How we think-John Dewey - Phòng Đảm bảo Chất lượng

importance of signs in relation to specific meanings, f^^ 011. we have overlooked another aspect, equally valuable, upon signs[r]

responsiblefor allimperfections discovered.

The cardholder is responsiblefor all books drawn

D DDD1 DB7213fl fl

No 29

OUR schools are troubled with a multiplication of

materials and principles. Our teachers find theirtasks

made heavier in that they have come to deal withpupils individually and not merely in mass Unless

these steps in advance are to end in distraction, some

clew of unity, some principle that makes for simplification, must be found This book represents the con

scientific This scientific attitude of mind might, con

ceivably, be quite irrelevant to teaching children and

youth But this book also represents the convictionthat suchis not the case; thatthe native and unspoiled

imagination, and love of experimental inquiry, is near,very near, to the attitude of the scientific mind. If

these pages assist any to appreciate this kinship andtoconsider seriously how its recognition in educationalpractice would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste, the book will amply have

served its purpose.

It is hardly necessary to enumerate the authors t

whom I am indebted My fundamental indebtedness

is to my wife, by whom the ideas of this book were

inspired, and through whose work in connection with

1896 and 1903, the ideas attained such concreteness

as comes from embodiment and testing in practice It

is a pleasure, also, to acknowledge indebtedness to theintelligence and sympathy of those who cooperated asteachers and supervisors in the conduct of that school,

and especially to Mrs Ella Flagg Young, then a col

league in the University, and now Superintendent ofthe Schools of Chicago.

NEW YORK CITY, December,1909 ,

PART I

THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING THOUGHT

II. THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT 14

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND THE LOGICAL 56

PART IILOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

VI THE ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT. 68VII SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE: INDUCTION AND DEDUC

TION 79

IX MEANING: OR CONCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDING . 116

XL EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING 145

XII ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT . 157

CHAPTER PAGE

XIV OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION IN THE TRAINING

XV THE RECITATION AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT 201

i. VariedSensesofthe Term

No words are oftener on our lips than thinking and

mean by them The aim of this chapter is to find a

single consistent meaning Assistance may be had by

employed In the first place thought is used broadly,

not to say loosely JEverything that comes to mind,

that "goes throughour heads," is called a thought To

whatever is directly presented; we think (or think of)

or taste. Then, third,the meaningisfurtherEmited tobeliefs that rest upon some kind of evidence or testimony Ofthisthird type,twokinds or,rather,twode

is accepted with slight or almost no attempt to statethe groundsthat supportit. In othercases, theground

or basis for a belief is deliberately sought and its

adequacy to support the beliefexamined This process

is called reflective thought; italone is

trulyeducativeinvalue, anditforms, accordingly, theprincipal subject ofthis volume We shall now briefly describe each of

I. In its loosest sense, thinking signifies everything

that, aswesay, is "inourheads" or that "goes through

theobjects of his demand thoughts, he does not intend

will satisfy his demand Daydreaming, building ofcastles in the air, that loose flux of casual and discon

nectedmaterial that floats throughourminds inrelaxed

ourwaking life than we should care to admit, even toourselves, is likely to be whiled away in this inconse

In this sense, sillyfolkanddullardsthink Thestory

is told of a man in slight repute for intelligence, who,

"

I

wish youto understandthat Iam thinking about some

thought is like this random coursing of thingsthrough

the mind in that it consists of a succession of things

thought of; but it is unlike, in that the mere chanceoccurrence of any chance "something or other" in

an irregular sequence does not suffice. Reflection

con-sequence aconsecutive ordering in such a way that

each determines the next as its proper outcome, while

cessive portions of the reflective thought grow out of

one anotherandsupport j>ne another;

they do notcome

andgo in amedleyr~"Each phase is a step from some

chain, or thread

.

to

what we do notsee, smell, hear, or touch. We ask the wiiatgoes

man tellinga storyif he sawacertain incident happen,

No, I only thought of it" A vation

fancyandconsiderationsdeliberatelyemployedto estab

some are disjointed, some are articulated When con

close-knit type and prepare the way for it. But they Reflective

andthereby theyaremarkedoff from reflective thought erer/atevenwhen they most resemble it. Those who express

such thoughtsdonot expect credence, but rather credit

They produce good not unless by chance

knowledge Such thoughts are an efflorescence offeeling; the enhancement of a mood or sentiment is

theiraim; congruityofemotion,their

bindingtie.

