become a tool of globalization and world imperialism His poems come to express the pains and the promises of the people of his country He feels as the others who live the life of exile even in their country which is supposed to be a safe refuge for them The exile ideology and globalization problematic become a hidden weapon that are used against the people whose dreams to live normal lives away of cultural loss and identity problematic The interest of the Arab rulers meet with the ideologies of exile and globalization which push the indigenous people to be driven towards the tenets of globalization which have given it a likable name, instead of thought invasion Globalization becomes a necessity in the eyes of the rulers to make their people subservient to their orders

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The poem of From Exile to Exile comes to express the passion of the rulers to hand over their country from a tyrant to

another one It comes to stress the transformation of the people identity under the tenets of globalization that cross the cultural and social limits Globalization and exile become inescapable destiny of the indigenous people

From Exile to Exile

My country is handed over from a tyrant to the next,

A worse tyrant, from one prison to another, From one exile to another

It is colonized by the observed Invader and the hidden one;

Handed over by one beast to two Like an emaciated camel

Al Baraduni's words come honest and powerful and his pain as one of the people of this country is unquestionable It belongs to him, and his love to his country makes him suffering The irony that may see in the title, it would depict the country situation, the country that supposes to be a safe refuge to the citizens, suddenly it becomes as an exile, and this exile leads the person to another exile The name is my country only but it is completely different The tyrant rulers are determined to hand over the country to the worse rulers whose concern is nothing about the suffering of the people It is

a matter of a country which lives under corruption and undeclared exile The country pre-revolution and post-revolution era is suffering the dominations of the tyrant rulers who see nothing but only their self interests and such interest only meet with the global imperialism

In the past, the invaders were known and would be observed, now the invaders are hidden and are revealed under brilliant names as globalization, secularization, hybridization…etc such hidden ideologies that make the people follow and feel themselves lost The poet portrays the everlasting changes under the impact of globalization and exile as inescapable transformations To be under globalization power, no limits would be touched The world becomes small village shares global culture, global conventions, and global politics The indigenous people in Arab country feel exiled Every one of such postcolonial terms: exile and globalization, lead one of them to the other, having influenced by exile, you find yourself permeated by the global culture and having globalized you would feel exile and alienation

The irony is that the anticipated change could not be fulfilled and the country situation controlled by tyrant ruler and handed over to another tyrant Here the reader may realize the pessimistic attitude of the poet and how his country dominated by one tyrant to be handed over to a worse one, from prison to another, from exile to another, from one beast

to two, from observed invader to hidden The people as they have no power to resist the tyranny The hope of the poet

is weak in changing the situation as long as the tyrants handed the rule to the worse tyrant The poet compares between two eras: pre-revolution and post-revolution, between past and present The revolution is supposed to bring honorable life for the citizens; however, the poet finds the situation get darker and worse The hopes and dreams of the citizens do not come true and promises of prosperous life are vanished under the corruption and tyranny of the rulers

The hidden invaders are represented by the globalization and its policies carried out by the Arab countries rulers The rulers become the tool in the hands of international imperialism that endeavors to change the identity of the locals to let them feel lost and torn between such global cultures, religions, and social conventions The country, the poet means Yemen, is controlled by indirect western globalization The cultures and values would be dissolved under the tenet of globalization and the ideology of exile, even in the country which the person lives in The present policy is a nation believes in globalization as an unavoidable refuge and such globalization is practiced by hidden invaders as the poet called them The poet's country still live in the caverns of its death, and it searches for the pure origins that have been lost by exile and globalization ideologies

In the caverns of its death

My country neither dies Nor recover It digs

In the muted graves looking For its springtime promise, That slept behind its eyes

For the dream that will come For the phantom that hid

It moves from one overwhelming Night to a darker one

The words used are expressive and explain the pains of the poet: caverns- death- dies-dig-graves-night, a darker night Such words move the readers to a scary world and the position of in- between: no genuine life with real sense and no real recovery that brings hope to the people The ray of hope is far-fetched which are expressed by the interesting

The poet used "my country" to express Yemen in all aspects of life: Yemen in its human and history, Yemen in its culture and identity, Yemen of people and place Yemen becomes an exile and the ideology of exile and globalization are enforced by the leaders who become a hidden tool of change and a tool of devastation For this reason, the poet depicts his country sad behind its boundaries and the people of Yemen live miserable life in their country and in the other people's land Grief and suffer become a mark of exile and alienation The people are drifted by globalization that makes them strangers and exiled in their country They find the culture, the faith, the social conventions are not what they recognize and the life is different Such life does not belong to their history or to their heritage The second poem which the article argued to be familiar with the sort of life led by the leaders and the poet's country rulers is a poem

entitled 'Invasion from Inside'

Invasion from Inside

It is terrible the ignorance of what is going on And more terrible to recognize

Do you know Sana'a who the secret colonizer is!

Invaders who are not observed and their invading sword in my chest They would come in tobacco of the cigarette, its color tempting

In charities of a beast humanizes its rocky face

In the eyelashes of a female, in dominating fancy tissues

In a teacher's trousers, and under the head cover of the religious reciter

In the anti pregnancy tablets, in tube of ink

In the freedom of vomiting, in the absurdity of the age

In the return of the past colonization, in its modern disguise

In the bottle of whiskey, in the bottle of perfume They are hidden under my skin, and get out of my hair And above their faces my face, and under their horses my back Invaders of today are like plague, hidden but it spreads Hold the birth of the coming and embroider the miserable presence

It is terrible the ignorance of what is going on And more terrible to recognize

………

The late Al Baraduni had a profound insight into the political and social situations in Yemen His words have been seen

a reality in the history of Yemen, whether in the past, during his life or in the future of Yemen after his death His words have touched the sufferings and aspirations of Yemenis and the Arab people His expectations about the future of Yemen are unmissed because they come from the heart that recognizes no hypocrisy or flattery to the politicians or rulers of Yemen What Al Baraduni wrote in the past is reflected in the reality of political arena of Yemen Most of the titles of Al Baraduni's poems satirize the political and social situations; they are full of exciting and mocking

expressions that the poet may not be able to change The poem which will be analyzed here is 'Invasion from Inside', his

mockery overturns the understanding of human beings to the reality and the ordinary use of the words, his words lead the reader to think many times to realize what the poet aims at or like to criticize in his poem The inferences in his poems may be realized by distinctive expressions and wonderful images The use of the words and the simile in his own way that give the readers a remark that everything is overturned, even the reality and aspiration of the nation we suppose to see or the leaders suppose to work on alleviating the pains of the nations, on the contrary, they work in one way or another in devastating the values and culture of their nations In the title of the poem, the reader expects the invasion from outside however, to find invasion from inside and the leaders of the Arab people become a part of this destruction, here the poet mocks Arab countries subservience to the foreign ideologies, particularly, Yemen It becomes

a mark of globalization and exile The people are not the people, the person may see the past is not the past and the values become hybrid and globalized What the western countries call for, you may find its reflection in the Arab world

in the second day because of the power of technology Ashcroft and et el (2002) argued that "the most active area of

