Journal of environmental science and engineering,vol 3,no 1b,2014

Increased sedimentation rates have been attributed to increased anthropogenic activity in watersheds throughout Florida and many parts of the world. The Manatee River, located on the west coast of Florida (USA), like many other coastal watersheds, has experienced depletion in natural resources, increased nutrient loading, and increased pollution. LARs (linear accumulation rates) from watersheds throughout Florida suggest that anthropogenic activity increased bulk sedimentation by as much as 4fold. The objective of this study was to construct a record of sedimentation and improve upon previous studies by determining individual sedimentary constituent MARs (mass accumulation rates) based on short lived radioisotopes (210Pb and 234Th) to characterize changes in sedimentation attributed to increased anthropogenic development. This study constructed records of sedimentary accumulation rates to compare predevelopment records to the past 100 years of anthropogenic development and identified specific changes in sedimentation attributed to anthropogenic activity. Anthropogenic development increased deposition of terrigenous material into the river from 2fold to 10fold (0.32.0 gcm2yr) over three periods: (1) predevelopment period (19001941); (2) agricultural development period (19411970); (3) urban development period (19702010). The mobilization of this amount of terrigenous material has implications for effects on water quality and biological communities within the river

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Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B

Volume 3, Number 1, January 2014 (Serial Number 25)

Contents

Ecological Environment

1 A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

Patrick Schwing and Ashanti Johnson

14 An Ecological Alternative for the Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Sheep in Northern Veracruz (Mexico)

Amalia Cabrera Núñez, Miguel Ángel Lammoglia Villagómez, Iliana Del Carmen Daniel Rentería and Rebeca Rojas Ronquillo

30 Food Crises and Market Mechanisms

Henning Otte Hansen

49 Hydrochemical Control of Groundwater in an Administrative Area of Mamou

Mamadou Dian Kante, Chuanping Feng, Cellou Kante, Alfa-Sika Mande Seyf-Laye and Baogang Zhang

55 A New Method Based on Kinematics of Robots to Analyze the Kinematics of Persian Joint

Pham Thanh Long and Tran The Long

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B 3 (2014) 1-13

Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

Patrick Schwing1 and Ashanti Johnson2

1 College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, Saint Petersburg 33701, Florida, USA

2 University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington 76019, Texas, USA

Received: June 11, 2014 / Accepted: July 23, 2014 / Published: August 20, 2014

Abstract: Increased sedimentation rates have been attributed to increased anthropogenic activity in watersheds throughout

Florida and many parts of the world The Manatee River, located on the west coast of Florida (USA), like many other coastal watersheds, has experienced depletion in natural resources, increased nutrient loading, and increased pollution LARs (linear accumulation rates) from watersheds throughout Florida suggest that anthropogenic activity increased bulk sedimentation by as much as 4-fold The objective of this study was to construct a record of sedimentation and improve upon previous studies by determining individual sedimentary constituent MARs (mass accumulation rates) based on short lived radioisotopes ( 210 Pb and

234 Th) to characterize changes in sedimentation attributed to increased anthropogenic development This study constructed records

of sedimentary accumulation rates to compare pre-development records to the past 100 years of anthropogenic development and identified specific changes in sedimentation attributed to anthropogenic activity Anthropogenic development increased deposition of terrigenous material into the river from 2-fold to 10-fold (0.3-2.0 g/cm 2 /yr) over three periods: (1) predevelopment period (1900-1941); (2) agricultural development period (1941-1970); (3) urban development period (1970-2010) The mobilization of this amount of terrigenous material has implications for effects on water quality and biological communities within the river

Key words: Sedimentation, lead-210, cesium-137, man induced effects, Florida, Tampa Bay

1 Introduction

Increased coastal sedimentation rates have been

attributed to increased anthropogenic activity

(land-use change) in watersheds throughout Florida

and many parts of the world [1-12] The objective of

this study was to determine if the Manatee River,

located on the west-central Florida coast, was affected

by such trends of increased sedimentation caused by

anthropogenic activity, and to better characterize the

sedimentary signal of that activity using MARs (mass

accumulation rates) (as opposed to LARs (linear

accumulation rates)) of individual sedimentary

constituents

This study examined records of sediment deposition

during the anthropogenic development period (last

Corresponding author: Patrick Schwing, Ph.D., research

field: marine geochemistry E-mail: pschwing@mail.usf.edu

100 years) Changes in the types and amounts of sediment being introduced to the Manatee River, Tampa Bay, and ultimately the Gulf of Mexico were examined to determine the signature of anthropogenic land-use change This study was the first to use MARs

of specific constituents in the sediment to determine the effect of anthropogenic development on the fluvial and estuarine environments of the Manatee River

1.1 Setting

The Manatee River is located on the west coast of Florida in the southeastern portion of the Tampa Bay Estuary (Fig 1) The Manatee River Watershed has experienced increasing anthropogenic development (industrial, residential, and agricultural) over the last

100 years and was relatively pristine previous to this development The population within the watershed has

D

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

2

Fig 1 Location map of Florida expanding to the location of the selected coring sites throughout the Manatee River with reference to the cities of Bradenton and Palmetto as well as the Manatee River Dam

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida 3

Table 1 Manatee County population estimates and projections from 1980-2020 (South Florida Water Management District, 2001)

N/A means no projections were available

doubled in the last 30 years (Table 1) The heavy

residential development has led to depletion in natural

resources, increased nutrient loading, coastal erosion,

and increased pollution [13]

The Tampa Bay area is located on the west-central

portion of the Florida coastline and totals

approximately 7,000 km2 including estuarine waters,

wetlands and drainage basins The bay is shallow with

an average depth of 3.5 m and vegetation is dominated

by mangrove forest with some areas of salt marsh,

both of which contribute a significant portion of the

organic matter in Tampa Bay sediment [14] The

Manatee River begins in Manatee County, FL,

southeast of Tampa Bay at an elevation of 39.6 m and

proceeds westward for 72.4 km The river drains

approximately 932.4 km2 of land into the southern

region of Tampa Bay and ultimately into the Gulf of

Mexico [15]

There are two major sources of sedimentary input

into the bay, marine sediments (CaCO3) carried by

tidal currents from the Gulf of Mexico and terrigenous

sediments (fine-medium grain quartz sand) via fluvial

systems [14, 16-17]

1.2 Sediment Accumulation Rates in Florida

Short-lived radioisotopes such as 137Cs (cesium-137)

and 210Pb (lead-210) have been used for many

applications to produce corroborating geochronologies

for the past 100 years [1, 3-5, 7-9, 11]

210Pb has been used in geochronological applications

in both marine/coastal and lacustrine/watershed

settings (Fig 2) LARs (cm/year) have been found to

be quite variable throughout Florida Florida Bay had

the highest accumulation rate of 0.33-5.8 cm/year [6]

The river-dominated areas (Steinhatchee, Charlotte Harbor, Saint Johns River Basin) had very similar linear accumulation rates with 0.14, 0.25-0.28, and 0.33 cm/year, respectively [2, 5, 10] Brenner et al [5] found that the sedimentation rate increased between 1.7-3.4-fold in the SJRB (Saint Johns River Basin) between pre-anthropogenic and anthropogenic times with an average of 0.33 cm/year These changes were attributed to modifications in the hydrology of the fluvial system

The sedimentation rate in Lake Okeechobee was intermediate at 0.78 cm/year and the lowest accumulation rate was reported in Rookery Bay at 0.14-0.17 cm/year [18-19] Across a suite of cores in Lake Okeechobee, Brezonik and Engstrom [19] calculated that there had been a 2-fold increase in mass sediment accumulation rate (MAR, 3-6 g/cm2/year) and

a 4-fold increase in the rate of total phosphorus deposition in Lake Okeechobee since the early 1900s