Thought III. In its nextsense,

thought denotes belief

though their difference is

strictly one of degree, not

of kind, it becomes practically

important to considerthem separately. Some beliefs are accepted when

their grounds have not themselves been considered,

grounds have beenexamined

be-!

4

lief : something is accepted, held to, acquiesced in, or

affirmed Butsuch thoughts may mean a suppositionacceptedwithout reference to its real grounds These

they may not; but their value with

Such thoughts grow up unconsciously and without

picked up we knownot how From obscure sources

and by unnoticed channels

into acceptance and become unconsciously a part ofour mental furniture Tradition, instruction, imitationall of which depend upon authority in some form,

or appeal to our own advantage, or fall in with a

thoughts are prejudices, that not

judgments proper that rest upon a survey of evi

IV Thoughtsthatresultin beliefhaveanimportance Thinking

senseistfcat

belief in particular Butto thinkofthe world as flat is

hence is not, like imaginative thought, plastic to our

mood. Belief in the world's flatness commits him who

objects,suchasthe heavenlybodies,antipodes, the possi

bility of navigation Itprescribes to him actions in ac

cordance with his conception oftheseobjects.

The consequences of abelief uponotherbeliefs and

upon behavior may besoimportant, then, thatmenare

and its logical consequences This means reflective

thought thoughtin its eulogistic andemphatic sense

becausemen hadnotthe energy orthe couragetoques

especiallyasit wassuggestedand seemingly confirmed

by obvious sensible facts. The thought of Columbus

was a reasonedconclusion Itmarked thecloseof study

into facts, of scrutinyand revision ofevidence, of work

1 Thismodeofthinkingin its contrast withthoughtful inquiry receives

defined

There is a

types of

comparingthesetheoretical resultswith oneanotherand

doubtedand inquired,he arrived at his thought Skep

tical of what, from longhabit, seemed mostcertain, and

until hecould produce evidence for both his confidence

and his disbelief. Even if his conclusion had

finally

belieffromthoseit antagonized, becauseit was reached

byadifferentmethod Active, persistent\andcareful

con-siderationof any beliefor supposedform of knowledgein

^ ^g^t fthegroundsthatsttpportit,andthefurther con

clusionsto which it tends, constitutes reflectivethought

this type; but once begun,it isa consciousandvoluntaryefforttoestablish beliefupon a firmbasis ofreasons

There are, however, no sharp lines of demarcationbetween tiie various operations just outlined The

problem of attaining correct habitsof reflection would

be much easierthan it is, did notthe differentmodesof

case of thinking, lying between careful examination of

maniswalkingona warm day. The skywas clearthe

lasttime heobservedit; but presently he notes, while

occupied primarily with other things, that the air is

cooler It occurs to him that it is to

rain ; lookingup, he sees a darkcloud between him and

the sun, andhe then quickens his steps What, ifany

thing, insuchasituationcan becalledthought? Neither

the act ofwalking northe notingofthe coldisa thought

Walking isone direction of activity; lookingandnoting

activity. The likelihoodthatit willrainis, however, something suggested The pedestrian

feels the cold; he thinks of clouds and a coming

shower

face. Thinkinginboth of these cases (the cases of be- observed

which isbrought to mind, suggested by the thing seen

Onereminds us,as we say, of theother Side by side,

however, with thisfactorof agreementin the two cases

do notbelieve inthe facesuggestedby the cloud; we do

Thereis norefiectwethought The danger of rain, on

the contrary, presentsitselfto us as agenuine possibil

meanrain. Inthefirst case, seeing an object, we just relation of

happen, as we say, to think of something else

; in the

nectionbetween the objectseen and the object suggested.