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debate in globalization studies therefore appears to be the style and the nature of the process by which external and internal forces interact to produce, reproduce and disseminate global culture within local communities" (114) Ashcroft and et al emphasized that "the more recent directions of globalization studies concern the development of global culture,

a process in which the strategies, techniques, assumptions and interactions of cultural representation become increasingly widespread and homogeneous" (114)

Al Baraduni begins his poem 'Invasion from Inside' with an astonishing cry that expresses his shock of what he realizes

around him /it is terrible what going on/ and more terrible to recognize/ to see something unexpected, and the more terrible to recognize and stand powerless to resist such undesirable transformation that makes the people deny their cultural and social values The impact is huge and no one may imagine The poet is confused of what he sees in Sana'a, the landmark of old civilization, something is run behind the curtains The poet addresses Sana'a/ do you know Sana'a who the secret colonizer is! / It is painful to find Sana'a as a mother whose sons work secretly to respond to the conspiracies of the enemies, but they become the tool used by the external colonizers in very tempting names that reveal the matters go in the interest of the nations which export the technology and civilization They come under the names of globalization, hybridization, secularization …etc that names which delude the locals to run behind such slogan which

do not serve just the international imperialism

Al Baraduni's poems are rich with different types of techniques that reveal irony, satire and sarcasm The ironic question is one of these techniques which stimulate the reader to draw a live picture in his mind about the miserable political and social situations Al Baraduni was raised in a poor family and in that small community, beginning with his family and loss of his mother at the early age He was living in a community known with irony and sarcasm that dealt with the reality of the rulers' daily lives Such life would enhance the poet's talent of irony Further, his reading of the classical poems of the past poetry empowers his ironic and satiric techniques despite the differences in the political and social circumstances of the two ages The poet sometimes uses the ironic question, other times would use repetition that call attention of the reader to the purpose of repetition as /it is terrible what is going on…etc/ in this poem He uses the question techniques The poet draws a caricaturist image that makes the reader laughs during reading the poem Al Baraduni poems may not be free from likable and attractive hyperbolic expressions that are not detached from the reality of the political situation noticed when Al Baraduni addresses the manifestations of globalization and exile in the poem

The poet shows the colonizer of today is not as the colonizer of yesterday The colonizer of today is more effective and devastative This sort of globalization is admitted by the people as an urgent need required by the development and progress in the different areas of life The poet's deep insights about the reality of situation in Yemen at that time and his prophecy of the future do not miss The poet was able to see and predict what the people with their eyes may not realize The words of Al Baraduni come to touch the core of the political and social reality of Yemen The rulers of Yemen and the Arab world become the device of transformation, a tool of colonization that intends to change the values of the Arab nations to worse Undoubtedly, the fast collapse of Sana'a under the corrupt rulers who see only their own interests puts

a big question mark on the hands that run and control the political situation That makes the poet starts his poem /it is terrible what is going on/ here the reader may realize the bitter fact It is not an innocent change that may drives the Yemeni lives to better However, they are ideologies that may make the people lose their cultural and religious values under very tempting names of modernization or globalization They may lose their faith and their capacity to change the situation to better It is a deliberate plan to devastate all the components of the community The Yemenis find themselves under the control of hidden hands that lead them to be exiled in their country, to be confused and lost before this sweeping tide of globalization

The poet addresses his words to Sana'a, his beloved, which is unable to defend herself against the hidden hands of globalization, but destruction /Do you know Sana'a who the secret colonizer is! / A question expects many answers, to call the attention of the readers, particular Yemenis, to what he is going to explain A question is to stimulate the readers

to the reality of situation in Sana'a The poet asks and he brings the answer, /invaders who are not observed and their invading sword in my chest/ Al Baraduni realizes the risks that envelope the Yemenis, and the poet is one of those people He uses 'not observed', but their impact is horrible, their invading sword in his chest It is expressive metaphor that depicts the situation and the unbearable pains in his deep chest It is unavoidable situation which leaves a huge influence inside his chest The poet is a symbol of all Yemenis The invasion works secretly to change the values and identity of the people The pains of the people are the pains of the poet who shows his national spirit affected by the invading sword that leave its consequence in his heart

The poet initiates explaining the manifestations of the colonizers which come in different aspects; the tool of colonizers

is globalization which is reflected in many forms: it is realized in the tobacco of cigarette that has been exported to Yemenis in its tempting color The poet likes to show that the means of colonization adopts different ways to control the Arab nations It also comes through charities, donations, and economic assistance offered by a beast /attempting to humanize his rocky face/ here in such image the poet reveals the ugly face of the colonizer who attempts to humanize his rocky face and reveals his mercy over the Third World countries He describes the colonizer as a monster or a beast that likes to show kindness and humanity to the Yemenis The poet uncovers the genuine face of the donors The invasion may come in the eyelashes of a female in her dominating fancy tissues The person finds himself under the influence of such fancy The invaders may come in a form of a teacher's trousers and the head's cover of a Holy Quran reciter Here the poet argues how the invaders manages to reach the religious man's traditions and values by showing

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that their globalization means to invade even the religious figures to cover his head by a cover manufactured in the invaders' countries The poet likes to show the readers to what extent the influence of globalization has reached The globalization becomes problematic and controls all aspects of Arab lives Its resistance may not be easy because it becomes a part of their daily lives The uniform of the Holy Quran reciter is a symbol of his commitment to his religion and tradition but globalization spoils the Yemeni heritage and traditions The poet continues explicating the manifestations of the secret colonizer who prefers to make use of the indigenous rulers to carry out their policies and plans in their motherland, instead of face to face confrontation with the indigenous people, the colonizers make use the leaders of the nations to carry out their destructive policies The invasion may come in a form of /anti- pregnancy tablets and tube of ink/ in the freedom of vomiting /In the absurdity of the era/ the invaders may not hesitate to work by the hidden means in its modern disguise The mockery is that the people become users to all the products of the invaders, how the readers expect such people may unfetter from the globalizing shackles The invaders' means show themselves /

in a bottle of whiskey, in a bottle of perfume/their means and modes may not be seen, they always hidden and are practiced by the locals unconsciously The poet shows how the invaders' means dominate all aspects of life

