AAMC MCAT test 7 a

The passage states that the reaction is zero order with respect to bromine indicating that bromine is not involved in the rate determining step.. The passage states that the reaction is

7R Key

EXPLANATIONS for test 7R

1 A nitrogen atom has 3 single electrons and 1 lone pair Hydrogen has one electron The structure in C correctly shows each nitrogen with three bonds and a one lone pair Each atom in this molecule has a full outer shell of electrons and all

electrons are present

2 Equation 1 shows that the Raschig process requires the reaction of 2 moles

of ammonia to form 1 mole of hydrazine The molar mass of ammonia is 17 g/mol (14 + 1 + 1 + 1) Therefore 34 g of ammonia is required to form 1 mole of hydrazine

3 The passage states that the formula for hydrazine hydrate is N2H4·H2O The

formula weight for hydrazine is 32 g/mol (14 x 2 + 4 x 1) The formula weight for hydrazine hydrate is 50 g/mol (32 + 2 x 1 + 16) The percent by weight of

hydrazine in the hydrate would be 32.0/50.0 x 100%

4 The reaction shows the formation of hydrazine from its elements The value of

∆Hf° for a substance is the enthalpy change when one mole of that substance is formed at 1 atm pressure and 25°C from the elements in their stable states at that pressure and temperature Table 1 shows that ∆Hf° for hydrazine is 50.6 kJ/mol, therefore, the enthalpy change for the reaction shown would be 50.6 kJ/mol

5 The basicity constant is a measure of the strength of a base It is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of the base with water The lower the value of Kb, the weaker the base

6 In order for a reaction to be a spontaneous process, the value for ∆Go must be less than 0

7 Because there are 3 reactant moles, all liquids, and 7 product moles, all gases, the entropy increases in this reaction Gas molecules have more freedom and

randomness, and therefore higher entropy

8 Since the ions are thousands of times more massive than the electron, answer B is justified (the hydrogen ion is the lightest ion and is nearly 2000 times more

massive than the electron) An ion with so much mass compared to an electron will not be able to respond quickly because of its inertia

9 The potential energy of an oscillatory motion is ½kx2 where x is the displacement Since the maximum displacement occurs at A and C, answer D is justified

10 The frequency is given by 9n0.5 With n = 1018, n0.5 = 109 Thus, frequency is

9 *109, which is answer C

11 Wavelength is given by speed/frequency = 3 *107/109 or 3*10-2 m This is the same as 3 cm or answer A

12 This is basically a conservation of energy question As the electrons move from A

to B they convert potential energy into kinetic energy (½mv2) and gain velocity

and hence momentum (mv) as they do so This momentum is just enough to allow the electrons to go from B to C; i.e the kinetic energy reconverts to potential energy—just equal to the amount of potential energy at point A

13 This is basically a conservation of energy question As the electrons move from A

to B they convert potential energy into kinetic energy (½mv2) and gain velocity and hence momentum (mv) as they do so This momentum is just enough to allow the electrons to go from B to C; i.e the kinetic energy reconverts to potential energy—just equal to the amount of potential energy at point A As the electrons move from A to B they convert potential energy (½kx2) into kinetic energy

(½mv2), where x is the displacement from point B It is conservation of energy

14 The passage states that silicon cannot be purified by electrolytic techniques These techniques involve isolating silicon from silicate minerals by decomposing the minerals with an electrical current It would follow that the silicon could not be purified by electrolytic techniques if the minerals do not decompose easily

15 Silicon is the fourth element in the third row of the periodic table and has 14 electrons The first 10 electrons would have the same electron configuration as Ne The next 2 electrons would fill the 3s orbitals and the last 2 electrons would begin

to fill the 3p orbitals following Hund’s Rule (electrons will not pair up until each orbital in that sublevel has 1 electron.) The unpaired electrons have parallel spins