basis ofbelief in the suggested thing; it possesses the

ofevidence

onemay beregardedas warrantfor belief in the other,

is,then, thecentral factor in all reflectiveordistinctivelyintellectual thinking Bycallingupvarioussituationsto

whichsuch termsassignifiesandindicatesapply, thestu

dentwillbest realize forhimselftheactual factsdenoted

by the words reflective thought. Synonyms for these

terms are: points to, tells of, betokens, prognosticates,

represents, standsfor, implies.1 We also say onethingportends another; is ominous of another, or a symptom

through something else which stands as- witness, evi

lief. At one time, rain is actually felt or directly ex

to rain becauseofthe condition ofthe airor the state of

weare not quite sure what wesee, andhuntforaccompanyingfacts that willserve as signs, indications,tokens

of whatis tobebelieved

Thinking, for thepurposes of this inquiry, is defined

gest otherfacts (ortruths) insucha wayasto induce

be-1

Implies ismore often usedwhenaprinciple orgeneraltruth bring?

about belief in someother truth ; the other phrases are morefrequentlyused to denote the cases inwhichone fact or event leads us to believe in

Uef in the latter upon the ground or warrant of the

"

inferential belief may later be confirmed and come to

3. Elements in Reflective Thinking

(a) a state of perplexity, hesitation, doubt; and (8) an

to light further facts which serve to corroborate or to

nullifythe suggested belief.

(a) In ourillustration,the shockofcoolnessgenerated Tie

.

J

uncertainty

Because it wasunexpected, itwasa shockoraninterrup

tion needing to be accounted for, identified, or placed.

artificial; but if we are willing to extend the meaning

ofthevrmdifroblem to whatever nomatterhowslight

and commonplace in character perplexes and chal

() The turning of the head, thelifting of the eyes, and of

the scanning of the heavens, are activities adapted to JJ*!^bring to recognition factsthatwillanswerthe question to teat

presented by the suddencoolness The facts as

first presented themselves were perplexing; they

suggested, however, clouds Theact of lookingwas an act

more, if we are willing to generalize our conceptions

of our mental operations to include the trivial and

is no good reason for refusing to give such a titleto

the act of looking The purport of this act of inquiry

facts are brought to perception, which either corrobo

negateit.

Anotherinstance, commonplacealso, yet notquiteso

trivial, m^Y enforce this lesson A mantravelingin an

011

Having no sure knowledge to fall back upon, he is

brought to a standstill of hesitation and suspense.

eitherblindly and arbitrarilytakehis course, trusting to

luck for the outcome, or hemustdiscover grounds for

farermustcarefully scrutinize what is before him and

he must cudgelhis memory He looks for evidencethatwillsupport belief in favor of either of the roads

thea in that, in either

indications He wants something in the nature of a

discoveryoffacts that will serve thispurpose

The above illustration may be generalized. Think- possible,

road situation, a situation which is ambiguous, which suggestions

long as our activity glides smoothly along from one

tion to entertain fancies at pleasure, there is no callfor

reflection. Difficulty or obstruction in the way of

the suspense of uncertainty, we metaphorically climba

tree; we try to find some standpoint from which we

may survey additional facts and, getting a more com

mandingviewof the situation,maydecide howthe facts

and guiding factor in the entire process of reflection. ? ^"

l

or adifficultytobe surmounted,the courseofsuggestions

described If the stream of suggestions is controlled

simplybytheir emotional congruity, their fitting agree

ably into a single picture or story, we havethe second

type But a question to be answered, anambiguityto

be resolved, sets up an end and holds the current of

is tested by its reference to this regulating end, by its

beautiful will look for other considerations and

willtestsuggestions occurring to him on another principlethan if he wishes to discover the way to a given

city. Theproblemfixes theendof thoughtandtheendcontrols theprocessofthinking

4. Summary

Origin and We may recapitulate by saying that the origin of

tive of the existence in his own experience of some

difficulty that troubles him anddisturbs his equilibrium,

Suggestion! Given a difficulty, the next step is suggestion of

or project, the entertaining of some theory which willaccountforthe peculiarities in question, the considera

tion of some solution for the problem The data athand cannot supplythesolution; they canonly suggest

it What, then, are the sources of the suggestion?

personhashad someacquaintance withsimilarsituations,

if he has dealt with material of the same sort before,

upon whichtodrawin order to clarify it Even when

achild (or agrown-up) has a problem, to urge him to

of thesameconditions, is futile.