Al Barduni uses a very interesting image that uncovers the invaders' hidden techniques that the person may not pay attention to such means This technique of hyperbole may reflect the ironic domination of the colonizer on the aspects

of daily lives of the people /they are hidden under my skin, and get out of my hair/and above their faces my face, and under their horses my back/ The aesthetic quality of such image makes the reader realizes how the people are influenced by the globalizing movement that settles under the skin of the people and the poet is a part of this community The poet expresses the invaders' hidden hands as they are hidden under the poet's skin to portray how they work secretly and in darkness It is very beautiful image that makes the people permeated with the globalizing culture and become the users of the products of the colonizers that control their lives, but they become the masters of globalization The Arabs and Yemenis' leaders in particular become a source of globalization and become the exporters

of such ideologies to their people /get out of my hair/ and above their faces my face/ and under their horses my back/ The poet depicts how the locals' acts as they are the inventers of such ideologies that make the invaders themselves wear the faces of the poet as a symbol of Arab subjection to the western globalization The Arabs' back is ridden by their horses and this image shows the reader how the Yemenis become perfect carriers to the globalizing manifestations

in their lives, but they become a very significant incarnation of such globalization It is very expressive and attractive picture that may clarify how the indigenous rules become the followers of the globalizing style of life Al Baraduni in his unique skill makes the picture a live in our mind and it does not miss the element of irony

The poet describes the invaders of today like / plague, hidden but it spreads/ The Yemenis require to hold the coming birth if they like to stop the influence of the invaders in their modern manifestations, or to decorate the miserable reality Therefore, the influence of globalization is inescapable because the impossibility of halting the coming birth or decorating the miserable reality of Yemen The poet repeats his clarion cry which is repeated at the end of the stanzas to portray the horrible reality of the situation in Yemen /it is terrible the ignorance of what is going on And more terrible

to recognize/ It is a misery of a nation led by his rulers to obliterate the authentic identity of a nation which reflects the style of globalization They live strange lives which are not involved with any of their cultural, social or political conventions The poet points out in the following lines the reality of the Yemenis whereas in the first part of the poem the poet explicates the manifestations of globalization, the invasion in its modern disguise The poet uses many symbols that reveal how the globalizing ideology comes to the people It is manifested in tobacco of cigarette, charities of a beast, eyelashes of a female, a trousers of a teacher, a cover of reciter's head, anti- pregnancy tablets, tube of ink, in a bottle of whiskey, a bottle of perfume…etc., they become the controller of the lives of the people and penetrate into their lives deeply to become stuck under their skin and get out of their hair

The poet depicts the people's subservience in a very humiliating way that makes them as the caller of globalization /and above their faces my face/and under their horses my back/ It is very profound insight that explicates how the indigenous people of Yemen and Arabs in general become a tool of globalization The poet emphasizes that is hard if not impossible to stop such invasion which moves secretly and spreads rapidly The influence is horrible and unavoidable in a time of revolution of technology, what is invented in the west today, tomorrow it becomes in our country as an urgent need and the people may not ignore

Yamniyoun are in exile, and others are exiled in Yemen Southerners are in Sana'a, and northerners are in Aden

As uncles and relatives are in their determination and their weakness

October walks turn into September coffin The shame is promoted from selling to priceless selling And from an invading colonizer to a national one Why we are, oh settling, oh exiling, houseless Without dream, without mention, without condolence, without grief

Yamaniyoun, oh Arwa, oh, Saif bin Zee Yazen But despite of you, we are without blessing, without Yemen Without past, without future, without secret, without exposure

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Oh Sana'a, when do you come from your rotten coffin?

it asked me, do you know?! My time ends before it comes When I come?!!Don't know to where my ships have bent

it came back from its future to its pagan history

It is terrible the ignorance of what is going on And more terrible to recognize The poet describes the political and the social situation, how the Yemenis become under the influence of such new ideologies which dominate every details of their lives Yemenis become exiled outside of Yemen and exiled in their home Yemenis live this sort of exiled lives, whether inside or outside This is the reality of the situation The poet claims everything is overturned The people suppose to feel secure and live their identity in their home; however, they feel exiled even in their homes because the same power that leads them to feel exiled abroad, it is the same power that drives them to feel exiled in their home /Southerners in Sana'a and northerners in Aden/ Sana'a is the capital of Yemen before unification the two parts of Yemen and the capital of Yemen after the unification of the two parts of Yemen Aden was the capital of the Southern part of Yemen They are like uncles and relatives in their power and their weakness /October walks turn into September coffin/ here the poet elucidates how the revolution of the southern part of Yemen becomes the coffin of the revolution of Northern part of Yemen The people leave their religious and social values behind and begin to feel exiled even in their home Everything becomes overturned in their lives The irony here

is /the shame is promoted from selling to priceless selling/ and from an invading colonizer to a national one/ The problem that alligators of nationalism become the sellers of western ideology of globalization to their nations, instead of the external colonizers, the national one appears on the surface The people are suffering whether in their settling or exiling: houseless, without dream, without mention, without condolence, without grief The poet is crying on the blessing the people lost and the people are homeless that may protect their past, present, or their future

In the above part of the poem, the poet tells us how the people under such ideologies behave The poet complains to the historical symbols of Yemen Globalization invades every part of their daily lives /Yamaniyoun, oh Arwa, oh, Saif Bin Zee Yazen/ The dialogue with the historical symbols and using symbolism of the past are a tool of Sarcasm and irony that alleviate the pains and the bitterness of the miserable reality He addresses the symbols of the past who ruled Yemen for a period of time Yemenis become despite those historical symbols in the history of Yemen, without blessing without place, without past, without future, without secret, without exposure They have lost their wonderful history and their own identity The situation is terrible The poet addresses Sana'a, his beloved, /oh Sana'a, when do you come from your rotten coffin/ it asked me, do you know? My time ends before it comes/ The poet wonders when Sana'a comes from its rotten coffin; Sana'a may not have sufficient time to celebrate its new birth after 26 September revolution The new rulers do not give her a time to enjoy this moment.Therefore, Sana' declares that her time ends before it comes This personification is interesting and reveals Sana'a as powerless girl unable to celebrate her new birth day When it comes after the revolution, she does not recognize to where her ships bent Instead of moving to a brilliant future, her future returns back to the pagan history It is terrible the ignorance of what is going on and more terrible to recognize and stand hopeless and helpless