2 Methods

2.1 Sampling Methods

Six sediment cores were collected in the Manatee River (Fig 1) The core sites were selected by locating areas with little potential for resuspension (low energy/basins) and as fine-grained as possible The cores were collected by a diver-assisted push-coring method with 10 cm diameter acrylic barrel Push cores provide a short-term environmental development record (hundreds of years before present) Sub-samples

of each core were taken on a calibrated, threaded rod extrusion device The sediment was extruded at 0.5 cm (0-10 cm) and at 1.0 cm for the remainder of each core

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

4

Fig 2 A map of Florida depicting previous studies that have utilized LARs to determine anthropogenic change

Samples were archived in plastic bags and frozen The

frozen samples were then freeze dried

2.2 Sedimentology Laboratory Methods

Approximately 5 g of each sediment sample were

sieved at 63 µm Silt and clay weight percentages

(fine fraction) were determined by using a Saturn

DigiSizer High Resolution Laser Particle Size

Analyzer at College of Marine Science, USF

(University of South Florida) A manual pipetting

method developed by Folk [20] was also used on

certain samples to determine any errors in the

DigiSizer measurement It is assumed that the coarse

fraction (sand and gravel) weight percentage is the

difference between the fine fraction and 100% and is

therefore not reported

LOI (loss on ignition) analysis was used to

determine the total organic matter and percent of

carbonate material [21-22] Approximately 1 g of each

sample was placed into a crucible and ignited at

550 °C in a muffle furnace for 4 h and the percent of TOM (total organic matter) was determined by the mass difference after ignition The remainder was then placed back into the muffle furnace and ignited at

950 °C for 1.5 h and the percent of carbonate (CO3) content was determined by mass difference [21]

2.3 Radioisotope Laboratory Methods

A Canberra planar HPGe (high purity germanium) detector was used to determine 210Pb and 137Cs activity throughout each core at College of Marine Science, USF For planar gamma detection, samples were freeze-dried and placed in vacuum-sealed aluminum canisters Once sealed, the samples were allowed to achieve secular equilibrium for 28 days The samples were then counted for 24-48 h based on sample size Reported error is the product of the net uncertainty from the detector

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida 5

3 Theory and Calculation

Activity values for 137Cs (661 keV emission energy)

were reported directly Unsupported 210Pb (46.5 keV)

values were determined by subtracting the average

activity of the reported 214Bi (209 keV), 214Pb (295

keV) and 214Pb (351 keV) from the reported activity of

210Pb MARs [23] and the CRS (constant rate of

supply) model as described in Refs [24-26] were also

used to quantify the changes in sedimentation over

time Activities are reported in disintegrations per

minute per gram (dpm/g) LARs are reported in

centimeters per year (cm/year), whereas MARs, which

incorporate flux (accumulation) per unit area per time,

are reported in gram per square centimeter per year

(g/cm2/year)

4 Results

The lithology, radioisotope, and MARs records of

the push-cores collected from the Manatee River are

described below (Table 2) Each represents a record

from a different sampling location and

sedimentological response to natural and

anthropogenic events Criteria for selecting coring

sites included as fine-grained surface sediment

possible for highest possible radioisotope activity and

areas likely to have the least resuspension due to tidal

or river energy

4.1 Lithology

The base of EP-09 was sand with abundant small

shell fragments Moving upcore, there were fine

sand layers at 20 cm and 12 cm (Fig 3) A fining upward sequence (increasing clay) occurred from 10

cm to 4.5 cm A sudden increase in grain size (sand) occurred at 4 cm and another, smaller fining upward sequence terminated at the top of the core (3.5 cm

EP-12 was primarily sand throughout the entire core (< 5% mud (silt and clay)) Much like EP-10, EP-12 exhibited a coarsening upward trend throughout the core with increased fine-grained (silt) particles at 32-28, 22-16, 6 cm, and at the surface Working up-core from the sandy base in EP-17, there were two finer grained layers with increased organic material at 42 cm and 34 cm There was a gradual coarsening upward sequence from 46 cm to 16

cm Directly above the fining upward sequence, there was an increase in grain size (sand) from 15 cm to 10

cm The sediment in the surface section (10 cm to the surface) was slightly finer than the 15 cm to 10 cm section

Throughout EP-18, the dominant sediment constituent was medium-fine quartz sand The percent silt fluctuated between 1%-9% throughout the core The entirety of EP-19 was primarily quartz sand There was a coarsening upward sequence from the base of the core to 22 cm There was another, more

Table 2 Sampling site information including core name, recovery length, location and water depth

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

051015202530354045

051015202530354045

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida 7

subtle, coarsening-upward sequence from 14 cm to

10 cm The surficial unit of EP-19 was fairly

constant with respect to texture (10 cm to the surface)

Even in this core, being the farthest landward

extent of the sediment core transect, there was

evidently a coarsening-upward sequence throughout

the core This is similar to many of the seaward

sampling sites

4.2 Radioisotope Analysis

The excess 210Pb record from EP-9 showed a

gradual increase from background activity at 23 cm

up-core (0-22.4 dpm/g), with several periods of low

activity (9-12 cm and 5-7 cm) (Fig 4) The 137Cs

record had increased activity from 17 cm to 11 cm

(1951-1964) and a few lower activity peaks up-core at

5.5 cm to 4.5 cm and 1.5 cm to 0.5 cm The results

from the CRS model showed an initial slope of

accumulation with a LAR of 0.22 cm/year from the

base of the core to 20 cm (1906-1941) This slope

increased (increased accumulation) to a LAR of 0.31

cm/year from 20 cm to 9.5 cm (1941-1968) and was

followed by a rapid decrease in slope from 9 cm to 7.5

cm The slope steepens again from 7.5 cm to 5 cm

(1976-1982) There was a low slope from 5 cm to 1

cm (1982-2005) with a LAR of 0.17 cm/year The

average LAR for the entire core was 0.25 cm/year

The 210Pb record from EP-10 gradually increased

from background at 28 cm to the surface of the core

(0-26.6 dpm/g) There was depletion in activity

(< 1.0 dpm/g) from 18 cm to 14 cm The 137Cs record

showed the earliest activity at 20 cm and subsequent

activity more recently at 12, 9, 7 and 2 cm The

earliest activity in this core was corroborated by the

CRS model and occurred at some point between 1958

and 1970 There were two main periods of

accumulation The first occurred from the base of the

core 30 cm to 20 cm depth (1904-1970) with a LAR

of 0.23 cm/year The second occurred from 20 cm to

the surface of the core (1970-2009) with a LAR as

high as 0.89 cm/year The average LAR for the entire

core was 0.58 cm/year

The 210Pb activity in EP-12 increased from background at 20 cm to the surface (0-22.6 dpm/g) There was depletion from 4 cm to 2 cm and was synchronous with increased 137Cs activity from 5 cm

to 2 cm (2000-2002) The 137Cs record had low activity values at 16 cm and 14 cm (1941 and 1952, respectively) and a peak between 12 cm and 10 cm (1963-1979) There are three periods of accumulation The first was from 16-18 cm where there was a relatively shallow slope (low accumulation), followed

by a period of increased accumulation from 16 cm to

10 cm (1941-1979), much like EP-9 The third period

of accumulation was from 10 cm to the surface (1979-2009) with an exponentially increasing slope and a slight decrease at 2 cm (2004)

The 210Pb record from EP-17 increased from background at 20 cm to the surface (0-8.87 dpm/g) with a depletion of activity in the surficial unit (5 cm

to the surface) The 137Cs record increased in activity over the 16 cm to 12 cm interval, which corresponded

to 1955-1972 in the CRS model This corroborated the

210Pb record, despite the depletion at the surface The CRS model had only two main periods of accumulation at this site The first was from 20 cm to

18 cm (1914-1943) with a LAR of 0.21 cm/year Then, from 18 cm to the surface (1943-2009), the slope steepened, increasing to the surface with a LAR as high as 1.5 cm/year The average LAR for the entire core was 0.50 cm/year

