If the claims made in the passage are correct, how would contemporary historians of the American Historical Association be expected to respond to a work that provides a nationalistic int
Trang 1MCAT Section Tests
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Trang 2VERBAL REASONING TEST 4
Time – 85 Minutes
60 Questions DIRECTIONS: There are nine passages in this Verbal Reasoning test Each passage is followed by several questions After reading a passage, select the one best answer
to each question If you are not certain of an answer, eliminate the alternatives that you know to be incorrect and then select an answer from the remaining alternatives
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Passage I (Questions 1-7)
The recent centennial of the founding of the American
Historical Association has given historians a properly
historical reason for considering the present state of their
discipline The profession’s self-analysis may be said to
have begun a few years ago with the publication of The
Past Before Us: Contemporary Historical Writing in the
United States, an upbeat and self-congratulatory volume
intended by the sponsoring AHA as a demonstration of
“state of the art” historiography Introducing this volume,
editor Michael Kammen stated that after a changing of the
guard in the 1970s, the professional historical community is
mainly concerned with questions of social history,
intergenerational conflict, and human responses to
structures of power
Having repudiated the basic commitments to
nationalism and the ideal of scholarly detachment that had
always sustained historical writing in the United States,
professional historians found themselves—not surprisingly,
one might add—cut off from their cultural environment
That this situation is remarkably different from the
formative period of historical scholarship can be seen in
centennial numbers of the American Historical Review, the
most recent expression of the profession’s reflective
tendency, which have explored the nature of historical
thinking at the time of the association’s founding a century
ago
What has been all but ignored in these official efforts
at intellectual stocktaking is the enduring body of historical
writing produced by American scholars between the end of
the founding period in the early twentieth century and the
onset of the excitement of the 1970s Perhaps it is the
thoroughness with which scholars have for two decades
described the shift from progressive consensus to New Left
history that accounts for this neglect Whatever its reason,
however, the oversight is fortunately rectified by the
appearance of an “unofficial” volume on American
historiography, Twentieth-Century American Historians
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This volume undertakes the important task of evaluating the impressive and still very usable substance of historical writing in the United States in roughly the first six decades
of the twentieth century
Twentieth-Century American Historians describes an
approach to history that stands in notable and refreshing
contrast to the historiographical model presented in The
Past Before Us It reminds us that until very recently history
faithfully maintained its literary orientation and narrative character It is a bit astonishing to learn that historians like Douglas Southall Freeman were nationally known figures whose books sold in the hundreds of thousands It is instructive to recall that several of the most widely read and influential writers of history, such as Allan Nevins, Claude
G Bowers, and James Truslow Adams, possessed no formal historical training And it is heartening to read of a time when, despite its academic institutional setting, historical writing enjoyed a mutually constructive relationship with an increasingly educated middle-class reading public, and cultural alienation was not asserted as a sign of intellectual sophistication and certification
Although by no means uncritical, the authors of the
essays in Twentieth-Century American Historians have
approached their subject with an attitude of respectful admiration for the accomplishments of their intellectual mentors It is unusual, moreover, to find in contemporary scholarship the open-mindedness to conservative points of view, and immunity to orthodox liberal assumptions, that inform this volume The result is a series of balanced, informative, well-written essays that perceptively evaluate the main body of American historical writing
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Trang 31 If the claims made in the passage are correct, how
would contemporary historians of the American
Historical Association be expected to respond to a
work that provides a nationalistic interpretation of
American history?
A They would probably embrace it because it reflects
the New Left approach to American history
B They would probably embrace it because it appeals
to their sense of national pride
C They would probably denounce it because it
conflicts with their philosophical orientation
D They would probably denounce it because it
violates the principle of scholarly objectivity
2 The author of this passage would most likely find merit
with which of the following books?
A A book about popular resistance to government
policies written from an orthodox liberal
perspective
B A book about the origins of the Civil War written
for an intelligent middle-class audience
C A book about parent-child conflict in the
American family during the First World War
written for professional historians
D A book about the development of American
nationalism written for New Left scholars
following statements in NOT true?