My motto today, oh master, we are the plant of your fertilization Because your richness makes us kneel at the feet of your lovers

We make you a God: and the sun is a ray of your origins

Oh, sleep Babik Al Kharmi, on Balqees, oh Babik

Her ringlet of haira bed of your fancy, some of your masters' fading And in the name of the God, Al Mighty, drink the glass of your toast The prince of oil, we are your hands, we are your sharpest canines

We are the thirsty leaders to the remains of your cups And officials in Sana'a, and servantsat your door From our blood over our blood locating the army of your terrorism

We have come, pulling the people to the first steps of your gate And we do what you like, clean up the shoes of your guards And beg you titles that are culminated with your titles Command us as your intentions of the den night likes

We beg you titles culminated your titles Yes, the master of tails, we are the best of your tails

It is terrible the ignorance of what is going on And more terrible to recognize

IJALEL 5(3):16-25, 2016 24

In the above mentioned lines, the poet moves to explain to where the rulers lead their nation /my motto, oh master, we are the plant of your fertilization/ because your richness makes us kneel at the feet of your lovers/ Here the poet casts the blame on the people who work on increasing the power, the money of the rulers and this sort of their richness leads the nation to be slaves at the feet of the leaders' lovers The people exaggerate in their esteem to such leaders, they make them a God and the rays of the sun are a sign of his origin and power The Poet still conjures up his memories about the past, the poet would not bear the recent situation which is realized in the daily life of Yemenis He mocks the situation and calls the symbols of absurdity and illegal enjoyment of the past to sleep on Balqees that strong woman who rules Yemen in the era of Suleiman, the prophet and later she has married him Babik Al Kharmi is one of the callers who stood against Al Abbasid state in the past and he propagates for false faith that is not involved with the true God He uses this sort of contradiction to show the absurdity of the time How the evil would prevail the good This is the irony

of the fate He calls for illegal enjoyment and the word of 'khurm' is a Persian word that means illegal enjoyment The critics blame the poet how to use that symbol of Balqees to explicate how the matters are overturned in Yemen The poet likes to show to what extent the absurdity and anarchism reach in his country, Yemen It is a sort of accepted exaggeration or hyperbole to lead the reader thinks to where the national invaders lead their nations to Babik Al kharmi

is a symbol of corruption in the past becomes absurdity symbol of the recent leaders, to enjoy the ringlets of Baqees hair and they have to drink the toast of celebration It is inappropriate matching because at the end Balqees believes in real God and has married a prophet, whereas Babik Al Kharmi continued in his false faith and endeavored to satisfy his sensual pleasures This is a mocking remark that portrays how everything gets reversed

Al Baraduni moves to the regional situation At the beginning he addresses globalization and its manifestations in the daily lives of Yemenis, and then he drags attention of the reader to the historical symbols of Yemen such as Arwa, Saif Bin Zee Yazen, and Balqees He compares the past symbols to the present rulers and how the big difference is between the past symbols and the today ones The poet depicts how the leaders of Yemen recently become beggars at the gates

of the princes of oils / The prince of oil, we are your hands, we are your sharpest canines/ we are the thirsty leaders to the remains of your cups/ despite such humiliation and obedience to the prince of oil, what the leaders get is the remains

of the cups This is a sign of very simple thing what they get from the masters of oil The leaders and officials of Sana'a become servants at the door of the oil princes The poet depicts the humiliation of the officials of Sana'a reach to get simple donations from the masters of oils The poet expresses how the leaders carry out the commands of the princes of the oil to terrify their people/ from our blood over our blood…/ here to show you how the officials of Sana'a provide the precious thing to respond to the masters of oil by terrifying their people The expression used by the poet is to clarify /from our blood over our blood/ the officials exert efforts to satisfy the demands of the oil masters and these efforts to horrify their people who are connected with them in blood

It is very humiliating to find the leaders of Sana'a, /pulling the people to the first steps of your gate/ they carry what the master of oil like even if it reaches the cleanup of guards' shoes of their masters Al Baraduni with his ironic, satiric images and words managed to depict the extent of humiliation the officials of Sana'a reach and he embodies the core of globalization that is based on responding to the demands of the masters of power and oil from the east or the west They bestow official with titles to satisfy their arrogance /command us as your intentions of the den night likes/ the official receive their orders from their masters and request titles culminated their masters' titles The leaders of Sana'a act as a tail to the princes of oil This image explicates to what extent the leaders become subservient to the masters of oils and

to what extent they become followers to their masters The political and social situation is miserable in Yemen The poet ends his lines with the same lines he uses at the end of each part of the poem / It is terrible the ignorance of what is going on/ And more terrible to recognize This end is to catch the reader attention to the bitterness and the misery of political situation in Yemen, whether pre-revolution or post revolution The Arabic poem has its aesthetic quality that the English translation version could not reveal appropriately

5 Conclusion

Al Baraduni addresses in the selected poems the influence of globalization and its manifestations that cause problematic and confusion in the identity of the Yemenis Exile ideology makes Yemenis subservient to its consequences and they live the life of exile inside/outside their country Globalization and exile ideologies invade all aspects of Yemeni lives and their influence is unavoidable Every one of the two terms argued in the two selected poems of Al Baraduni affect the other, feelings exile because of the globalized life that leads the Yemeni away of their culture and social and religious values, simultaneously, exile may be felt even in their home because everything becomes bizarre and the people find themselves detached from their identity and their culture