The 210Pb record from EP-18 was the most consistent and increased from background at 16 cm to the surface (0-9.11 dpm/g) with no major excursions The 137Cs record also follows exactly what was expected in that there are decreasingly large peaks in activity from 11 cm to 7.5 cm (1962-1986) and two small increases in activity towards the surface at 3 cm and 1 cm The CRS model for this core had a gradual increase in slope throughout the core with LAR at the base (15 cm) of 0.14 cm/year and 1.23 cm/year at the surface (0.5 cm) This represented an order of

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

8

sites

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida 9

magnitude increase in sedimentation rate within the

last 100 years The average LAR for the entire core

was 0.40 cm/year

The 210Pb record for EP-19 increased from

background at 16 cm to the surface (0-5.03 dpm/g)

with only one significant excursion at 1 cm, which

was also synchronous with an increase in 137Cs The

137Cs record had high activity peaks from 10 cm to 6

cm (1958-1988) with the highest activity at 9 cm

(1964) The CRS model was therefore corroborated by

the 137Cs record The CRS model had two primary

periods with the first occurring from 8-16 cm

(1904-1973) and a LAR of 0.15 cm/year The second

period was from 0-8 cm (1973-2010) with a LAR as

high as 0.38 cm/year The average LAR for the entire

core was 0.24 cm/year

4.3 MARs

The MARs record from EP-9 showed episodic

pulses of both terrigenous and carbonate material in

1941, 1956, and 2005 along with a continuous

increase in both constituents from 1968-1979 (Fig 5)

The bulk accumulation rate was almost entirely

composed of terrigenous material seeing as both are

within 0.2-1.0 g/cm2/year and covary throughout the

entirety of the core The accumulation rates of calcium

carbonate (CO3) and TOM were an order of

magnitude lower between 0.00-0.07 g/cm2/year

The bulk accumulation rate from EP-10 was also

dominated by terrigenous material with covariance

throughout the core from 0.00-1.60 g/cm2/year The

carbonate and organic accumulation rates ranged

between 0.00-0.16 g/cm2/year All of the

accumulation rates were relatively constant

throughout the bottom of the core (1903-1969)

The surface section of the core was marked by three

features: (1) an increase in terrigenous and carbonate

material from 1969-1983; (2) an increase in all

constituents from 1989-1996; (3) a gradual increase

towards the surface of the core in carbonate and

terrigenous material from 2002-2007

The relationship between terrigenous and bulk accumulation rates in EP-12 was similar to EP-9 and EP-10 and ranged between 0.19-1.12 g/cm2/year The carbonate accumulation rates were more than two orders of magnitude lower than terrigenous, while the TOM accumulation rate was much higher (0.004-0.07 g/cm2/year) than the carbonate MARs (0.003-0.010 g/cm2/year) Moving up-core from 1970-1998, the terrigenous and organic MARs roughly tripled and then decreased slightly from 1998-2003, where they both increased again from 2003-2007

EP-17 had the highest terrigenous MARs of any of the cores (0.84-4.10 g/cm2/year) which was fairly constant throughout the bottom of the core (1928-1975), decreasing slightly between 1975 and

1981 and then increasing throughout the surface section of the core (1981-2009) Carbonate and TOM MARs both increased from the bottom of the core (0.08-0.14 g/cm2/year and 0-0.05 g/cm2/year, respectively) and then gradually decreased from 1958-1981 They both increased along with the terrigenous MAR from 1981-2009 Terrigenous input to this site increased 3-fold over the last 100 years

There was a gradual increase in all three main sedimentary constituents in the MAR record from EP-18 with terrigenous material ranging from 0.30-3.17 g/cm2/year, carbonate material from 0-0.02 g/cm2/year and organic matter from 0-0.03 g/cm2/year All three began to increase between 1961 and 1972 Slightly more organic matter accumulated between

1992 and 1997 Terrigenous input has increased in this area by an order of magnitude over the last 100 years The MARs records in EP-19 had a relatively constant input of organic and carbonate material (0-0.01 g/cm2/year and 0-0.05 g/cm2/year, respectively) However, there was a steady increase in terrigenous accumulation rate upcore (0.38-1.29 g/cm2/year) resulting in an increase in accumulation rate of more than 4-times the rate in 1915

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

TOM & CO3 g/

cm^2/yr

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

190019201940196019802000

TOM & CO3 g/

cm^2/yr

0 0.020.040.060.08

190019201940196019802000

TOM & CO3 g/

TOM & CO3 g/cm^2/yr

0 0.01 0.02

190019201940196019802000

TOM & CO3 g/

cm^2/yr

0 0.02 0.04 0.06

190019201940196019802000

TOM & CO3 g/cm^2/yr

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida 11

5 Discussion

The radioisotope records provided a reliable

geochronology for the upper extent of each core on

which to interpret the changes in sedimentation rate

and type The corroboration (increased 137Cs activity

after 1950) between the 137Cs and the 210Pb-based

CRS model in all cores supported the accuracy of the

age models The radioisotope records also helped

characterize the anthropogenic influence on

sedimentation In the surficial 5 cm of every core,

there were events where depletion in 210Pb activity

occurred synchronously with an increase in 137Cs,

which can be attributed to resuspension from

elsewhere in the watershed These resuspension

periods were primarily due to increased terrigenous

material introduced by anthropogenic development

such as the construction of the I-75 bridge at EP-17 (9

cm), a jetty near site EP-9 (7 cm to 5 cm), the Manatee

River Dam at site EP-9 (12 cm to 10 cm) and EP-10

(9 cm to 5.5 cm), and the construction of the US301

bridge at EP-9 (14 cm) The spread of urban

development into previously agricultural lands was

likely the cause for the resuspension events seen in the

remainder of the cores that were farther inland (EP-12,

EP-18, and EP-19)

In the Manatee River, most of the cores recorded

three distinct periods of linear accumulation rate: (1)

the predevelopment period with very low sediment

accumulation (0.14-0.24 cm/year) (1900-1941); (2)

the agricultural development period with gradually

increasing sediment accumulation (0.21-0.35 cm/year) (1941-1970s); (3) the urban development period with quickly increasing sediment accumulation (0.39-1.51 cm/year) (1970s-2010) (Table 3) These linear accumulation rates were on the same order as those previously found in Florida (0.14-5.8 cm/year) [2, 6] However, the change between the predevelopment and anthropogenic periods was much larger (2-10 times) than those found in previous studies (1-3 times) [10, 19]

The individual constituent MARs records improved upon the traditional LAR approach by providing a quantitative tool to assess changes in sedimentation by reporting the mass of each type of sediment constituent being deposited in each site over time This approach was an improvement to the previous studies that have focused solely on LAR measurements because it accounts for compaction Throughout the river, the primary source of sediment was terrigenous material (quartz sands and muds), as the terrigenous MARs were consistently an order of magnitude higher than both organic matter and carbonate material even at the base of the dated sediment column Anthropogenic events were characterized in the MARs records by episodic to prolonged periods of increased terrigenous material Episodic increases in each core were likely due to increases in local urban development The terrigenous MARs from the base of each core to the surface increased dramatically The surficial (2007-2010) terrigenous MARs varied from

Table 3 Linear accumulation rates (cm/year) from each site during each period of development (predevelopment, agricultural, and urban)

Core Predevelopment LAR (cm/year)

(1900-1941)

Agricultural LAR (cm/year) (1941-1970s)

Urban LAR (cm/year) (1970s-2010)

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida

12

Table 4 Comparison of the terrigenous MAR at the base and the surface of each core

Core Base terrigenous MAR (g/cm2 /year)

Surface terrigneous MAR

a 2-fold to 10-fold increase from the terrigenous

MARs at the base of the column (~ 1900), with the

largest increases occurring at the farthest landward

sampling sites (EP-17, EP-18, and EP-19) (Table 4)