16 According to VSEPR theory, 4 electron pairs around an atom will result in a tetrahedral geometry

17 Elements in the same group share chemical properties Because potassium is a Group 1 element, one would assume that sodium, another Group 1 element would

be the best substitute

18 Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular attractive forces The relatively low boiling point of the SiCl3H indicates that the intermolecular forces are not strong and are most likely van der Waals forces

19 Fractional distillation can be used for purification when the components to be separated have different boiling points

20 A1 and A2 represent the nuclear masses of the fragments of fission This is given

by the sum of their proton and neutrons Since the reaction started with 236

nucleons and three neutrons were 3 = 233 mass units or−taken away the sum of the fragments must contain 236 nucleons

21 This reaction is exactly a reproduction of the statement of beta decay as given in the stem We see the new nucleus, a beta particle (an electron) and a neutrino The new nucleus is one atomic number higher because of the emission of the electron leaving an extra proton in the nucleus

22 The relative rate of decay for Ra compared to Pu is the inverse ratio of their lives or 24000/1600 = 15 This is answer B

half-23 The total volume held by 106 kg of ash would be (106 kg/1000 kg/m3) = 1000 m3 This volume is held in a cube 10 m on a side since (10 m)3 = 1000 m3 This is answer B

24 The value for Eocell is equal to the sum of Eo of the half reactions 1.23 + 0.34 = 0.89 V

-25 The ideal gas law makes the assumption that molecules have no volume This assumption is adequate when the gas is at 1 atm, but when the pressure is

increased to 500 atm the volume of the gas molecules is no longer negligible

26 velocity.×Power P is force Since speed v is fixed we must compare the forces F and Ft The force is the coefficient of friction between tiresµmg, where µon the level road F is by notingµand road We can find

Now the force required to be overcome in going uphill Ft is

The power in t his case, Pt, is Ft v The extra× power needed is then Pt minus the original power P or:

Since cos 10 1,≈ o

This is answer D

27 Light slows down because the index of refraction in the glass is greater than in the air The index is a measure of the ratio of the velocity in air to the velocity in the medium For sound the speed becomes greater because the speed of sound in a solid is much greater than in air (the glass has stiff rigid bonds which gives rise to

a speed more than 10 times greater than in air)

28 The passage states that the reaction is zero order with respect to bromine

indicating that bromine is not involved in the rate determining step If the reaction proceeds by the same mechanism with chlorine, then the reaction with chlorine

will have the same rate as it does with bromine because it would be zero order with respect to chlorine

29 The passage states that the reaction is zero order with respect to bromine,

therefore bromine can be removed from Equation 2 A comparison of the results for Experiments 2, 4 and 6 (all with acetone concentrations of 0.80 M) shows that after dividing the rates of the reactions by the rate constants, the values obtained are directly proportional to the H+ concentration indicating the reaction is first order in H+.The passage states that the reaction is zero order with respect to bromine, therefore bromine can be removed from Equation 2 A comparison of the results for Experiments 2, 4 and 6 (all with acetone concentrations of 0.80 M) shows that after dividing the rates of the reactions by the rate constants, the values obtained are directly proportional to the H+ concentration indicating the reaction

is first order in H+

30 The passage states that the reaction is zero order with respect to bromine,

therefore bromine can be removed from the expression If the reaction is first order with respect to acetone and hydronium ion, then a = 1 and c = 1

31 The passage states that the density of acetone is 0.791 g/mL and the molar mass is

58 g/mol The molarity of pure acetone can be calculated as follows:

(0.791 g/mL)(1000 mL/L)(1 mol/58 g) = 13.6 mol/L

32 Light in the visible region of the spectrum ranges from approximately 400 nm to

700 nm The next region of light, below 400 nm is the ultraviolet region

33 This is found as the difference between 894 MHz and 824 MHz since these are given as the upper and lower frequencies This is 70 MHz and is answer C

34 Since power P is current I multiplied by voltage V, V = 12 Volts, and the

maximum power is 3 watts, then the current I must be 3/12 or 0.25 A This is answer C