Ifthe suggestion that occursis at once accepted, we Exploration

haveuncriticalthinking, the minimumof reflection. To andtcstijl*

for additional evidence, for new data, that will de

out or else make obvious its absurdity and irrelevance

Given a genuine difficulty and a reasonable amount of

analogous experience to draw upon, the difference,par

excellence,between good and bad thinking is found at

thispoint. The easiest way isto accept anysuggestion

that seems plausible and thereby bring to an end the

always more or less troublesome because it involves

overcomingthe inertia that inclines one to accept sug

endure a condition of mental unrest and disturbance

Reflectivethinking,in short,means judgmentsuspended

during further inquiry; and suspense is likely to be

somewhat painful. As weshall see later, the most im

consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended conclu

sion,and in masteringthe variousmethods ofsearching

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

between man andthe brutes, surelyan importantmat

thought is important, for an answer to this question

will throw light upon thekind of training thought re

I. Thought affords the sole method of escape from

and appetites, as these are called forthbyoutward conditionsand bytheinnerstateofthe organism Abeing

The agent does not seeor foresee the end forwhichhe

is acting,northe results producedbyhisbehavinginone

instincts or habits, of which he isnot aware, areflective

agent is drawn (to some extent at least) to action by

some remoterobject ofwhich heisindirectlyaware

Ananimal withoutthought may go intoitsholewhen

rain threatens, because of some immediate stimulus to

will take steps in the light of this anticipated future

are intentional acts, possible only to a being who has

"book of nature," "language ofnature." Well,it isin languagevirtueof the capacity of thought that given things are

significant of absent things, and that nature speaks a

language which maybe interpreted. To a being who

thinks,things are records of their past, as fossils tell

of the prior history of the earth, and are prophetic of

their future, asfrom the present positions of heavenly

"tongues in trees, books in the running brooks," ex

ences when they appeal to a thinking being. Upon

telligentplanning, deliberation, andcalculation

II. Bythought man alsodevelops andarranges arti-

T&epssi-ficial signs toremind him in advance of consequences, ^j^t^f

justmentionedmakesthe differencebetweensavageman

and brute, so this trait makes the difference between

civilized man and savage. A savage who has been

in a river may note certain which

bility of

objects rich

in quality

man deliberately makes such signs; he sets up in advance of wreckage warning buoys, and builds lighthouses where hesees signs that such events may occur

A savage reads weather signs with great expertness;

civilizedmaninstitutes a weather service by whichsigns

are artificially secured and information is distributed inadvance of the appearance of any signs that could be

way skillfullythrough a wilderness by reading certainobscure indications; civilized man builds a

highway which shows the road to all The savage learns to

of producing flame; civilized man invents permanent

are needed The very essence of civilized culture is

that we deliberately erect monuments and memorials,

the happeningof various contingenciesand emergencies

of life, devices for detecting their approach and regis

or at leastfor protecting ourselves from its fullimpactandformaking moresecure andextensivewhatis favor

able Allforms of artificialapparatus are intentionallydesigned modifications of natural things in order that

dicatethe hidden, the absent, and the remote

III Finally, thought confers upon physical events

and objectsa very different status andvalue from that

which they possess to a being that does not reflectThese words are mere scratches, curious variations of

lightandshade, to one to whom they are not linguistic

each hasa definite individuality of its own, accordingto

themeaningthatit isused to convey Exactly thesame

to a being to whom it consciously suggests an oppor

whoonlyfeelsitdirectlythrough his senses It isonly

bycourtesy, indeed, that wecan saythat an unthinking

animalexperiences an object at all so largelyis any

bythe qualitiesitpossesses as asign ofotherthings.

An Englishlogician (Mr Venn)hasremarked thatit Thenature

more than he apprehends the political constitution of

thecountryin which helives. The same principle ap

plies tothe kennelin which hesleeps andthemeatthat

he eats. When he is sleepy, he goes to the kennel;

hungry, heisexcited by the smellandcolorof

meat; beyond this, inwhatsense does he seean object?