This landward increase was likely due to the recent

expansion of urban and agricultural development The

increase of bulk MARs is consistent with other coastal

watershed sedimentation in the recent

sedimentological record [1-12] However, through the

use of individual constituent MARs, this study has

characterized the primary anthropogenic signal in the

sediments of the Manatee River over the last 100

years as a 2- to 10-fold increase in terrigenous MARs

6 Conclusions

The anthropogenic impact on the sedimentary

system was inconclusive by only examining changes

in the texture and composition of the core records

However, by producing a record of MARs based on

short-lived radioisotope geochronologies, the

anthropogenic signal became more apparent The

LARs in this study were on the same order of those

found in past studies in Florida, but the increase

between the pristine and anthropogenic periods was

much larger There were three periods of development

evident in the sedimentary record of the Manatee

River: (1) the predevelopment period (1900-1941); (2)

the agricultural development period (1941-1970s); (3)

the urban development period (1970s-2010) The

MARs used in this study improved upon past linear

accumulation rates by accounting for compaction and

providing a more quantitative record of accumulation

over time Using MARs, the anthropogenic signal was

represented by a 2-fold to 10-fold increase in terrigenous material over the past 100 years Expanding urban and agricultural development has caused resuspension of sediments and increased the amount of terrigenous material deposited in the Manatee River by as much as an order of magnitude

Acknowledgements

The authors thank College of Marine Science, USF, for funding this research The authors also thank the following people for their help in the laboratory and field work that was necessary to carry out this study: Charles Holmes, Gregg Brooks, Rebekka Larson, Jayce G, Marietta Mayo, Nekesha Williams, Luke Talalaj, Danielle LaCasse, Warner Ithier, Candice Simmons, Kathy Carvalho, and Emmanuel Nwokocha

References

[1] Eisenbud, M., and Gessell, T 1997 Environmental Radioactivity from Natural, Industrial, and Military Sources 4th ed New York: Academic Press

[2] Trimble, C A., Hoenstine, R W., Highley, A B., Donoghue, J F., and Ragland, P C 1999 “Baseline Sediment Trace Metals Investigation: Steinhatchee River

Estuary, Florida, Northeast Gulf of Mexico.” Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 17 (2): 187-97

[3] Pourchet, M., Richon, P., and Sabroux, J C 2000

“Lead-210 and Radon-222 Anomalies in Mont Blanc

Snow, French Alps.” Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 48: 349-57

[4] Robbins, J A., Holmes, C., Halley, R., Bothner, M., Shinn, E., Graney, J., Keeler, G., TenBrink, M., Orlandini,

K A., and Rudnick, D 2000 “Time-Averaged Fluxes of Lead and Fallout Radionuclides to Sediments in Florida

Bay.” Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (28): 805-21

A Record of Anthropogenic Effects on Sedimentation in the Manatee River, Florida 13

[5] Brenner, M., Schelske, C L., and Keenan, L W 2001

“Historical Rates of Sediment and Nutrient

Accumulation in Marshes of the Upper St Johns River

Basin, Florida, USA.” Journal of Paleolimnology 26:

241-57

[6] Holmes, C W., Robbins, J., Halley, R., Bothner, M., Ten

Brink, M., and Marot, M 2001 “Sediment Dynamics of

Florida Bay Mud Banks on a Decadal Time Scale.”

Bulletins of American Paleontology 361: 31-40

[7] Brenner, M., Schelske, C L., and Kenney, W F 2004

“Inputs of Dissolved and Particulate 226 Ra to Lakes and

Implications for 210Pb Dating Recent Sediments.” Journal

of Paleolimnology 32: 53-66

[8] Suzuki, T., Kamiyama, K., Furukawa, T., and Fujii, Y

2005 “Lead-210 Profile in Firn Layer over Antarctic Ice

Sheet and Its Relation to the Snow Accumulation

Environment.” Tellus, Series B: Chemical and Physical

Meteorology 56 (1): 85-92

[9] Harle, K J., Jenkinson, A V., Britton, K., Heijnis, H.,

and Zawadzki, A 2002 “Mud, Mines and Rainforest: A

Short History of Human Impact in Western Tasmania,

Using Pollen, Trace Metals and Lead-210.” Australian

Journal of Botany 50 (4): 481-97

[10] Turner , R E., Rabalais, N N., Fry, B., Atilla, N., Milan,

C S., Lee, J M., Normandeau, C., Oswald, T A.,

Swenson, E M., and Tomasko, D A., 2006

“Paleo-indicators and Water Quality Change in the

Charlotte Harbor Estuary (Florida).” Limnology and

Oceanography 51 (1): 518-33

[11] Baskaran, M., and Swarzenski, P W 2007 “Season

Variations on the Residence Times and Partitioning of

Short-Lived Radionuclides ( 234 Th, 7 Be, 210 Pb) and

Depositional Fluxes of 7 Be and 210 Pb in Tampa Bay, FL.”

Marine Chemistry 104 (1-2): 27-42

[12] Brooks, G R., Larson, R A., Devine, B., and Schwing, P

T (Forth coming) “Annual-to Millennial-Scale Record

of Sediment Delivery to US Virgin Island Coastal

Environments.” The Holocene

[13] Wilmore, C., and Pyrtle, A J 2004 “Development and

Management of Southwest Florida Water Resources: An

Overview.” Journal of Environmental Monitoring and

Restoratio Special Issue: Proceedings of the First

International Conference on Safe Water 3: 73-81

[14] Swarzenski, P W., and Yates, K 2007 “Tampa Bay as a

Model Estuary for Examining the Impact of Human

Activities on Biogeochemical Processes: An introduction.”

Marine Chemistry 104: 1-3

[15] SFWMD (Southwest Florida Water Management

District) 2001 Manatee River Comprehensive Water Management Plan Manatee County: SFWMD

[16] Brooks, G R., Doyle, L J., Johansson, R., Squires, A., Zsoldos, H D., and Byrne, R H 1991 “Distribution Patterns and Accumulation Rates of Fine-Grained Sediments in Upper Tampa Bay, Florida.”

Transactions-Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies 60-71

[17] Brooks, G R., and Doyle, L J 1998 “Recent Sedimentary Development of Tampa Bay, Florida: A Microtidal Estuary Incised into Tertiary Platform

Carbonates.” Estuaries 21: 391-406

[18] Lynch, J C., Meriwether, J R., McKee, B A., Vera-Herrera, F., and Twilley, R R 1989 “Recent Accretion in Mangrove Ecosystems Based on 137 Cs and

[20] Folk, R L., (ed.) 1965 Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks

Hemphills, Austin: Cambridge University Press

[21] Dean, W E Jr 1974 “Determination of Carbonate and Organic Matter in Calcareous Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks by Loss on Ignition: Comparison

with Other Methods.” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology

44 (1): 242-8

[22] Heiri, O., Lotter, A F., and Lemcke, G 2001 “Loss on Ignition as a Method for Estimating Organic and Carbonate Content in Sediments: Reproducibility and

Comparability of Results.” Journal of Paleolimnology 25:

101-10

[23] Handwerger, D A., and Jarrard, R D 2003 “Neogene Changes in Southern Ocean Sedimentation Based on Mass Accumulation Rates at Four Continental Margins.”

open file report 01-xxx

[26] Schwing, P T 2006 “Regional Climatology and Anthropogenic Impacts on Coastal Sedimentation Patterns: St John, USVI.” Thesis, Eckerd College, St Petersburg, FL.