35 This answer is implied by the passage The conversations must be on different frequencies to be unique and so no two frequencies can be used by different phones at the same time

36 Here we must calculate P/r2 The maximum value occurs for answer D The intensities are:

A (0.6/4) W/mile2 = 0.15 W/mile2

B (0.6/9) W/mile2 = 0.067 W/mile2

C (3/25) W/mile2 = 0.12 W/mile2

D (3/16) W/mile2 = 0.19 W/mile2, making D the key

37 Light is a transverse wave with its electric and magnetic fields oscillating at right angles to the propagation vector where as sound is a longitudinal pressure wave This comes from prior knowledge brought to bear on the problem Answer A correctly states the result

38 The two plates of the capacitor collect charges of opposite sign As more charge arrives it is harder and harder to fill the plates until finally an equilibrium occurs, thus C is correct

39 As the capacitor discharges the voltage across it falls, thus to maintain a constant current, R must be proportionately reduced This is so from Ohm’s law, I = V/R

To keep I fixed, R must fall with V This is answer B

40 Since energy is lost by heating the small resistor, r, the energy stored in the

capacitor must be less than the work done by the battery during the charging process The battery supplies the energy for both processes and answer B is

justified

41 The capacitor charges up and stores energy in the electric field between the places The energy stored is ½CVc2, where Vc is the voltage across the capacitor The battery is the source of energy for the circuit and thus is a store of energy The resistor is not a storage device for energy and answer C is the correct answer

42 With 12 Volts initially across the capacitor during its discharge (the capacitor will charge to the battery voltage of 12V) and a current of 0.002 A as found in

Figure 2, then the initial This is answerΩresistance R must have been

R = V/I = 12/0.002 = 6000 D

43 The rate law for Reaction 3 is second order with respect to hydrogen ion At a pH

of 1 the hydrogen ion concentration is 1x10-1 When the pH is increased to 2, the hydrogen ion concentration is 1x10-2 Because all other conditions remain the same, the rate is decreased: (1 x 10-2)2/(1 x 10-1)2 or 1 x 10-2 times The rate would therefore be (1.0 x 10-2 M/s) x (1 x 10-2) or 1 x 10-4 M/s

44 No kinetic information is given for Reactions 1 and 2, only equilibrium constants

45 Reaction 1 requires that a reaction takes place between two anions which would experience electronic repulsion due to their negative charges Protonation of the oxygen would generate an electrically neutral species and the repulsion forces would be reduced

46 The passage states that the reaction of H218O and SO3 is fast Singly labeled SO4-2

would be prepared most quickly by reacting the unlabeled SO3 and the labeled

H2O

47 In this reaction the oxygen is transferred from the chlorine to the nitrogen The transition state shown in Foil C is the only transition state that indicates the bond between the chlorine and oxygen breaking and a new bond between the oxygen and nitrogen forming

48 The passage states that the Sequences I and III in Reaction 3 are fast and

Sequence II is slow This indicates that Sequence II would have the highest energy barrier, as is shown in the energy diagram in Foil B

49 A substance boils when enough heat has been supplied to overcome the

intermolecular forces The fact that ammonia has a higher boiling point that phosphine indicates that ammonia requires more heat to overcome the

intermolecular forces than does phosphine and therefore the intermolecular forces

in ammonia are stronger than those in phosphine

50 Density is mass/volume The densities of the four objects are:

A.(1.5/0.50) = 3.0 g/cc

B.(3.0/0.75) = 4.0 g/cc

C.(4.5/1.00) = 4.5 g/cc

D.(6.0/1.50) = 4.0 g/cc

Thus, answer C with 4.5 g/cc has the highest density

51 Chlorine needs 1 electron to fill its outer shell

52 The ammonium ion is an acid It is a proton donor

53 This is a Snell Law problem:

where the n’s are the indices of refraction Taking the index of refraction of air to

be nearly 1 then:

This is answer B

54 According to the information in Table 1, the solution would contain 37.7 g

Pb(NO3)2/100 mL H2O The molality (mol solute/kg solvent) can be calculated as follows:

(37.7 g Pb(NO3)2/100 mL H2O) x (1000 mL H2O/1 kg H2O) x (1 mol

Pb(NO3)2/331 g Pb(NO3)2)

= 1.14 mol Pb(NO3)2/kg H2 O = 1.14 m

55 The passage states that the freezing point depression constant for water is Kf = 1.86oC/m A solution that is 10.75 m ethylene chloride would lower the freezing point of water by 1.86oC/m x 10.75 m or 20.0oC The freezing point of water is

-0oC, so the freezing point of the solution would be 0oC - 20.0oC or -20.0oC

56 The freezing point depression depends on the number of particles in the solution

A 0.1 M solution of lead nitrate would have a particle concentration of 0.3 M (1 mole of lead ions and 2 moles of nitrate ions for each mole of lead nitrate) while a 0.1 M solution of ethylene glycol would have a particle concentration of 0.1 M The lead nitrate would therefore have a 3-fold greater effect on the freezing point

of water

57 Ethylene glycol has two alcohol functionalities making it a polar molecule Water

is also a polar molecule Table 1 shows that ethylene glycol is infinitely soluble in water at both temperatures Thus the “like dissolves like” generalization applies while temperature dependence of solubility generalization does not

58 The interstitial fluid is hypertonic, meaning that the concentration is greater in the interstitial fluid than in the cellular fluid There will be an osmotic effect because the cell wall is a semi-permeable membrane Solvent will pass through the cell wall from the cell to the interstitial fluid resulting in an increase in the

concentration of the cellular fluid

59 Table 1 shows that lead nitrate has a solubility of 37.7 g/100 mL H2O at 0oC The solution described in the stem would be saturated with 1.3 g (39.0 g - 37.7 g) of undissolved lead nitrate remaining

60 The mole fraction can be determined as follows:

10 g Pb(NO3)2 x (1 mol Pb(NO3)2/331 g Pb(NO3)2) = 0.03 mol Pb(NO3)2

90 g H2O x (1 mol H2O/18 g H2O) = 5 mol H2O

Mole fraction = 0.03 mol Pb(NO3)2/(0.03 mol Pb(NO3)2 + 5 mol H2O) = 0.006

61 Since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, Case II will have the lower acceleration (or deceleration) It will be in the ratio of the inverse times or

64 This answer follows directly from the passage Without the spring the collision time will be short making the deceleration and the resulting force large The spring absorbs some of the energy and is set into oscillatory motion—this will increase the net time of the collision Thus the answer is A

65 The passage tells us that during each second Car A travels 30 m and Car B travels

20 m To make up 100 m the two cars must travel 10 seconds This is answer D

66 Since momentum is conserved and is given by mass multiplied by velocity we have mv + MV = (m + M) Va, where v and V are the initial velocities of cars A and B and Va is the velocity of both after the inelastic collision So

This is answer C

67 Since we would expect the quake information to propagate in all directions, it does not support the coincidence hypothesis to learn that subsequent quakes occurred in all directions The other three answers all stress the possibility of coincidence

68 Lasting deformations go as (L/d)3 according to the passage Thus for two different values of d, d1 and d2, the ratio of lasting deformations will go as (d2/d1)3 This value will be (4/16)3 = (1/4)3 = 1/64 This is answer C

69 Answer A certainly makes sense qualitatively The relatively small trigger

unleashed a quake that was basically ready to go with a small provocation

Answer B sounds good but the passage argues against elastic oscillations causing lasting deformations Answers C and D make no sense and are wrong Thus A is the best answer

70 The speed of a wave v is given by its wavelength λ divided by its period T:

The order of magnitude is then thousands of meters per second or answer B

71 The Doppler Effect will cause a bunching or squeezing of the waves moving with the rupture and an elongation of the waves opposing the rupture This is answer C