Nor does heseewhat he eatsasmeat unlessitsuggests

joint of some animal, and is known toaffordnourish

ment Just what is left of an object stripped of all

such qualities of meaning, we cannot well say; but

day soon regards as constituent partsof objects qualities

These various values ofthepowerof thoughtmaybe

summed up in the following quotation from John Stuart

Mill "To draw inferences," he says, "has been said

hehas not directlyobserved: not from anygeneralpurpose ofadding to his stock of knowledge, but because

thefactsthemselves are of importance to his interests

orto his occupations The business of the magistrate,

of the military commander, of the navigator, of the

their severalcallings. //istheonlyoccupation in which

2. ImportanceofDirection in order to Realise these

Values

What a person has not onlydaily and hourly, butmomentary need of performing, is not atechnical and

negligible Such a function must be congenial tothe

mind, and must be performed, in an unspoiled mind,upon everyfitting occasion Just because, however, it

1

an operation that may go wrong as well as right, and

hence is onethat needs safeguardingandtraining. The

is ill-exercised.

Anearlierwriter than Mill, John Locke (1632-1704), ideasm

possibilities will be realized, in the following words:

some view or other, which serves him for a reasonfor

what he does; andwhatsoever faculties he employs, the

understanding with such light as ithas, well or illin

formed, constantlyleads; and bythatlight,trueor false,

havetheirsacred images,and wesee whatinfluencethey

have alwayshad overa great part of mankind Butin

invisible powers that constantly govern them, and to

should be taken of the understanding, to conduct it

makes/'*

Ifuponthoughthangall deliberateactivities

assertion that it is of the highest concernmentthatcare

shouldbetaken of itsconductisa moderate statement

While thepower of thought freesus from servile sub

jection to instinct, appetite, and routine, it alsobrings

sibilityof failures to which the animal, limited to in

stinct, cannot sink

1 ike Conduct ofiht Understanding)

Upto a certain point, the ordinary conditions of life,

forwhich themost cunningly devised artificeswouldbe

ineffective substitutes Theburnt childdreads thefire

;

onvalid thoughtis sociallyimportant These sanctions

of proper thinking may affect life itself, or at least a

conditions, haveto be correctly apprehended.

But this disciplinary training, efficaciousas it iswithin

certain limits, does not carry us beyond a restrictedboundary Logical attainment in one direction is no

ofanimalsthathehunts,willacceptandgravely narrate

their habitsand structures When there is nodirectly

the acceptance of wrong beliefs. Conclusions maybegenerated bya modicum offactmerely becausethesug

existing customs are averse to entertaining it. Independent of there is a

which tends to make no distinction between what a

in as some sort of fact, merely because it is forcibly

propagation oferror, norlargebutuntrained experience

totheaccumulation of fixed false beliefs. Errors may

supportone another mutually and weave an ever larger

tions of stars, thelines of thehand, maybe regardedas

omen,while natural events of the most crucial signifi

cance go disregarded. Beliefs in portents of various

kinds, now mere nook and cranny superstitions, were

onceuniversal Along discipline in exact sciencewas

encebetweenthe power ofacolumn of mercurytopor- JJ^UjJJJ*

11

tendrain, and that of the entrailsof an animal or the as science

flightof birdstoforetell the fcrtunes of war For all

anybody can tell in advance, the spilling of salt is as

likely to import bad luck as the biteof amosquitoto

importmalaria. Onlysystematic regulationof thecon

ditionsunder which observations are made and severe

discipline of the habits of entertaining suggestions can

superstitioushabits of inference has not been brought

about by any improvement in the acuteness of the

tions under which observation and inference take

General It is instructive to note some of the attempts thatSdthiiLk- havebeen madeto classify the main sources of error in

ing: Bacon's reaching beliefs. Francis Bacon, for example, at the

ldos

foursuch classes, under the somewhat fantastictitleof

themind into false paths. These hecalled the idols,or

phantoms, of the (a) tribe, () the market-place, (c)the

metaphorically,

to error) that havetheir roots in human nature generally; (b)those thatcome fromintercourseandlanguage;

individual; andfinally,(d) those thathavetheirsources

Classify

we may say that twoare intrinsicand two are extrinsic.