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B 3 (2014) 14-17

Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932

An Ecological Alternative for the Control of

Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Sheep in Northern

Veracruz (Mexico)

Amalia Cabrera Núñez, Miguel Ángel Lammoglia Villagómez, Iliana Del Carmen Daniel Rentería and Rebeca Rojas Ronquillo

Department of Biological and Agricultural Sciences, University of Veracruz, Tuxpan 92870, Mexico

Received: April 28, 2014 / Accepted: May 14, 2014 / Published: August 20, 2014

Abstract: The objective was to evaluate the effect of aqueous infusion of cracked soursop seeds on two different concentrations as

an organic dewormer compared to a commercial one in GNE (gastrointestinal nematodes) egg population in crossbred hair sheep (Blackbelly-Khatadin) of the northen region of Veracruz The aqueous infusion was prepared adding 93.5 g of cracked soursop seeds

in 1,875 mL of boiled water and let stand for 12 h Crossbred ewes were randomly assigned to receive every 19 days: (1) 10 mL of

cracked soursop infusion orally (n = 27), (2) 15 mL of cracked soursop infusion orally (n = 27), and (3) 2 mL of Febendazole subcutaneously (n = 26) Feces (2-5 g) were collected directly from the rectum of each animal on the following days: 0, 19, 38 and 57

days post treatment Nematode egg population was determined using the technique of McMaster Statistical analysis was done using

ANOVA (analysis of variance) There was a reduction overtime (P = 0.05) in all treatments in parasite egg population There were no differences (P = 0.10) in egg population across treatments In conclusion, aqueous infusion of soursop cracked seeds proved to be an

environmentally friendly and effective alternative in the control of gastrointestinal parasites in crossbred hair sheep in the region of northern Veracruz

Key words: Sheep, soursop seed, gastrointestinal nematode parasite

1 Introduction 

Today parasite caused by GNE (gastrointestinal

nematodes) represents one of the worldwide health

problems continuously affecting tropical sheep The

high prolificacy, adaptability and resistance to various

climatic conditions make the GNE a wide

geographical distribution and high prevalence in both

temperate and tropical regions Sheep are one of the

most susceptible species, especially in stressful

periods, such as, peripartum, lactation, weaning, and

rainy season [1] The damages they cause are:

deterioration in body condition, anemia, delayed

sexual maturity, plus death loss, causing a decrease in

Corresponding author: Iliana Del Carmen Daniel Rentería,

Ph.D., research fields: biodiversity and conservation E-mail:

idaniel@uv.mx

the feeding efficiency/meat conversion and an increase in production costs due to prices of control drugs [2] Commercial anthelmintic treatments have been long regarded as the only way to control parasitic infection, however, they are expensive and their use causes chemical residues in food of animal origin [3]

as toxicity in organisms in the environment, so that

after metabolization, parasiticides residues in feces,

urine, or even through the skin, may result in reduced insect dung removed by flies and beetles in particular, essential in the degradation of fecal matter and its utilization by the plants for the soil And the development of resistance by helminth parasites against these drugs constitutes a serious obstacle for the effective control of parasitic infections in this species [4]

D

An Ecological Alternative for the Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in

Sheep in Northern Veracruz (Mexico)

15

WHO (World Health Organization) recognized the

need for research and mobilization of old animals for

medical practices, and realized that the traditional

system of medicine can play an important role in the

development of livestock in developing countries [5]

In addition, persistent public demand for organic and

chemical-free animal products force producers and

researchers to develop alternatives for the control of

gastrointestinal parasites based on ancient remedies,

herbal compounds and plant extracts which currently

have scientific importance [6]

Among these alternatives is the use of the seeds of

Annona muricata (soursop) Some experimental results

show that this Anonacea contain, active ingredients

such as acetogenins lactones and lipids, which have

antimicrobial activities antitumor, antiparasitic,

pesticides, anti-protozoal and anthelmintic [7]

It has been shown that these substances impair

parasite cuticle perhaps by proteolytic digestion,

which allows reducing the number of infective larvae

of gastrointestinal nematodes [8] However, the

preparation and dosage for their effectiveness does not

seem clear Therefore, the objective of this research is

based on studying the effect of the cracked seed of

soursop as a possible organic anthelmintic to be used

in small ruminants [9]

2 Methodology

This research was conducted at a commercial farm

in the northern region of the State of Veracruz, in

Tuxpan The farm is geographically located 20°57′46″

N and longitude 97°24′01″ E West, at an altitude of

10 m in a tropical climate and an average annual

temperature of 24.9 °C, with abundant rains in the

summer and early fall and an annual rainfall of 1,241

mm

The herd comprised 80 breeding ewes of 40 ± 3 kg

and 20 ± 3 months of age of Blackbelly-Khatadin

crosses Sheep were free grazing in an area of 50 ha of

pasture star grass (Cynodon plectostachium) Ewes

were randomly assigned into three groups: T1 ewes (n

= 27) received orally aqueous infusion of cracked soursop seeds at a dose of 10 mL every 19 days 3

times T2 ewes (n = 27) received orally aqueous

infusion of cracked soursop seeds at a dose of 15 mL,

every 19 days, 3 times Control ewes (n = 26) received

a subcutaneous injection of 2 mL of Febendazole every 19 days, 3 times

Infusion of cracked soursop seed was prepared adding 93.5 g of cracked soursop seeds in 1,875 mL

of boiled water and let stand for 12 h with 1,875 mL Feces (2-5 g) were collected on days 0, 19, 38 and

57 days after treatment Samples were collected directly from the rectum of each animal by digital stimulation performed during the morning before grazing The collected samples were stored in plastic bottles, each with information from each ewe and transported to the Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology, Sciences Department Biological and Agricultural at the University of Veracruz, processed the same day by the technique of concentration-flotation McMaster as described by Hoste [10] Egg populations were determined by taken

2 g of feces and then diluted in 42 mL of syrup The sediment obtained was kept standing for 5 min, after which the upper third of the suspension was dispensed

in the McMaster chamber For the counting of EPG (eggs per gram) of feces, the following formula was applied:

EPG = Field A + Field B × 50

Statistical analysis was performed using the Stat view ANOVA software

3 Results and Discussion

The reported incidence of parasites in the first sampling with 80 ewes, before applying the treatments,

(Table 1) were eggs of Haemonchus and Strongyloides,

both are among the genres most often infested animals

in livestock farming systems in the tropics [11] The breeding ewes during grazing are exposed to different biotic and abiotic factors that cause physiological and metabolic imbalances that directly influence the

An Ecological Alternative for the Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in

Sheep in Northern Veracruz (Mexico)

Min-Max eggs/day

productive efficiency of them [12] Various studies

show the negative effect of parasitic infestations in

productive performance of ewes and their offspring, in

this regard, a study reported that in parasitized animals,

20%-28% of them do not develop a normal corpus

luteum, and affected fertility in 66% of the ewes, and

caused 72% fetal mortality These authors also

reported smaller birth weight of lambs out of

parasitized ewes and 39.9% decreased in average daily

weight gain to weaning [13]

Fig 1 shows a reduction (P = 0.05) in the parasite

egg population of Haemochus contortus found in

different days of sampling in the three batches tested,

having similar results between the treatment of 10 mL

and 15 mL cracked soursop seed and Febendazole (P

= 0.10) It is important to note in this connection at 57

days after treatment, in the case of Febendazole like

infusion, animals tend to recover infestation, showing

that after 19 days of deworming, ewes in the study had

a low incidence of parasites, noting that after the third

treatment the parasite load was markedly reduced,

indicating that the dose and frequency of infusion

used can control these types of nematodes, which

coincide with those reported by other authors [14]

A significant reduction (P = 0.05) of the genus

Ostertagia parasite load (Fig 2) in the different

treatments are presented There were no differences (P

= 0.10) between these groups, which shows that

almost any of the variants can be used on a

deworming program These results agree with those of

other authors who argue that several applications are

necessary to achieve an adequate and effective

dewormer

Fig 1 Effect treatment time (P = 0.05) in the parasite load

of A muricata and H contortus

Fig 2 Effect treatment time (P = 0.05) in the parasite load

of Ostertagia

4 Conclusions

The results show that cracked soursop (Annona

muricata) seed infusion giving orally every 19 days

exhibits antiparasitic properties for crossbred hair

50 90 130 170 210 250 290 330

10 mL cracked soursop seed infusion

15 mL cracked soursop seed infusion

An Ecological Alternative for the Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in

Sheep in Northern Veracruz (Mexico)

17

ewes at a dose of 10 mL and 15 mL in tropical regions

The authors suggested that this is an interesting

environmental friendly dewormer

References

[1] Uhlinger, C., Fetron, J., and Johnstone, C 1998 “A Field

Evaluation of Benzimidazole Drugs in a Herd of Dairy

Goats.” Rev Veterinary Internal Medicine 2: 113-6

[2] Alvarez, A., Fuentes, V., Pérez, P., and Alfonso, H

1989 Traditional Medicine and Acupuncture, Its

Application in Veterinary, SCAMV Havana: Enpes Press,

93-120

[3] Castells, D., and Nari, S 1996 “Health in the Production

of Organic Meat.” Presented at Seminar on Organic Meat,

Montevideo, Uruguay

[4] Cervantes, R., Cuellar, O., and Silva, M 1997

“Evaluation of Reinfestation Period of Gastrointestinal

Nematodes in Sheep Treated with Closantel, Ivermectin

or Moxidectin.” Presented at IX National Congress of

Sheep Production, Querétaro, Mexico

[5] Marles, R J., and Farnsworth, N R 1995 “Antidiabetic

Plants and Their Active Constituents.” Rev

Phytomedicine 3: 12-8

[6] WHO (World Health Organization) 1993 “Summary of

WHO Guidelines for Assessment of Herbal Medicines.”