72 The difference in pressure in a fluid on Earth is:

(change in × g ×(density of fluid) height) = (1000)(10)(0.25) = 2500 N/m2

This is answer C

73 The reaction equation shows the reduction of H+ by Cd Because the H+ accepts the electron readily from Cd, it can be determined that H+ has the highest electron affinity

74 According to the relation given in the passage, the energy of an electron in orbit

n = 3 is less negative or greater than the energy in orbit n = 2 Thus energy is required to make the transition from n = 2 to n = 3 and the atom gains energy Answer D states precisely this and only D is consistent with this result

75 To find the relative refractive index to air one needs both the incident and

refracted angles Since the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection we will know the angle of reflection We still must know the angle of refraction and

this is answer B None of the other answers will allow one to know the angle of refraction

76 A faraday is equal to one mole of electric charge Because each aluminum ion gains 3 electrons, 0.1 faraday of charge will reduce 0.1/3 moles of aluminum, or 0.033 moles of aluminum

77 The indicator will change color over a specific pH range The range at which the color change takes place depends on the point at which HIn is converted to In-, and this depends on the pKa of the indicator

78 Changes brought on by human judgment are natural

This thesis is implied or stated by the author throughout the passage, including the view that such adaptation is natural to a peculiarly human evolution: “If we

believe that all life shares a certain quality of sensitivity, or self-awareness, then Homo sapiens was an astonishing and wholly unpredictable leap forward in this respect….” This view is reinforced by the author’s point about the superiority of cultural over genetic adaptation: “When human beings encounter new

circumstances, adaptation rarely depends on which individuals are genetically best suited to adjust… No, human beings tend to cut the loop short by noticing the new, puzzling over it…attempting to find out immediately what is edible, combustible, domesticable….” The author sets this view against the view of

“human presence is a sort of monolithic [natural] disaster” that is making the world’s “‘natural’ continuance impossible.”

79 The author states that the human capacity for reasoned judgment sets it apart from other creatures: “What seems simple to us is far beyond them.” The author

elaborates by focusing on human problem-solving and inventiveness as a means

of adaptation By reasonable implication, the author would say the same for a species with greater capacities than humans

80 While the author acknowledges the concerns about the rates of extinctions, saying these are what “alarms so many life historians,” the author does not share their alarm, instead asserting that change, “one of the most reliable constants,” occurs rapidly because of human agency: “…I don’t think [North America] is a poorer place now than it was twenty thousand years ago.” Compared with other creatures,

“it’s almost as if we move so fast that we are invisible [to other creatures], and they are still trying to pretend that the world is the same as it was before we

arrived.” The speed of human adaptability accounts for humans’ “wholly

unpredictable [evolutionary] leap forward,” according to the author This implies that human adaptability is a natural occurrence

81 The superiority of human cultural adaptation over genetic adaptation is a key feature of the author’s central argument that humans are conscious agents of change on this planet It follows that the author would focus on human

inventiveness as the key to survival on Mars

82 The author emphasizes how life historians support this particular argument:

“What alarms so many life historians is not that extinctions are occurring but that

they appear to be occurring at a greater rate than they have at all but a few times

84 The author is fairly direct on this point; after questioning the belief of many people “that these changes [brought about by human cultural adaptation] are often for the worse,” the author states: “The more convinced we are that our species is a plague, the more we are obliged to yearn for disasters.” The author is convinced that human potential allows for rapid and beneficial adaptation: “Consciousness Mind Insight Here are qualities that, if not exclusively human, seem appallingly rudimentary elsewhere Plainly, our planet contained vast opportunities for

creatures willing to shape it consciously toward their ends.” The author strongly implies that only humans took this opportunity in the form of cultural adaptation