Al Baraduni argues in the two selected poems the manifestations of exile and globalization that lead the lives of Yemeni

to the worst The rulers and the officials of Sana'a, as the poet claimed, become more stuck to such terms of exile and globalization and they lead their country to worse and to loss The rulers are eager to carry the western policies of globalization and exile more than the makers of such policies The poet uses many ironic/satiric images that make the picture alive in the minds of the reader and how the officials of the Arab countries turn into beggars at the gate of the masters of oil, wealth and respond instantly to their orders which lead their nations to such humiliating position Al Baraduni portrays how the leaders of his country drive their people to be servants for their masters Al Barduni in the first poem depicts how the rulers of Yemen give the throne to the tyrants who are worse than them and lead the country from a prison to another, from a tyrant to worse, from a beast to two, from exile to another exile, from an invader to a hidden one Exile and globalization become in Yemen two faces for the same coin, no one may escape from their

References

Al Maqaleh, A (2003) The Big Poet Creative to the End Al Thawara Newspaper, Cultural Attachment, 1September,

no 14173

Al Maqaleh, A (2015) Modern Remarks in Al Baraduni's Poetry 26 September Newspaper, no 1082, p 6

Al Maflahi, Ab (2000) Saba News Agency

Al Mushah, W (2000) The Poetic Image in Al Baraduni's poetry Al Riyadh Book Al Yamamah Foundation

Al Mushah, W (1995) The Irony in Al Baraduni's Poetry Union of Arab Writers, Damascus

Ashcroft, Bill Griffiths, Gareth and Tiffin Helen (2002) Post – Colonial Studies Routledge: London and New York Jaber, A (1992) The Artistic Image in Critical and Rhetorical Legacy of Arabs Arabic Cultural Center Beirut Musa'd A.D (2010) The Irony in Abdullah Al Baraduni's poetry Umm Al Qura University

Obaid, M (2003) The Teacher died Al Thawar Newspaper Cultural Attachment 25 August, no 14166

Saeed, M (2003) Al Baraduni is Cheaper than Sawty Al Thawra Newspaper, Cultural Attachment, 1 September, no

14173

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

Vol 5 No 3; May 2016

Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

The Effects of Portfolio Use in Teaching Report Writing: EFL

Received: 12-11-2015 Accepted: 28-01-2016 Advance Access Published: March 2016

Published: 01-05-2016 doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.26 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.26

Abstract

Portfolio has widely been used in various areas including second language writing The purpose of this study is to investigate the views of students in using portfolio in teaching technical report-writing The participants are computer science students enrolled in a report writing course at a university in Yemen For data collection, the study used three techniques; namely, group discussions, written reflections and a short questionnaire The findings showed participants' positive views towards the use of portfolio in teaching writing in general and report writing in particular The main views concerning the use of portfolio in teaching writing in general are: improving writing learning, making writing more fun and monitoring one's writing The main findings regarding report writing were improving areas such as elements of writing, getting better feedback and report writing elements The study concluded with a number of recommendations pertaining to both the practice of portfolio in EFL writing settings, as well as the future research

Keywords: Second language writing, EFL writing, Portfolio

1 Introduction

It is crucial for any course of writing to utilise new techniques so as to enhance students' learning This indisputably needs to be implemented in various situations including EFL universities in the Arab world Writing in the Arab world, however, is below the experts' expectations (Ezza, 2010) Previous research referred that to a number of factors including the poor writing in the mother tongue (Al-Khuweileh & Al Shoumali, 2000), the old educational policies (Ezza, 2010), and the use of traditional techniques in teaching the English language (Assaggaf, 2010) In such traditional EFL settings, writing is merely looked at as a product and not a process (Hyland, 2003) The procedure is to assign a task, collect it, and then return it for further revision with the errors either corrected or marked for the student

to do the corrections (Raimes, 1983) This practice, indeed, ignores the processes of writing that any written task should pass through to be completed (Flower and Hayes, 1981)

One of the techniques used to improve students' writing is to use portfolio in the writing classes Basically, Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols (2006) consider portfolio as simply a collection of students’ work that has been compiled over a period of time in the learning process With a more profound look, ( Genesee & Upshur, 1996 cited by Oztruk and Cecen, 2007) define it as a purposeful collection of students' written work that shows to students and others their efforts, progress, and achievements in given areas Nunes (2004) illustrates that some teachers use the portfolio as an alternative assessment where it can either include a record of students’ achievements or simply document their best work Others, however, use it to document the students’ learning process, or to promote learner reflection

In an attempt to enhance the teaching and learning of writing of Arab EFL students, the researchers introduced portfolio technique in the teaching of report writing at a Yemeni university In the present study, therefore, portfolio has been used majorly as a tool to enhance the learning of writing The major focus, however, is on reflecting students' voice in using portfolio in the teaching and learning of report writing Specifically, this study seeks to examine the following research questions:

1 What are students' overall views on using portfolio in teaching writing?

2 What are students' perspectives on using portfolio in teaching report writing?

The answers of these questions are important in two directions First, they might inform policy makers at the university where this study was conducted in particular and other institutions at the tertiary level across the nation at large This will perhaps lead to better design and implementation of this course and other similar writing courses Second, this study might enrich researchers' knowledge of the views of learners studying report writing in an EFL context, which may result in more investigation of this important area of research

Flourishing Creativity & Literacy

IJALEL 5(3):26-34, 2016 27

2 Literature Review

This study intends to find out students' views with regards to portfolio use in a report writing class in an EFL context In order to link the readers with the basic concepts and theories in the relevant literature, this section is divided into three sections: major approaches to EFL writing, portfolio and previous relevant studies

2.1 Approaches to EFL writing

There is a bulk of literature that reviews the various theories and approaches in the teaching of writing as a second/ foreign language (Raimes, 1991; Silva, 1990; Hyland, 2002) The major ones include: product-based approach, process-based approach, and genre-based approach These will be briefly reviewed below

The Product approach of second/ foreign language writing focuses mostly on the finished product (i.e the text) produced by learners The teaching of writing is largely directed towards language "Viewed essentially as secondary and in some sense inferior to the spoken language, writing was used as a means of reinforcing language which had already been dealt with in spoken form" (White, 1988: 5)

The theory offered by the product approach, however, was not properly justified by many as it focuses mostly on the language, form and structure They, instead, believed that writing is not a straightforward plan-outline-write process (Taylor, 1981) As a result, and on the contrary, emphasis was given to the process of writing rather than the form or structure Learners are given roles as initiators and are encouraged to communicate by all means with the emphasis on fluency rather than accuracy (White, 1988)