Rev Herbal gram 2: 13-24

[7] Sundolf, S 1989 “Drug and Chemical Residues in

Livestock, Veterinary Clinical North America.” Food

Animal Practice 5: 411-49

[8] Stear, M J., Bairden, K., Bishop, S C., Gettinby, G., McKellar, Q., Park, A., Strain, M., and Wallace, S 2011

“The Processes Influencing the Distribution of Parasitic

Nematodes among Naturally Infected Lambs.” Rev Parasitology 2: 165-71

[9] The, O M., Fonseca, N., Costa, P J., Carrión, P M., Vazquez, J., Liranza, E., Miranda, M., Sánchez, M., and Pompa, A 2003 “Gastrointestinal Nematode Infestation

on a Goat Farm Silvopastoral System in Mountain

Conditions.” Rev Pastures and Forages 3: 26-53

[10] Hoste, H 2000 “Clinical Findings, Pathophysiology and

Pathogenesis of Parasitic Nematode Infections in Goats.”

In New Perspectives in the Diagnosis and Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Small ruminants Yucatan,

Mexico: First International Course

[11] Aumont, G., Gruner, L., and Berbigier, P 1991

“Population Dynamics of Infective Larvae of Gastrointestinal Strongyles in Small Ruminants in Humid

Tropical Environment.” Veterinary Medical Journal Tropical Countries N Special 123-31

[12] Levine, N D., Todd, K S J., and Boatman, P A 1974

“Development and Survival of Haemonchus contortus on Pasture.” American Journal of Veterinary Research 35:

1413-22

[13] Coop, R., and Holmes, P 1996 “Nutrition and Parasite

Interaction.” International Journal for Parasitology 3:

951-62

[14] Soulsby, E 1982 Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa Domesticated Animals 7th ed London:

Baillière Tindall

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B 3 (2014) 18-23

Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932

Modelling of the Resin Penetration Rate into the

Archaeological Wood Cell Wall: The Methodology of

Experimental Design

Youssef Elrhayam and Ahmed Elharfi

Kenitra 14000, Morocco

Received: November 08, 2013 / Accepted: June 13, 2014 / Published: August 20, 2014

Abstract: The penetration modeling of an adhesive into the fiber requires the measurement of various properties of resin and fiber:

the resin viscosity, its surface tension, the penetration depth and the timber pore radius This study is based on the screening technique that identifies the factors sensed by the experimenter In order to determine the optimum processing conditions and find the combination of parameters that maximize the productivity in the experimental phase, a geometric illustration of the response has been made The results are: the pores radius (4 μm), surface tension (62.5 mN/m), depth (10 μm) and viscosity (2,000 Cp)

Key words: Resin, experimental designs, factors, response, surface stress, data analyses

1 Introduction

The penetration of the adhesive in the hard structure

of capillary timber is possible when the obtained

moistening state is good appropriate [1] The creation

of a link between an adhesive and the wood substrate

requires both an adequate interpenetration of resin and

wood, and the development of links between the resin

and the surface of the exposed wood [2] The

mechanism of binding between the components of the

resin and wood is still a concern for a number of

researchers Generally, the characteristics of

mechanical locking are due to a covalent linkage on

the one hand, and to the secondary interaction (the

Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds [1, 3]) on

the other The penetration of the adhesive promotes all

these mechanisms (molecular weight, pH, temperature

of the adhesive, moisture content, density and

permeability of the substrate) These parameters will

Corresponding author: Youssef Elrhayam, Ph.D., research

field: polymer chemistry materials E-mail:

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Method of Experimental Design

It defines the experiences (MPE (method of experimental design)), in reduced number, allowing a comprehensive study of the influence of all parameters on a given process and of their optimization This is based on finding a simple mathematical model which gives a good representation of the studied phenomenon

D

Modelling of the Resin Penetration Rate into the Archaeological Wood Cell Wall:

The Methodology of Experimental Design

19

2.2 The Resin Penetration Model

A perfect model of penetration takes into

consideration all the likely variables that influence the

rate of progression of the resin in the wood Based on

simpler models, several researchers were able to

simulate the behavior of the penetration of resins in

the wood The equation describing this model is the

׏C A: the concentration gradient of the substance A

In this model, only the variable viscosity is

considered to simplify the relation (viscous model)

The other parameters are set rather arbitrarily after

simple measurement at temperatures around 20 °C

Thus, the equation becomes as following [8]:

dX/dt: the penetration rate of the resin (mis);

γ: surface tension of the resin (N/m);

η: viscosity in view of time and temperature (mPa·s);

θ: the contact angle of the resin on the wood

(without sun)

3 Results and Discussion

Methodology of experiments seems to be a method

of advantageous experimentation For this, the issue

will be approached through four factors (X1, X2, X3

and X4), each of which can take two values (modes),

which -1 and +1 are denoted by convention In order

to optimize resin penetration rate, the interactions

between the different factors that affect penetration

were studied

3.1 The Mathematical Model

The responses are described by a polynomial model

of the following form:

X: the maximum depth of the resin penetration (m)

Applying this model, four factors were tested at two levels the limit values of the parameters studied values are defined in Table 1

3.1.1 Graphic Study of the Interaction of X1 X2

In this case study, the radius parameters of pores

(X1) and the surface tension (X2) in the parameters mentioned in Fig 1

According to this interaction system, it appears that the best penetration achieved is determined by the case of interaction where the pores radius is 4 μm and the surface tension is 62.5 mN/m

3.1.2 Graphic Study of the Interaction of X1 X3

In this case study, the pore radius of parameters (X1)

and depth (X3) are shown in Fig 2

According to this interaction system, it appears that the best penetration is determined by the case of interaction where the pores radius is 4 μm and depth is

10 μm

3.1.3 Graphic Study of Interaction of X1 X4

According to this study, the pores radius parameters

(X1) and viscosity (X4) are outlined in Fig 3

From this interaction system, it appears that the best penetration is determined by the case of interaction of viscosity 2,000 cP and the pores radius 4 μm This

Table 1 The studied factors on the penetration rate

Pore radius wood (µm) X1 3 ± 1 Surface tension (mN/m) X2 57.5 ± 5 Penetration depth (µm) X3 6 ± 4 Viscosity (cP) X4 1,250 ± 750

Modelling of the Resin Penetration Rate into the Archaeological Wood Cell Wall:

The Methodology of Experimental Design

20

(a) Values of parameter optimization (b) Interaction between pore radius (c) Interaction between surface tension

and surface tension and pore radius

(a) Values of parameter optimization (b) Interaction between pore (c) Interaction between pore

radius and depth radius and depth

(a) Values of parameter optimization (b) Interaction between pore (c) Interaction between viscosity

radius and viscosity and pore radius

theoretical study assesses the pores diameter and

microstructure of wood fiber with precision Since the

resin diffuses, its surface should have pores whose

diameter are larger than the molecules’ of the studied

resin Ref [7] showed that these pores are of the order

of 2-4 nm in diameter This result is confirmed by the

result that achieved

3.2.1 Pareto Diagram

The Pareto diagram is to complement the results

obtained by the interaction systems previously

obtained This would determine the influencing factors by decreasing contribution order