85 After stating that no artist prior to Cézanne had attempted to view the world objectively, and pointing out how several periods in art history had attempted to make art “imitative,” the author points out that “there always intervened between the visual event and the act of realizing the vision an activity which we can only call interpretative.” The author elaborates on this by stating the differences

between sensual perception and art: “This intervention seemed to be made

necessary by the very nature of perception, which does not represent to the senses

of flat two-dimensional picture with precise boundaries but a central focus with a periphery of vaguely apprehended and seemingly distorted objects.” The author discusses the role of imagination and intellect being “like a map” in helping the artist interpret perceived reality by means of, for example, “a system of

perspective,” and then states: “One might conclude from the history of art that reality in this sense is will-o’-the wisp, an actuality we can see but never grasp.” Interpretation, for the artist, becomes part of the act of seeing

86 The author establishes the central thesis in the first paragraph, citing the minded determination of [Cézanne] to see the world objectively.” The author devotes much of the remainder of the passage to discussing how much of art previous to Cézanne represented an interpretation of reality by bringing “extra-visual faculties” such as imagination and intellect into play Cézanne by seeing the world as object attempted to succeed in this “where [his predecessors] had failed.”

single-87 The author states this idea outright: “Great revolutionary leaders are people with a single and a simple idea, and it is the very persistency with which they pursue this idea that endows it with power.”

88 The author says: “[Cézanne’s] immediate predecessors, the Impressionists, had seen their world subjectively—that is to say, as it presented itself to their senses in

various lights, or from various points of view Each occasion made a different and distinct impression on their senses… ”

89 The context of the phrase indicates that it refers to the inability of artists before Cézanne to effectively depict reality: “One might conclude from the history of art that reality in this sense is a will-o’-the wisp, an actuality we can see but never grasp.” Prior to this statement, the author had discussed how reality had eluded artists before Cézanne, including through the use of the “system of perspective:”

“like a map, [perspective] serves to guide the intellect; perspective does not give

us any glimpse of the reality.”

90 The author asserts Greek and Roman art was “possessed of a desire to represent the world ‘as it really is’” without offering specific examples or discussion of exactly how Greek and Roman artists attempted this

91 The key to the author’s point about Cézanne is the influence Cézanne’s

persistence exerted on modern art: “There is no doubt that what we call the

modern movement in art begins with the single-minded determination of a French painter to see the world objectively.” The author, referring to Cézanne, discusses the persistence of great revolutionaries in pursuing an idea Near the end of the passage, the author reinforces this point, saying, “But Cézanne…did not despair

of succeeding where his predecessors had failed.”

92 The author asserts in the beginning of the passage that Cézanne founded the

modern movement with his “single-minded determination…to see the world objectively” and later implies that Cézanne’s contribution to art was revolutionary This discovery would represent a strong challenge to the author’s premise

93 The argument that “extra-visual faculties” enabled artists to interpret their

perception of the world through art is one of the most fully developed in the

passage The author discusses the role of imagination in creating “an ideal space occupied by ideal forms” and the role of intellect in creating “a scientific chart, a perspective in which the object could be given an exact situation.” The author also says that these faculties helped guide the intellect but did not grasp objective reality

94 The author is explicit on this point, drawing a direct analogy between maps and the system of perspective: “But a system of perspective is no more an accurate representation of what the eye sees than a Mercator’s projection is what the world looks like from Sirius Like a map, it serves to guide the intellect….”

95 The poetic qualities of the passage occur in the emphasis on vivid physical

descriptions and imagery that appeal to the senses or the emotions rather than reflect scientific accuracy: “…this sunflower became incredibly beautiful, subtly

turning its face daily, always toward the light, its black center alive with a deep blue light, as if flint had sparked an elemental fire there…;” “…”bees with legs fat with pollen, grasshoppers with clattering wings and desperate hunger…;” “…I never learned the sunflower’s golden language….” The author observes both changes and orderly occurrences, one example being the bamboo that flowers once a century on the same day no matter where they are located

96 One example in the passage where cyclical regularity occurs is with the bamboo that blooms once a century—all plants, no matter their location, bloom on the same day by some special hidden mode of communication The author observes:

“Some current we cannot explain passes through this primitive life Each with a share of communal knowledge, all are somehow one plant.”