Responding to the theory and research in this approach, teachers allowed their students time and opportunity for selecting topics, generating ideas, writing drafts and revision, and providing feedback (Raimes, 1991) This is achieved through setting pre-writing activities to generate ideas about content and structure, encouraging brainstorming and outlining, requiring multiple drafts, giving extensive feedback, seeking text level revision, facilitating peer responses, and delaying the correction stage until the final editing (Hyland, 2003) As for linguistic accuracy, it is often downplayed and usually delayed to the final editing Other means such as teacher-student conferences, peer response, audio taped feedback and reformation are used (Hyland, 2003)

According to Williams (2003), there are three factors that mark one of the most significant innovations of this approach These are (a) asking students to write often, in meaningful contexts, (b) providing frequent feedback on work in progress, and (c) requiring numerous revisions based on that feedback (Williams, 2003) All these factors can be implemented when preparing a portfolio in the writing class This, indeed, makes the writing tasks more recursive process which would perhaps entail better outcomes

Although the process movement made large changes in the teaching of writing in the whole world, it was considered insufficient for many researchers (Horowitz, (1986; Hyland, 2003; Johns, 2003) As a result of that, emphasis was given

to genres on which learners are particularly involved Even though the genre approach might be regarded as an extension of product approach (Badger & White 2000), it emphasizes the variability of writing according to social contents in which they are produced In particular it gives emphasis to analyzing the particular grammatical and organizational conventions of specific types of texts that the students need to be able to produce (Badger & White 2000: 155)

All these approaches can inform the teaching and learning of report writing in the Yemeni context In dealing with portfolio, learners need to go through different processes of writing such as writing in drafts and considering the audiences In addition, the teaching of report writing entails focusing on the genre of report as it is the particular genre used in this particular context

The wide use of portfolio in education especially in assessment is partially attributed to the shift in emphasis from the outcome or the product to the learning process Portfolio especially as a tool of alternative assessment has been utilized

to serve this purpose (Ghoorchaei, Tavakoli & Ansari, 2010)

Another major factor behind the popularity of portfolio is the fact that many educational programmes have shifted their

focus to the process and the capacity of the learner to self-direct his/her acquisition of knowledge (Nunes, 2004) In their paper Paulson, et al (1991) describe portfolios as offering a quite different approach to assessment from more traditional methods and can give students the opportunity to take risks, develop creative solutions and make judgments

IJALEL 5(3):26-34, 2016 28

regarding their own learning and performance In other words, portfolio is a very effective tool in enhancing assessment and learner autonomy The role of self-assessment in promoting learner autonomy has been emphasized to the extent that Hunt, Gow, and Barnes (1989) (as cited by Chen, 2006) argue that without learner self-assessment and evaluation “there cannot be real autonomy” (p 207) A study conducted by Khodadady and Khodabakhshzade (2012)

self-on the effects of portfolio self-on self-assessment, has found that portfolio assessment and self-assessment enhance the students' writing ability as well as their autonomy in writing This has been confirmed in an earlier study by, Martines and Rubio (2009) where the use of portfolio in evaluation has been found beneficial in developing autonomous learning habits Autonomous learners are believed to be capable of demonstrating active participation in the classroom However, Nunes (2004) believes that in order to fully respond to the portfolios challenges of the current pedagogical thinking, the development of portfolios must follow two underpinning principles The first tenet is that it should be dialogic, and facilitate on-going interaction between teacher and students It has to be continually in the making and document work in progress The second tenet of portfolio development is that it should document the reflective thought

of the learner

Along the same lines emphasizing the importance for students to write reflections, Zubizarreta (2009) describes how portfolios contribute to student learning through self-reflection and can be tools for improving student learning He points out that, “deep reflection – not a learning log – is at the very heart of the learning portfolio” Learners’ reflection

on their cognition process is proved as a vital component of education (McCombs 1987; Wolf and Reardon 1996, both cited in Nunes, 2004)

Another major benefit for the use of portfolios that results from self-reflection is the increase of motivation levels in students with low interest or low level skills in English (Axton, 2012) In his study on the role of portfolio in students' motivation, Axton (2012) ascertains that portfolio enhances self-reflection and therefore leads to an increase in students' levels of motivation be it extrinsic or intrinsic

2.3 Previous studies

While there is a large body of research on portfolios, most of it is theoretical in nature, illustrating the reasons behind and benefits associated with the use of portfolios (Caner, 2011) In literature, similar to our study, there is a number of studies that have been conducted to examine the attitudes, views, or perceptions of language students However, very few of them have been carried out in EFL settings (Caner, 2010) and they mostly report quantitative data from questionnaires (Cimer, 2011) Therefore, this study seems to be largely important since it provides both qualitative as well as quantitative evidence by documenting the benefits of portfolio use through the views of the student participants

As indicated above studies probing language learners' views or beliefs are scarce Lam ( 2012) conducted a small-scale classroom investigation that involved 16 EFL pre-university students in Hong Kong with the data collection mostly concerned with student perceptions about their experiences with two portfolio systems either working portfolio or showcase portfolio Findings indicated that students from the showcase portfolio group were less enthusiastic about the effectiveness of portfolio assessment (PA), and queried whether it could promote autonomy in writing, while the working portfolio group was more receptive to the experience, and considered that a feedback-rich environment in the working portfolio system could facilitate writing improvement The paper concluded with a discussion of how PA can

be used to promote self-regulation in the learning of writing

Cimer (2011) used data collected from students' reflections in a university in Turkey to report on how students perceived their experience of preparing portfolios and the effects of the portfolio process on their learning The students' initial perception is that compiling a portfolio would be a burden and time-consuming but later they found it a useful learning experience The study revealed that using portfolio combined with self-reflections and immediate feedback through weekly tests encourages students to study regularly, increases retention and makes learning more enjoyable Caner (2010) found generally positive attitudes towards portfolio assessment among EFL prep class students doing a writing course in Anadolu University in Turkey Although participants found portfolio a supportive instrument, they also believed that it had loaded them with extra duties while compiling it Consequently, slightly over half of the subjects did not prefer to be evaluated by portfolios, and most of them preferred to be assessed by traditional paper and pencil tests In response to this, instructors were advised to provide extra time for the students’ portfolio preparation processes

Martinez and Rubio (2009) conducted two studies at two universities in Spain to explore students’ opinions of portfolio use Learners found the use of portfolio very beneficial mainly because it led to effort empowerment and daily basis work They also recognized learning efficacy and competency development as strong characteristics of portfolio evaluation