A Contemporary historians have largely overlooked
the scholarly contributions of historians who
published in the early decades of this century
B Contemporary historians are generally less
interested in economic history than social history
C Contemporary historians are generally not
receptive to conservative interpretations of history
D Contemporary historians have usually closely
analyzed the works of earlier historians such as
Allan Nevins, Claude G Bowers, and James
Truslow Adams
4 Suppose that the American Historical Association has decided to sponsor a volume of essays about the American government’s decision to enter World War
II How would this information affect the passage’s claim about the current orientation of that organization?
A It would tend to undermine the passage’s claim
B It would tend to support the passage’s claim
C It would tend to undermine the passage’s claim
only if it could be shown that the essays concentrate mainly on social questions
D It would tend to support the passage’s claim only
if it could be shown that the essays focus primarily
on military matters
5 In the context of the passage, the phrase “intellectual stocktaking” (line 28) refers to:
A attempts to attack the orientation of the American
Historical Association
B assessments of the New Left’s influence on the
writing of American history
C efforts to assess the intellectual development of
American historiography
D changes in the ability of middle-class individuals
to follow historical debates
6 Implicit in the author’s discussion of earlier twentieth-century American historians is the assumption that:
A these historians ignored the concept of scholarly
objectivity
B contemporary historians almost never write from a
liberal perspective
C New Left thinking has enriched the presentation of
American history
D historical scholarship should be accessible to the
intelligent layman
strengthen the author’s claim that many contemporary
historians are “cut off from their cultural environment” (line 19)?
A They are very familiar with the writings of earlier
historians like James Truslow Adams
B The only people who read their books are other
professional historians
C They are criticized by the authors of essays in
Twentieth-Century American Historians
D Their intellectual sophistication has made them
receptive to the conservative perspective
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Passage II (Questions 8-15)
One of the most important tasks of ethical analysis is to
deliver us from our unrecognized prejudices about right and
wrong For ethicist Paul Taylor perhaps no prejudice is so
deeply ingrained as speciesism, the view that members of
the human species deserve treatment superior to that
accorded members of other species
In place of speciesism, Taylor proposes a new theory
of environmental ethics based on “the biocentric outlook.”
This outlook consists of four beliefs: (1) that humans are
equal members of the earth’s community of life; (2) that
humans and members of other species are interdependent;
(3) that “all organisms are teleological centers of life in the
sense that each is a unique individual pursuing its own good
in its own way”; and (4) that “humans are not inherently
superior to other living things.”
Because the biocentric outlook entails “species
impartiality,” Taylor claims that it provides the foundation
and justification for “respect for nature,” the only moral
attitude suitable to have towards earth’s creatures Respect
for nature requires both recognizing that wild plants and
animals have inherent worth, and following the moral norm
that “living things ought not to be harmed or interfered with
in nature ”
In accepting an attitude of respect for nature, Taylor
claims that human behavior toward nonhumans ought to be
guided by four rules: the rule of nonmaleficence, the rule of
noninterference, the rule of fidelity, and the rule of
restitutive justice These four rules prohibit, respectively,
harming any entity in the natural environment; restricting
the freedom of natural entities or ecosystems so that they
cannot exist in a wild state; mistreating any wild animal, as
often occurs during hunting or fishing; and failing to make
amends when one wrongs a wild plant or animal in any
way
One problem is with Taylor’s scheme that both
accords “inherent worth” to all plants, animals, and humans,
and then requires compensation for every intrusion, use, or
control (done even for a good reason) affecting any living
entity If everyone has duties of compensation to virtually
every other living entity, as indeed we must under Taylor’s
scheme, then applying Taylor’s ethics is complex,
cumbersome, and unworkable We would each have
hundreds of conflicting duties of compensation alone
A second difficulty concerns the applicability of
Taylor’s concepts and duties He claims repeatedly that “all
wild living things in the Earth’s natural ecosystems” possess
inherent worth Yet he admits that there are very few wild
things in genuinely natural ecosystems—ecosystems wholly
free from any human intrusion This
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raises at least two problems First, why does Taylor claim
that we have duties only to wild living things in natural
ecosystems? If we have only these duties, and if most living things are not wild and not in natural ecosystems, then Taylor may fail to deal with the bulk of problems arising in environmental ethics Second, if natural ecosystems are those that have experienced no human intrusion or control, then Taylor seems to say that humans are not part of the
“natural” world This contradicts Taylor’s claim that humans are members of earth’s community “in the same sense” as plants and animals
Nevertheless, Taylor deserves praise because he avoids many of the errors of earlier theorists of environmental ethics For example, Taylor explicitly rejects Leopold’s highly questionable belief that inanimate objects can be moral subjects; he also disavows an organicist or Gaia view of environmental ethics, as pursued by Leopold, Goodpaster, Lovelock, and others, and shows why organicism errs in giving no place to the good of individual organisms In carefully correcting these errors, and in breaking new ground, Taylor has given us the most philosophically sophisticated theory of environmental ethics that has yet appeared
8 Based on information in the passage, which one of the following situations would NOT violate one of Taylor’s four rules?