97 Prior to describing the sandstorm and the dead horse, the author observes:

“Changes also occurred in the greater world of the plant.” The sandstorm

particularly had an impact, drying out and blowing away the petals before another change came: “Then birds arrived to carry the seeds to the future.” The author in non-judgmental fashion simply observes these changes as necessary, especially birds carrying the seeds away, with the implication being that this is a means by which new flowers are planted

98 Nowhere does the passage suggest humans will satisfy their curiosity about nature The tone of the passage reflects the author’s sense of wonder at the variety and tumult of life in its changing and recurring patterns, especially the more aware a person becomes This is reflected in the following: “Sometimes you can hear the language of the earth… Once, in the redwood forest, I felt something like a

heartbeat, a hardly perceptible current that stirred kinship and longing in me….” The final paragraph, especially, touches on the notion that human wonder and curiosity before the natural world will never cease, but is passed on though the ages: “Without written records, they registered the passage of the gods of night, noting the fine details of the world around them and the immensity above them.” The author shares this sense of wonder with ancestors: “Behind me, my ancestors say, ‘Be still Watch and listen You are the result of the love of thousands.’”

99 The emphasis in the passage is on symbiotic relationships: the sunflower as a host

to various insect species, birds carrying away the seeds of the sunflower The further implication of this is that these symbiotic relationships in nature continue even with human land use Another implication in the passage and in final

paragraph is that humans can know, appreciate, and become a part of the natural world and its symbiotic relationships—human awareness of these relationships may even be the key to their continuation

100 The major emphasis in the passage, especially in the tone and attitude, is the author observing and learning from nature, culminating in the final paragraph with the author participating in the collective knowledge and wisdom of previous generations: “Tonight I watch the sky, thinking of the people who came before me and their knowledge of the placement of stars… Whichever road I follow, I walk

in the land of many gods Behind me my ancestors say, ‘Be still Watch and

listen….’”

101 The sense of unity is communicated by the author’s word choice, in

particular, kinship: “Once, in a redwood forest, trees, I felt something like a heartbeat, a hardly perceptible current that stirred a kinship and longing in me….” Other word choice, such as heartbeat, implies that the author’s kinship is with some of the vital life-producing currents

102 The author supports this by explaining that Schöenberg “disclosed that the ultimate expansion of possible relations to include the whole range of

combinations contained in the semitonal scale demands a revaluation of every aspect of musical language.” The author further explains that the “atonal

composer…can take nothing for granted” and that atonality “merely [stipulates] the absence of a priori functional connections among the twelve notes of the semitonal scale.” Among these “a priori functional connections” would be the

“seven-tone scale, triadic harmonic structure, and…key center” the author refers

to earlier

103 The author first states that the diatonic tonal system presupposes “the existence of specific properties of that system: a seven-tone scale, triadic

harmonic structure, a key center….” The author then goes on to state that

atonality is defined as “merely stipulating the absence of a priori functional

connections among the twelve notes of the atonal scale.” The purpose of this comparison is then to show how atonality largely resists the limitations of

adhering to preconceived concepts of musical organization

104 This conclusion is implied more than once in the passage The author states that a composer “working within the diatonic tonal system may take for granted the existence of specific properties of that system [such as a seven-tone scale].” The word choice of take for granted implies that the composer assumes those limitations whereas the atonal system implies that a composer has far more choices: “The atonal composer…can take nothing for granted except the existence

of a given limiting sound world, the semitonal scale.” The author alludes to a greater range of choice for the composer later in the passage when discussing how the general composition of an atonal work may vary greatly from one work to the next, even in works by the same composer

105 The “absence of a priori functional connections among the twelve notes of the semitonal scale” means that other more readily apparent structures such as triadic harmonic structures will not be available to the listener The idea that atonal music will have a less readily apparent structure is implied by the statement that the composer is still working under certain constraints such as “the existence

of a certain limiting sound world, the semitonal scale.”