Apple and Shimo (2004) investigated the benefits of using portfolio assessment compared to traditional testing by probing the perceptions of students in two Japanese universities They found that learners strongly believed portfolio construction helped them improve their compositional and expressive writing ability as they received ample feedback over an extended period of time The majority of students found it enjoyable and it encouraged learner autonomy and provided them with cooperative learning opportunities Still few expressed their frustration over the length of time it required in creation and assessment The study concluded by emphasizing that the benefits of portfolio clearly outweigh the negative aspects

To sum up, studies above have indicated positive attitudes towards the use of portfolio The reported benefits include improving writing, self-regulation, increasing retention and encouraging learner autonomy However, the studies have

IJALEL 5(3):26-34, 2016 29

advised that the use of portfolio should be also accompanied with immediate feedback, self-reflections, and sufficient preparation time This study, therefore, attempts to find out if using portfolio in teaching report writing would produce similar or different results in the Yemeni EFL context Hence, this is the first study of its kind to study the views of computer science students about the use of portfolio in teaching-report writing in the Yemeni context

3 Methodology

This study is conducted in a private university in Yemen (Al-Ahgaff University) during the second semester of the academic year 2012/ 2013 The program offers all subject-matter courses in the English language and students attend four English courses before doing the technical report writing course The major objective of the technical report writing course is to “qualify students in writing properly for their study particularly reports which are needed in the last year” (English Language Unit 2004: 6) During the course, students are introduced to types of reports and various sections of reports such as acknowledgement, introduction and conclusion The course dedicates a section for oral presentation, as well By the end of the course, each student is required to write one report of 1000-1200 words The course outline specifies four techniques for assessment including: 10% mid-term test, 20% a written report, 10% for portfolio and 50% for the final exam There is also 10% which is dedicated for the oral presentation

3.1 Participants

The participants are 17 male students who were attending a report writing course as a requirement for completing a BSc

in Computer Science The students studied four English courses prior to attending the current course Two of these courses were proficiency courses which focussed on language skills, whereas the other two focused on English language for computer science The latter two courses intended to familiarise the students with the English language required in the field of computer and IT The students are doing all the courses in their area of study in English and all

of the assessment forms (e.g tests, exams) are conducted in English Furthermore, most of their instructors come from non-Arabic speaking backgrounds, where English is the only means with whom they communicate These students seem to have positive attitude towards English as they encounter it in most of their study courses in addition to the English language ones

Group discussions: two class group discussions were conducted, one in the middle of the course (week 6), and another one towards the end of the writing course (week 14) Both discussions were dedicated to discuss participants' views on the use of portfolio in teaching the writing course The second one included also questions related to the data gained from the questionnaire The two discussions were tape-recorded and the participants were informed about that in advance

Questionnaire: In addition to the discussions and the reflections, a brief questionnaire was specially designed for this study as well The questionnaire contained areas concerning writing in general and technical report writing in particular Most of the items were taken from the course contents and from previous studies such as (Lam, 2013; Caner 2010; Fahim & Jalili, 2013; Martinez-Lirola, & Rubio, 2009; Ghoorchaei, Tavakoli, & Ansari, 2010) The questionnaire was administered to the student participants in the tenth week of the semester The data gathered from the questionnaire were then analysed by counting the percentages of each item

3.4 Data Analysis

In order to analyse the data obtained from the two group discussions, the researchers listened carefully to the recordings for various times to get familiar with the main themes and ensure accurate emerging topics can be picked up Data from the reflections were also compared to the initial themes obtained from the discussion The first issues appeared were having both positive as well as negative views towards portfolio The analysis was then continued by grouping the main themes in both opposing directions Six topics were figured out as positive views whereas two topics were categorised under negative The data were also then re-examined after conducting the questionnaire in order to find out useful quotations that could be used to support the obtained quantitative data

IJALEL 5(3):26-34, 2016 30

With respect to the questionnaire, the responses were analysed by counting responses in every item and then calculating the percentages accordingly Data obtained from the questionnaire were then triangulated with qualitative data from the interviews and discussions This is to increase the likelihood that the conclusions and interpretations made in the study are credible and valid (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)

4 Results and Discussion

This section presents and discusses the data obtained for this study This is divided into two main sections based on the two research questions The first is concerned with students' overall views regarding the use of portfolio in writing, whereas the second section is concerned with the participants' views with regard to the use of portfolio in the teaching

of report writing

4.1 Students' overall views on using portfolio in teaching writing

The first objective of this study is to find out students' views on teaching writing using portfolio Qualitative data obtained from the class discussions and student reflections showed basically positive attitudes towards portfolio use in teaching writing Generally speaking, the participants found portfolio an impressive means in the teaching and learning

of writing The themes can be categorised into positive and negative groups The main positive ones are the following:

- Improving the learning of writing: for the participants, portfolio is useful to develop the learning of writing in general

- Making writing learning more fun: this means that using portfolio has made their learning more interesting

- Monitoring ones' writing: this means learners feel portfolio has helped in developing autonomy which indicates more dependence on the learner himself rather than the instructor or classmates

- Making writing a long-term process: as portfolio involves checking and revising one's written work over time, time span for learning is expanding

- Encouraging more creative learning: participants feel that portfolio could encourage more creative learning This perhaps is due to the long term span of writing in which tension is no more available

- Developing organization and thinking: because learners have more time to look at their work, this might have enabled them to think more on their writing and to organize it in better ways

On the other hand, the data uncovered negative themes towards portfolio These can be summarised as follows:

- Learning takes more time: They feel that using portfolio required more time for the process of teaching and learning of writing This seemed a disadvantage for them as it entailed more effort, as can be seen in the following point

- Too much writing: the use of portfolio made students write more than they used to do and that made them feel

it has become more demanding

The summary above uncovers general positive attitudes towards the use of portfolio in teaching writing This matches with the findings of previous studies in EFL writing including Ozturk & Cecen (2007) However, some of the findings seem to reflect the students' worries of having such a new technique Students feel that writing has become more demanding and required more time, which seemed to be opposite to what they were used to do in other writing classes

It seems that students have been given more responsibility in maintaining issues relating to the completion of the course which is not common in this study environment Indeed, this matches with the findings obtained by Martinez-lirola & Rubio (2009) and Cimer (2011) who reported that students who use portfolio for the first time find it demands more hard effort The final finding also meets with what was found out by Caner (2010) who reported that using portfolio requires more time