A Going into a rain forest to collect rare plant
specimens for medical purposes
B Getting rid of termites to improve the sales value
of a residential property
C Keeping nearly extinct wild birds in captivity to
ensure their survival as a species
D Picking berries off plants during a hike in a
mountain wilderness
9 Which of the following statements reflects one of the author’s criticisms of Taylor’s theory?
A The theory denies the claim that humans have
moral responsibilities to inanimate objects
B The theory fails to take into account the
superiority of humans to other species
C The theory is overly concerned with the welfare of
individual organisms
D The theory is not comprehensive enough to deal
with many ethical issues
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Trang 510 According to the passage, which of the following is
most likely to be true of people who practice
speciesism?
A They take their family to see the wild tigers and
elephants in the zoo
B Their diet consists mainly of fruits and vegetables
rather than meat and fish
C They plant a new tree for every one that they cut
down for their own use
D They almost always live in rural areas where
farming is necessary for survival
11 Suppose that one is climbing up a mountain and is
suddenly attacked by a mountain lion One could save
oneself from the attack, but only by seriously injuring
or killing the mountain lion According to Taylor’s
ethical scheme, what should one do?
A One should kill the mountain lion in order to save
oneself
B One should not kill the mountain lion and thereby
sacrifice oneself
C One should attempt to seriously injure but not kill
the mountain lion in order to save oneself
D Taylor’s scheme does not give a clear answer
about what to do in this case
12 In the context of the passage, the phrase species
impartiality (lines 16-17) refers primarily to Taylor’s
belief that:
A humans cannot use plants and animals under any
circumstances
B inanimate objects have the same rights as living
organisms
C all of the planet’s species have an equal right to
live and prosper
D humans are not part of any natural ecosystem
13 Taylor would probably give his greatest support to
which of the following actions?
A Restricting the use of domesticated laboratory
animals in medical experiments
B Preventing commercial farmers from harvesting
crops that they planted
C Outlawing the practice of strip mining in
wilderness areas
D Stopping pet owners from putting their sick cats
and dogs to sleep
14 Suppose that a family prevented its cat from leaving
the house because the cat would be unable to defend itself against neighborhood dogs Would the family be violating one of Taylor’s four rules?
A No, because the cat is not a wild animal living in
a natural environment
B No, because the family is trying to protect the cat
from harm
C Yes, because the family is preventing the cat from
living in its natural environment
D Yes, because the cat has an inherent right to exist
as a wild animal
15 According to the author, all of the following are
problems with Taylor’s theory EXCEPT:
A Living ethically would be virtually impossible
due to the inevitable danger humans impose on plants and animals
B Environmental ethics would not apply to the vast
majority of living things
C The Gaia view overlooks the importance of
organisms as individuals
D Humans cannot be members of the natural world
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Passage III (Questions 16-21)
Every four years voters across the United States elect a
president Various factors influence voter preference, but
perhaps none is so persuasive as a candidate’s performance
on nationally televised debates just prior to the election
Newspapers and television news programs generally attempt
to provide thorough coverage of the debates, further
augmenting the effect of good or bad candidate
performances In this way, the news media fulfill the
traditional role of educating the public and enabling voters
to make better informed decisions about elected officials
However, the same technology which brings live debates
into millions of living rooms across the nation also limits
the availability of debate coverage by use of “pool”
coverage
Pool coverage is the sharing of news coverage with
other news organizations The alternative is unilateral
coverage, in which each news organization covers the event
independently Most events subject to pool coverage are so
planned by the sponsors because of space limitations or
safety concerns for prominent people attending or
participating in the events Since the television media
require more people and equipment than their print
counterparts, television usually is affected more frequently
by pool arrangements
Pool coverage of a presidential debate means that
only one television news organization, the pool
representative, has access to the event Individual
broadcasters are unable to cover the event in their own way
and, consequently, to convey a unique account to their
viewers; they must purchase and use coverage provided by
the pool representative or have no coverage at all In this
way, the pool system limits the newsgathering ability of
television news organizations Thus the networks
participate reluctantly
Pool coverage denies viewers an opportunity to gain
maximum insight from the debate Indeed, the first
amendment freedoms afforded the press exist largely to
ensure that the public benefits from the free flow of
information The Supreme Court has noted that “it is the
right of viewers and listeners, not the right of the
broadcasters, which is paramount It is the right of the
public to receive suitable access to social, political, esthetic,
moral, and other ideas and experiences which is crucial
here.”