Of theintrinsic, one is common to all men alike(such

temperament and habits of the given individual Ofthe extrinsic, one, proceeds from generic social condi

tions like the tendency to suppose that there is afactwhereverthere isa word,and no fact where there

is no linguistic term while the other proceeds fromlocalandtemporary social currents

Locke on the Locke's method of dealing with typical forms of

influence of

wrong beiief j s jess formai ancj ma ybe more enlight

of men, he showsdifferentwaysinwhich thought goeswrong

1. "The first is of thosewho seldom reason at all, O) depend

whether parents, neighbors, ministers, orwhoelse they

in, forthe savingof themselves the pains and troubles

2. "

This kind is of those who put passion in the W self

mterest>

their actions and arguments, neither usetheir own, nor

hearken to other people's reason, any farther than it

suits theirhumor,interest,or party."1

3.

experience

one may call large, sound,roundabout sense, have not

afull viewofallthatrelates tothequestion. . They

converse but with one sort of men, theyread but one

one sort of notions . They have a pretty traffic

with known correspondents in some little creek .

butwill notventure out into the great ocean of knowl

finallyarrive at verydifferent stores of knowledge and

truth, "whenall the odds between them has been the

differentscope thathas been giventotheirunderstand

ings to range in, for the gathering up of information

1 In anotherplacehesays; " Men'sprejudicesand inclinations impose

often upon themselves Inclination suggests and slides into dis

course favorable terms,which introduce favorable ideas; till at last by

thismeans that is concluded clearand evident, thus dressed up, which,

taken in its native state,by makinguse ofnone butprecise determined

ideas,wouldfindnoadmittance at all."

3The

Effect of

dogmatic

principle*,

of closed

In another portion of his writings,1

Lockestates the

principlesis so great, and their authority so paramount

toall other,thatthe testimony, not only of other men,

rejected,

when theyoffer tovouch anything contrary tothesees

than children'sreceiving into their minds propositions

. from their parents, nurses, or those about them;which being insinuated in their unwaryas well as un

last(and this whether true or false) riveted there bylong custom and education, beyond all

possibility ofbeingpulled out again Formen, whenthey aregrown

up, reflecting upon theiropinionsand finding those ofthis sort to be as ancient in their minds as theirverymemories, not having observed their early insinuation,nor by what meansthey gotthem,they are apttorever

toappeal inall mannerof controversies."

2. "

goes on to say,whilenot denyingthe existence of facts

1

Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. IV,ch. XX, "Of

Assent

would decide them if their minds were not so closed

byadherence to fixedbelief.

3.

"

Predominant Passions Thirdly, probabilities of strong

which cross men's appetites and prevailing passions P*8810 **

run thesamefate. Letever so muchprobability hang

on one side of a covetous man's reasoning,and money

on the other, it is easy toforesee whichwill outweigh

Earthly minds, like mud walls, resist the strongest

batteries

4. "

^thoiltyignorance or error more people than all the others of others

borhood or country."

abovethe sourcesofmisbelief that reside inthe natural

to instigate and confirm wrong habits of thinking by

authority, by conscious instruction, and by the even

more insidious half-conscious influences of language,

imitation, sympathy, and suggestion Education has

accordingly not only to safeguardan individual against

with self-interest to objective evidence but also to

undermine and destroy the accumulated and self-per

in general has become more reasonable, more imbued

withrational conviction,andlessmoved bystiffauthority

workin harmony with the educative influence exercisedwilly-nillyby othersocial surroundings upon anindividual's habits of thought and belief. At present, the

fortify themind againstirrationaltendencies currentin

the social environment, and help displace erroneoushabits already produced.

4. Regulation Transforms Inference into Proof

Aleapis Thinking is importantbecause, aswe have seen, it is

*kat functi n i*1 which givenor ascertained facts stand

fororindicate others which arenotdirectly ascertained.

is peculiarly exposed to error; it is liable to be influencedby almost any number of unseen and unconsid-ered causes, past experience, received dogmas, the

stirring of self-interest, the arousing of passion, sheer

mentallaziness, a social environment steepedin biased

traditions or animated by false expectations, and so

on The exercise of thought is, in the literalsenseof

jump, a leap, a going beyond what is surely knowntosomething else accepted on its warrant Unless one

is an idiot, one simply cannot help having all things

nor can one help a tendency to believe in the latter

on the basis of the former The very inevitableness

of the jump, the leap, to something unknown, only

emphasizes the necessity of attention to the conditions

underwhich itoccurs so that thedanger of afalsestep