The results obtained by the Pareto diagram are represented in Fig 4 The first three factors (surface, tension and viscosity) explain more than 98% of the response variation

3.2.2 Method of the Right of HENRY The Half Normal Plot graph is used to distinguish better the active coefficients but it does not give them any sense since only the absolute values of these

Modelling of the Resin Penetration Rate into the Archaeological Wood Cell Wall:

The Methodology of Experimental Design

21

(a) Pareto diagram for the response (b) Pareto diagram for the cumulative response

Fig 4 Pareto diagram for the answer (penetration rate)

(a) Half Normal Plot (b) Normal Plot (Right HENRY)

Fig 5 Right of HENRY

HENRY is a graphical method for adjusting a Gaussian distribution with that of a series of observations It can quickly read the mean and standard deviation of such a distribution

coefficients are taken into consideration The b3

coefficient is probably active This is in agreement

with the results obtained by the Pareto method

(Fig 5)

3.3 Validation of the Model

The various parameters treatment by the Pareto

diagram allowed to highlight that the regression

coefficient is in the vicinity of 98% (Table 3) based on

the analysis of variance shown in Table 2

3.4 Statistical Analysis of Results

The equation of the empirical model is only an

approximation of reality The implementation of

statistical tests should enable us to set forth a

judgment on the results

Table 3 indicates that all the answers have a satisfactory descriptive quality apart from the response

due to the fact that the correlation coefficient r2 = 0.989 is closer to 1 Moreover, the adjusted

determination coefficient is r2a = 0.974 This is why the descriptive quality is satisfactory

Whether the matrix of experience has kept its quality, we observe the inflation factor f (bi)

In order to know whether the experience matrix has retained its quality, the inflation factor f (bi) should be observed which is calculated for all the coefficients of the model These coefficients will have an estimate of their own representation (Table 4) The inflation factor noted is between 1.00 and 2.16 for all coefficients This allows us to say that the matrix will provide the appropriate information The latter is of a sufficient

Modelling of the Resin Penetration Rate into the Archaeological Wood Cell Wall:

The Methodology of Experimental Design

22

Table 2 Variance analysis

Source of variation Sum of squares Degree of freedom Square satio (%) Ratio Signif (%)

Table 3 The descriptive quality of the model

The standard deviation of the response 0.0045

Table 4 Analysis of the coefficients

Name Coefficient Factor inflation Standard deviation t exp Signif (%)

***significant at 0.1%; **significant at 1%; *significant at 5%; t exp: Snedecor experimental test.

Fig 6 Penetration of the resin calculated in view of the

coefficient r2 = 0.989, which shows that the obtained equation of regression is interesting in this study

4 Conclusions

The modeling of the resin penetration should take into account both the properties of the resin and the timber pores diameter since they are the key variables

A perfect penetration model would take into account all the likely variables influencing the resin progression rate in timber The modeling of penetrating adhesive in the dry fibers imposed on us

Modelling of the Resin Penetration Rate into the Archaeological Wood Cell Wall:

The Methodology of Experimental Design

23

the measurement of the resin various properties and

fiber The resin viscosity, the tension of the surface,

and the contact angle on a flat surface should also be

measured

References

[1] Marra, A A 1992 Technology of Wood Bonding New

York: Van Nostrand Reinhold

[2] Koch, G S., Klareich, F., and Exstrum, B 1987

Adhesives for the Composite Wood Panel Industry

Edited by Hagler, Bailly and Company Washington, DC:

Noyes Data Corporation

[3] Johns, W E 1989 “The Chemical Bonding of Wood.” In

Wood Adhesive Chemistry and Technology, New York:

Marcel Dekker

[4] Sernek, M., Resnik, J., and Kamke, F A 1999

“Penetration of Liquid Urea Formaldehyde Adhesive into

Beech Wood.” Wood and Fiber Science 31 (1): 41-8

[5] Tarkow, H., and Southerland, C 1964 “Interaction of

Wood with Polymeric Material.” Nature of the Adsorbing Surface 14 (4): 184-6

[6] Hare, D A., and Kutscha N P 1974 “Microscopy of

Eastern Spruce Plywood Gluelines.” Wood Sci 6 (3):

294-304

[7] Jensen, E S., Gatenholm, P., and Sellitti, C 2007

“An ATR-FTIR Study on Penetration of Resins in Wood.”

Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie 200:

77-92

[8] Kawai, A., Iida, I., and Ishimaru, Y 2001 “Dynamic

Behavior of Liquid Penetration in Softwoods.” Mokuzai Gakkaishi 47 (6): 493-500

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B 3 (2014) 24-29

Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932

Avalanche Warning Service without Frontiers in the

Karawanks along the Slovenian-Austrian Border

Arnold Studeregger1, Arnulf Wurzer1, Hannes Rieder1, Andreas Riegler1, Willi Ertl2, Manca Volk Bahun3, Jaka Ortar3 and Miha Pavšek3

1 Institute of Meteorology and Geodynamic Graz, Graz 8053, Austria

2 Avalanche Service Carinthia, Government of Carinthia Austria, Klagenfurt 9020, Austria

3 Geographical Institute, Anton Melik Geographical Institute ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia

Received: April 28, 2014 / Accepted: May 20, 2014 / Published: August 20, 2014

Abstract: The avalanche warning service was established within the operational European territorial cooperation program

Slovenia-Austria (SI-AT) 2007-2013 project “Natural Hazards without Frontiers” Four institutes, two from Austria and two from Slovenia, work together to publish an avalanche report during the winter season The first regular season was the winter 2012/2013 The avalanche and the slab avalanche situation in the transnational area along the 160 km border between the south of Austria and north of Slovenia show major differences of avalanche building weather situations Because of the nearby sea in the southwest of Slovenia, the prevailing weather situations for high precipitation are coming from southwest or southeast Nevertheless sometimes a lot

of fresh snow occurs at northerly weather situations, which is unusual for Slovenian Alps and is therefore poorly forecasted for this region Austrian avalanche experts are facing the same problems at southerly weather situations Hence, an exchange of experience, weather data as well as model information improves the avalanche warning on both sides of the Austrian-Slovenian border

Key words: Avalanche, avalanche bulletin, avalanche warning service, Alps

1 Introduction

The cross-border Karawanks mountain range

between Slovenia and Austria united avalanche

services from both sides of these part of the

south-eastern Alps (project partner form the project

“Natural Hazards without Frontiers”/NH-WF, which

is founded from SI-AT EU) and offers end-users

different possibilities to inform them about avalanche

danger For example, a backcountry traveller can read

in the avalanche report that in spring time the

avalanche hazard is generally lowest during the night

and early morning hours when surface snow refreezes

due to heat loss to the surrounding atmosphere

The avalanche report is made during the winter time

The fact is that Slovenia does not have an avalanche

Corresponding author: Arnold Studeregger, research fields:

physical geography and avalanches E-mail:

arnold.studeregger@zamg.ac.at

warning service, organized and worked on the same way as it is the case in the other alpine countries The Avalanche Bulletin for the Karawanks is one of the important steps towards the modern avalanche warning service Products of the avalanche service for the end-user are following:

How much snow is actually in a possible crack area

D

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of the avalanche slope? How much more snow is

expected? What about precipitation, wind, and

temperature?

Is a back country ski tour still safe? We have to

evaluate the avalanche danger without being in the

field

The following question is very important for the

product development of the avalanche service: Who is

the end-user?