The pool system, when employed to cover debates
between presidential nominees of the major political
parties, violates the first amendment The Constitution’s
mandate for a free press allows restrictions on press
coverage only when there is a compelling governmental
interest at stake Presidential debates involve no interest
sufficient to justify the admission of one news organization
to the exclusion of all others
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To overcome the problem of restricted access, television news media could be divided into four categories: (1) domestic networks, (2) foreign news services, (3) domestic news services, and (4) independent broadcasters This would ensure an opportunity for broadcasters with different orientations to obtain access Depending on the space available, one, two, or maybe even three broadcasters from each of the four groups would be granted access by lottery Some broadcasters would be denied access, but the critical point is that all would have an equal opportunity to gain entry And, in the end, the viewers will benefit, for they will have seen different debate coverage and, ultimately, will be better informed This is the ultimate goal of press freedom—which must not be sacrificed for the sake of convenience
16 For which of the following claims does the passage
provide some supporting evidence or explanation?
A News organizations tend not to cooperate with
each other unless they are forced to do so
B Most presidential candidates fare poorly in
televised debates because they are not good public speakers
C Current news coverage of presidential debates
limits the information available to the public
D Foreign news organizations have generally been
uninterested in American presidential debates
17 The author of this passage would probably give her
greatest support to which of the following actions?
A A decision to allow more news services to cover
presidential debates
B A decision to allow fewer news services to cover
presidential debates
C A decision to ban presidential debates until more
news services are allowed to cover them
D A decision to ban presidential debates until fewer
news services are allowed to cover them
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Trang 718 If the claims made in the passage are correct, how
would presidential candidates be expected to react to
the pool system?
A They would support the pool system but ask for
modifications to it
B They would strongly endorse the pool system as it
now stands
C They would strongly reject the pool system as it
now stands
D They wouldn’t necessarily endorse or reject the
pool system
19 In the context of the passage, the phrase maximum
insight (line 36) refers to:
A the thoroughness with which presidential
candidates present their opinions during debates
B the relative quality of debate coverage provided
by domestic and foreign news organizations
C the level of political awareness viewers could
have if the pool system was modified to permit
more varied debate coverage
D the extent to which voters take into account what
they have heard during debates when choosing
candidates in elections
20 According to the passage, which of the following
would be the most likely outcome of a Supreme Court
decision that abolished the pool system in favor of
greater media access to presidential debates?