To sum up, the findings discussed above show that the learning and teaching of writing was clearly affected by the use

of portfolio in the eyes of the participants and that its usefulness transcended to various issues in the learning process

On the other hand, some of these findings seem to reflect the very nature of language teaching in this environment The idea of writing being too much appears to coincide with what has previously been found out by Assaggaf et al (2012) regarding the confined practice of writing tasks in this particular learning context

4.2 Students' views on using portfolio in teaching report writing

The above section presented participants' general perspectives pertaining to the use of portfolio in teaching writing This section, however, highlights participants' views on using portfolio in teaching report writing in particular These are based on quantitative data gathered from the questionnaire The findings are further supported with qualitative data gathered from the group discussions and reflections The major findings are grouped into six sections presented below 4.2.1 Basic elements of writing: Data obtained showed that using portfolio in teaching writing has helped students develop writing sentences and paragraphs As can be seen on Table 1 below, 82% of the participants reported that portfolio could help them write better sentences, whereas 76% were in favour of the idea that portfolio could help them write better paragraphs Data from the reflections and discussions, moreover, uncovered similar results One excerpt

obtained reads “of course my sentences are better now…” Another excerpt is “My paragraphs and sentences became better far better than before” The data here match with the questionnaire items in favour of positive views of using

portfolio in developing sentences and paragraphs

IJALEL 5(3):26-34, 2016 31

Table 1 Writing sentences and paragraphs

Portfolio helped me write better paragraphs 12% 12% 76%

4.2.2 Grammar and accuracy in technical writing: Data obtained showed that using portfolio in teaching technical report writing has helped students develop grammar and accuracy in writing 70% of the respondents were in agreement that the use of portfolio helped them write grammatically correct sentences; while a majority of 82% reported it could help them revise and review their previous work as can be seen on Table 2 below

Table 2 Grammar and accuracy

Portfolio helped me write grammatically

Data from the discussion, furthermore, showed similar results The students confirmed that the use of this technique

helped them in writing accurately One of the excerpts obtained states: 'Yes, this made me improve and revise my grammar" Another one is 'I feel more satisfied about my grammar and sentences now because I have more time to revise my written work I have more time to check it again and again'

4.2.3 Feedback: The participants found that using portfolio had helped them get better feedback in what they wrote in the technical report writing both from the course instructor as well as from their classmates The questionnaire showed that 64% of the participants believe that they had more feedback from the instructor and 82% obtained feedback from their classmates, as shown in table 3 below Data showed some difference in the feedback from the instructor and the classmates with better result for the latter This might be attributed to the fact that the classmates are closer to one another from the instructor in some particular situations (Zamel, 1982) This type of experience is important in some settings to help "develop in students the crucial ability of re-viewing their writing with the eyes of another" (Zamel, 1982: 206)

Table 3 Feedback

Portfolio helped me get more feedback from

4.2.4 Audience: With reference to audience, quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire showed rather negative response toward this issue As can be seen below (Table 4), the participants reported a disagreement with regard to these items This indicates that the participants believe that the use of portfolio could not help them give more consideration to the audiences

Table 4 Audience

Portfolio helped me consider readers (audience) of

my writing

Portfolio helped me consider other readers of my

writing (classmates, friends, other

instructors…etc.)

In response to this result one of the participants stated 'we didn't feel we should show more attention to the teacher and other readers… the most important thing was to be able to show improvement rather than to please your readers' This

Table 5 Writing reflections

Portfolio helped me write reflections (my

4.2.6 Report writing elements: Data from the questionnaire showed inconstant findings with regard to writing technical reports Even though writing introductions gained 53% and writing full reports gained 65%, the other two items received lesser percentages, as can be seen in Table 6 below This perhaps indicates another lack in the implementation

of portfolio in the current writing course

Table 6 Writing technical reports

Portfolio helped me improve writing an

5 Conclusion and Recommendation

The purpose of this study is to find out students' views on the effects of using portfolio in teaching report writing The study used both qualitative and quantitative data to answer the main research questions The findings showed that there

is a clearly positive view towards portfolio among the student participants It has been found also that portfolio was helpful in a number of aspects including: improving learning of writing, making writing fun, monitoring one's writing, and making writing a long term process The findings showed also that portfolio was also believed to be a burden when participants referred to it as taking more time and it required too much writing

With regard to report writing, the findings uncovered that portfolio was found useful in a number of areas in participants' learning including: basics of writing, accuracy, feedback and report writing elements

All in all, the findings of the present study coincide with previous research in that portfolio helps improve student learning It is important however that this technique be well implemented Some of the data in this study showed that the participants were not well aware of how to deal with the portfolio and this was attributed to the way it was implemented The first thing to do is to ensure that the course instructors are made aware enough on how to use this technique As Cimer (2011: 161-162) puts it "the success of any reform in education depends on teachers’ understanding, acceptance and application of the new requirements" Hence, only well-informed, highly- trained teachers can bring out positive changes in any educational setting they are stationed in through providing learners with guidance and feedback on their work

5.1 Recommendations

In conclusion a few recommendations can be suggested concerning the use of portfolio in a report writing class in an EFL setting As some of the findings of this study showed, it is highly important that the learners should know more about portfolio keeping and how to compose and deal with portfolios Learners should be given specific guidelines on what to include in the portfolio and how to write reflections Indeed, writing reflections should receive more attention as

IJALEL 5(3):26-34, 2016 33

it is not common in such traditional EFL settings This should be done by providing more detailed guiding principles with closer follow-up from the instructor As this study showed positive results in using portfolio in teaching writing, portfolio should also be used in all other English language classes in order to help develop their learning of English and writing in particular When portfolio is frequently implemented in different courses, self-assessment would perhaps become possible and the learning environment would break away from the traditional teaching methods of writing

A final recommendation is pertaining to future research The findings and the analysis of findings left some untouched areas of research regarding portfolio in particularly concerning feedback, reflection and report writing It might be worthwhile therefore to explore further these aspects to enrich our knowledge about the benefit of portfolio in EFL writing classes Furthermore, as this paper confined itself solely to the views of the male student participants –as no female students attended the current course, further research might be conducted to explore the views and perceptions

of female students as well Moreover, other stakeholders in the EFL teaching and learning environments such as course instructors need to be involved in any further investigations to extend our knowledge which should accordingly help improve the teaching and learning of writing in the EFL settings

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