The end-users are known by the avalanche service

These are professional people who have a close

relationship to snow, but also some locals and tourism

businesses which have no close relationship to snow

Taking this into account, there are different

applications provided for different kinds of end-users

The avalanche report is composed for all who either

are working in alpine regions, living in the Alps and

for the people who are visiting them regularly or

occasionally in their leisure time/free-time activities

and are thus exposed to avalanche danger

Subgroups of people include:

 members of the avalanche commission;

 back country skiers;

 skiers, snowboarders and snowmobilers;

 operators of mountain railways/ski-lifts;

 alpine police;

 rescue services members;

 members of winter road-service;

 local inhabitants of alpine regions

2.2 Material and Methods

Besides the existing weather observation net of the

ARSO (Slovenian Environmental Agency), the

ZAMG (Central Institute for Meteorology and

Geodynamics) and the Avalanche Service Carinthia,

we use additional data from three meteorological

stations, which were established within the NH-WF

project The new meteorological alpine stations are

necessary for the avalanche forecast

One output of the project is an avalanche report for

the Karawanks The Avalanche Bulletin for the

Central Karawanks was developed in order to present and understand the avalanche conditions and avalanche danger levels better We used a standardized and unified European avalanche danger scale and some other information, which are component part of avalanche bulletins in other alpine countries with well-developed and long-continued avalanche service The Slovenian partners tried to follow the daily issuing of the avalanche bulletin written by their Austrian colleagues But they managed to publish their own avalanche bulletin every day, documenting the snow and avalanche condition change—together 67 avalanche reports during the whole snow season Also, the snow profile form was adopted and applied for those purposes

The output was a result of different information sources, avalanche building factors as well as avalanche danger levels Sources of information include:

 field observations (Fig 1);

Avalanche formation factors include:

 weather (precipitation, wind, air temperature, solar radiation, snow drift, …);

 snowpack (per layer—stratification, weak layers, stability/strength, temperature, water content, moisture, …);

 terrain characteristics (altitude, aspect, inclination, vegetation/land use, relief forms, …);

 expert assessment—data analysis, factor combination, empiric values

Avalanche danger include:

 snowpack stability;

 distribution of avalanche prone slopes/locations, quantification/qualification/typification of avalanches Avalanche Bulletin include:

Danger levels, especially by avalanches endangered areas/slopes; description

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The meteorological measurements, field work

(three meteorological weather stations were built see

Fig 2) with snow-sampling and avalanche danger

level testing, as well as the use of information sources

across the border enable us to reach the final

output—the avalanche report At the same time, the

data base for past avalanche events and hazards were

exchanged

Fig 1 Field observation, March 2013

Fig 2 New meteorological station Hochstuhl

Fig 3 Avalanche bulletin for central Karawanks The input table was made on the platform of MS access

2.3 Issues of the Avalanche Report

The daily avalanche report comprises a weather forecast for the current day and information about the snow cover It writes about dangerous expositions in the examined area and the tendency of the future development of snow and avalanche conditions As a result of different weather conditions, the Karawanks are divided into different areas

A very important basis for writing the avalanche report is the snow exploration of the members of the GIAM and avalanche service Carinthia They are going into Alpine regions to do snow cover analysis Also the local weather and avalanche observers are being engaged with snow cover analysis and give their information to the avalanche service

For the assessment of the short-time and long-term weather situation, the avalanche service has different possibilities to inform the end-user about temperature, wind and snow We have more than 10 different weather models in different regional and seasonal forecasts The expected precipitation can also be interpreted by looking at satellite pictures

2.4 Used Weather Models

2.4.1 ALADIN-Austria The limited area numerical weather prediction model ALADIN (Aire Limitée Adaptation dynamique Développement InterNational) developed by 13 European national weather services within an international project has been in use operationally at ZAMG since September 1998 A new operational

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NWP-LAM system, ALADIN-AUSTRIA, was

designed in 2003/2004 In this model, not only the

horizontal resolution was increased but also the

number of levels from 37 to 45 In May 2004,

ALADIN-AUSTRIA was put into operation at

ALADIN-Austria is also one member of PEPS

(poor man ensemble prediction system) which tries to

make predictability forecasts based on several

different LAMs

2.4.2 INCA (Integrated Nowcasting through

Comprehensive Analysis)

The high-resolution analysis and nowcasting system

(INCA) is being developed at the Austrian national

weather service (ZAMG) It provides

three-dimensional fields of temperature, humidity and

wind on an hourly basis, as well as two-dimensional

fields of precipitation rate (15 mins) and cloud cover

The system operates on a horizontal resolution of 1

km and a vertical resolution of 200 m (601 × 351 grid

points) It combines station data, remote sensing data

(radar, satellite), forecast fields of a NWP (numerical

weather prediction) model and high resolution

topographic data in order to generate analysis fields

In case of the wind analysis and forecast, the INCA

system first makes a dynamical downscaling of the

ALADIN-Austria (9.6 km to 2.3 km horizontal

resolution) After that, wind observations at stations

and ALADIN-Austria model become the INCA fields

(kinematic downscaling, relaxation method) [8]

The dimension of avalanche danger is established

of many parameters Examples of these parameters are

the relationship between atmospheric conditions and

snow cover, or snow composition and avalanche activity

The avalanche danger is determined by snow cover stability, as well as of the correlation between tension and tightness in the ever changing snow cover The influences of temperature, precipitation and wind on the snow cover are the most important factors for the assessment of avalanche danger The development in Alpine areas (exposition, elevation, and landform) is derived from these parameters

Fig 4 Avalanche report for the Karawanks: for central Karawanks: avalanche danger level in the snow season 2012/2013 below/above the tree line

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3 Results and Discussion

The Avalanche Bulletin of the Slovenian partners

and the Austrian is identically constructed in:

3.1 Sections of the Avalanche Bulletin

3.1.1 Map with the Danger Scale in Different

Regions

The general map shows the avalanche danger level

in the area (Karawanks) according to the unified

European avalanche danger scale [9]

3.1.2 Particularly Endangered Hillside Directions

On the paper, two circle diagrams, one for the north

part and the other for the south part of the Karawanks,

are printed The circle diagrams (black colour) show

the dangerous slope exposition

3.1.3 Headline

The headline comprises the most important

avalanche-relevant statements in short form

3.1.4 Danger Scale for Backcountry Skiers

For the end-user, the avalanche danger is noted as a

number (1 to 5), separately for each mountain area

3.1.5 Full Risk Assessment

This section is intended for end-users who exercise

in alpine areas There they can find information about

the possible triggering of avalanches based on the

weather situation and the snow cover composition

According to the European avalanche danger scale,

the avalanche danger is (1) low, (2) moderate, (3)

considerable, (4) high and (5) very high

3.1.6 Composition of the Snow Cover/Layer

In this part, there is information about the current

conditions of the snow cover/layer Furthermore, one

can find indications of expected precipitation and the

wind and temperature situation When required, there

is information about fresh snow or recently sighted

avalanches

Fig 5 A special avalanche traffic light near the Loibl parking plateau on the Slovenian side

3.1.7 Weather This section shows a short description of the large-scale weather situation Furthermore, the peculiarity of avalanche relevant climate factors is described There are details about wind (wind speed, direction), precipitation (intensity, snow fall line, …) and temperature (zero degree line, temperature in 1,500 m and in 2,000 m) A short forecast for the next day is also part of this section

3.1.8 Trend

In this section, the end-user finds longer-term forecast about the weather and the changes of avalanche danger

4 Conclusion

Due to the project “Natural Hazards without Frontiers”/NH-WF (founded by SI-AT EU), a daily Avalanche Bulletin for the Karawanks was created The Slovenian avalanche service learned how to write

an informational avalanche report from their Austrian colleges The format of the report is similar to the format of the Austrian Avalanche Bulletin and uses the European avalanche danger scale for defining the daily avalanche danger The avalanche danger will be scaled as (1) low, (2) moderate, (3) considerable, (4) high or (5) very high

The exchange of experience, weather data as well

as model information improves the avalanche warning

on both sides of the Austrian-Slovenian border One of the side effects or improvements of creating the Slovenian avalanche reports was a special