A Independent broadcasters would have fewer
opportunities to cover presidential debates
B Voters would be better informed about the
policies advocated by presidential candidates
C Television news would replace newspapers as the
primary source of information for voters
D Presidential candidates would be less enthusiastic
about debating their electoral opponents
21 Based on information in the passage, which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A Domestic news services are allowed greater
access to presidential debates than foreign news services
B Concern for the safety of presidential candidates
is one reason why media access to presidential debates has been limited
C An important influence on voter behavior in
presidential elections is candidate performance in presidential debates
D The contemporary pool system provides adequate
news coverage of presidential debates
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Passage IV (Questions 22-28)
Tribal immunity is the doctrine of sovereign immunity
applied on behalf of Native American tribes Courts have
held that these tribes cannot be sued without the consent of
Congress Under the Indian Commerce Clause, Congress
has “plenary” authority over the tribes The doctrine of
tribal immunity, however, is a judicially created doctrine
that the federal courts have independently fashioned
The doctrine of tribal immunity first emerged in the
case of the United States v United States Fidelity and
Guaranty Co., where the Supreme Court held “Indian
nations exempt from suit without congressional
authorization.” The Supreme Court suggested two grounds
for the doctrine First, Native American tribes enjoy
immunity as a result of being recognized as sovereigns
Within the last decade, the court has reaffirmed this
position, holding that these tribes retain all sovereign
powers except those “expressly terminated by Congress”
and those “inconsistent with their status.” These powers
“are not, in general, delegated powers granted by express
acts of Congress”, but rather “inherent powers of a limited
sovereignty which has never been extinguished.” If
sovereigns have immunity from suit, and these tribes retain
the powers of a sovereign, then they must be immune from
suit
A second basis for tribal immunity recognized in the
case of the United States v United States Fidelity and
Guaranty Co stems from the desire to protect tribal
resources While the Supreme Court did not explicitly
pronounce the protection of tribal resources as a ground for
its decision, it cited cases in support of its ruling that were
primarily concerned with such protection
Unlike the immunities enjoyed by states, the federal
government and foreign countries, no limitations have been
placed on the scope of tribal immunity Courts continue to
apply the doctrine uncritically in a wide variety of cases,
sometimes acknowledging that, had the defendant “been a
state or municipal government, the federal government or
a foreign nation, it would have been amenable to suit in
either state or federal courts.” For instance, courts
consistently hold that a Native American tribe’s immunity
can be waived only by its express consent or the consent of
Congress In contrast to other governments, implied waivers
are generally not recognized Commercial activity by a tribe
on or off its reservation has been held insufficient to waive
immunity Similarly, the purchase of insurance by a tribe
does not serve to waive immunity Tribal immunity is,
therefore, broader in this respect than is the immunity
possessed by states, the federal government, and foreign
countries
The proprietary acts of Native American tribes have
not been distinguished from the governmental functions of
tribes, although this distinction has been made in cases
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concerning other sovereigns In fact, some courts have specifically upheld that “the fact that a tribe was engaged in
an enterprise private or commercial in character, rather than governmental, is not material.” Thus courts continue to find
a broader immunity for Native American tribes than is still recognized for any other sovereign
In light of this anomaly, at least one Supreme Court Justice has noted the necessity of a more principled analysis
of the doctrine of tribal immunity, expressing
“doubts about the continuing vitality in this day of the doctrine of tribal immunity as it was enunciated in the case
of the United States v United States Fidelity and
Guaranty Co.” and “the view that that doctrine may well
merit re-examination in an appropriate case.”
22 Which of the following legal decisions would most
weaken the author’s claim about the immunity granted
to Native American tribes?
A A decision to permit a Native American tribe to
sue a foreign corporation
B A decision to prevent a Native American tribe
from suing the federal government
C A decision to permit a business corporation to sue
a Native American tribe
D A decision to prevent the federal government
from suing a Native American tribe
23 Based on information in the passage, which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A It is more difficult to sue a Native American tribe
than a business corporation
B It is more difficult to sue the federal government
than a Native American tribe
C It is less difficult to sue a foreign government
than a Native American tribe
D It is less difficult to sue a state government than a
Native American tribe
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Trang 924 Based on information in the passage, each of the
following statements is a plausible explanation of why
the judicial system has not changed the rules
governing tribal immunity EXCEPT:
A Native American tribes are sovereign entities that
cannot be sued without their consent
B The resources possessed by Native American
tribes should remain under tribal control
C Native American tribes have generally been
unable to purchase insurance
D The sovereign powers of Native American tribes
differ from those of other governments
25 The author of this passage would probably give his
greatest support to which of the following actions by
the judicial system?
A Efforts to circumscribe Native American
immunity to lawsuits
B Efforts to limit the Supreme Court’s legal
authority over Native Americans
C Efforts to stop non-Native Americans from taking
Native American resources
D Efforts to reduce congressional authority over
Native American tribes
26 In the context of the passage, the phrase proprietary
acts (line 50) refers to:
A actions of a non-governmental nature
B actions initiated by the Supreme Court
C actions initiated by Congress
D actions of Native American individuals
27 For which of the following claims does the passage
provide some supporting evidence or explanation?
A The Indian Commerce Clause has been rendered
obsolete by more recent legislation concerning
Native American rights
B Corporations have pressed Congress to
re-examine the question of Native American tribal
immunity
C Native American tribes are prepared to waive
their right of tribal immunity under certain
circumstances
D The legitimacy of the current interpretation of
tribal immunity has been questioned within the
judicial system
28 Suppose that the judicial system allowed a state
government to sue a Native American tribe for breach
of contract involving an agreement to allow the state
to develop land belonging to the tribe How would this information affect the claim about tribal immunity made in the passage?
A It would support the claim
B It would contradict the claim
C It would neither support nor contradict the claim
D It would support the claim only if the President
objected to the lawsuit
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Passage V (Questions 29-34)
The palette of sights and sounds that reach the
conscious mind are not neutral perceptions that people then
evaluate: they come with a value already tacked onto them
by the brain’s processing mechanisms This is the
conclusion of psychologists who have developed a test for
measuring the likes and dislikes created in the moment of
perceiving a word, sound or picture The tests show that
these evaluations are immediate and unconscious, and are
applied even to things people have never encountered
before, like nonsense words: “juvalamu” is intensely
pleasing and “bargulum” moderately so, but “chakaka” is
loathed by English-speakers The findings, if confirmed,
have possibly unsettling implications for people’s ability to
think and behave objectively
This is all part of preconscious processing, the mind’s
perception and organization of information that goes on
before it reaches awareness—these judgments are lightning
fast in the first moment of contact between the world and
the mind In responding to a stimulus, a signal most likely
travels first to the verbal cortex, then to the amygdala,
where the affect is added, and then back to the cortex The
circuitry involved can do all this in a matter of a hundred
milliseconds or so, long before there is conscious
awareness of the word These instantaneous evaluations
create an initial predisposition that gets things off on a
positive or negative footing These reactions have the
power to largely determine the course of a social interaction
by defining the psychological reality of the situation from
the start
Some scientists disagree with the claim that virtually
every perception carries with it an automatic judgment,
though they, too, find that such evaluations are made in
many circumstances These scientists believe that people
don’t have automatic attitudes for everything, but rather, for
areas of interest For example, a sports fan would have
plenty of automatic opinions about teams and players, but
none about recipes
Conclusions from both camps are based on a method
that allows them to detect subtle evaluations made within
the first 250 milliseconds—a quarter of a second—of
perception of words The measurement of liking can be
made outside the person’s awareness because if the first
word is presented in less than a quarter of a second the
reaction to it never registers in consciousness, though it can
still be read This method has been used with stimuli
besides words, particularly faces and everyday objects
The “quick-and-dirty” judgment tends to be more
predictive of how people actually behave than is their
conscious reflection on the topic This may represent a
new, more subtle tool for research on people’s attitudes,
allowing scientists to assess what people feel without their
having any idea of what exactly is being tested For
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example, you could use it to detect socially sensitive attitudes people are reluctant to admit, like ethnic biases Because these automatic judgments occur outside a person’s awareness, as part of an initial perception, they are trusted in the same way senses are trusted, not realizing that seemingly neutral first perceptions are already biased
29 According to the passage, “preconscious processing”
(line 15) would most influence which of the following?
A Subconscious memories concerning traumatic
childhood events
B Perception of a stranger on first sighting
C Formulation of arguments after intense research
D Thought processes involved in creating an
intricate novel
30 Which of the following, if true, would most weaken
the author’s argument?
A Many of our actions are influenced by perceptions
unknown to our consciousness
B In Swahili, “juvalamu” and “chakaka” mean
enjoyable and severe pain, respectively
C Peoples’ actions are most regulated by conscious
thought patterns rather than unknown feelings
D Humans perceive their surroundings subjectively
31 According to the author, information retrieved from
these types of perception experiments could best be used by psychologists to:
A help patients with language barriers
B map out the pathological thought patterns in a
murderer’s mind
C identify attitudes that cause a Hispanic and an
Anglo to repeatedly clash on various issues
D determine why one sibling has math skills while
the other excels in literature classes
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