OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 9 potx

As well as wou ld, we can lise other modaJ verbs such as coul d or miglll in the main clause.. C We lise the term 'noun clause' because these clauses generally function ill the same way

If YOli haven't got television, you can't watch it

Ifyou go 10 one of the agencies, rhey halJe a lOl of temporary jobs

If someone else has requested the book, YOIl would have to give it back l[ you lived on the planet Mercury, yO/1 would have four birthdays in (1 single Earrh year

In general we usc verb forms in conditional scnlCnccs in the same way as in other kinds of sentences

If you've finished work Jor today, YOll can go home

Compare: You've finished work for today, so you l:an go home

In an open condition (when something mayor may not happen), we usc the present tens~: tfyou go to one of tile agencies When we talk about something

unreal, we often use the past tense: if you lived on the planet MerCIny After

an unreal condition, we use would in the main clause: you wou ld ha/Jc .four birthdays

B There are some verb forms which often go together These patterns arc usually called Types 1 2, and 3

Type I: If the company Jails, we will lose our money > 245

Type 2: lf the company Jailed, we would lose our money > 246

Type 3: lfthe company hadfailed, lVe would have lost our money > 247 There is another pattern which we can call Type O

Type 0: If the company fails, we lose our money > 244

C The if-clause usually comes berore the main clause, but it can come after it

If you're in a hurry, you needn't wait for me

You needn't wait for me if yo u Ire in a hurry

A comma between the clauses is more likely when Ihe if-clause comes first and less likely when it comes at the end

343

Condilional sentences

o We can lise conditional sentences in a numher of differenl ways: not only to

give information hut also, for example, when wc request, advise, criticiz , ilnd so on

If your headache persists, you .<;Iwu/r/ see a doctor

If you'd remembered your passpurt, w e uJ(Jlddrz '{ be in sllch

a rush

We can go for a walk if yon like

If you'd like a sandwich, jus / help yourself

If you don't save the in[ormaliofJ to (Jisk, you risk losing il

If you don'[ leave immediat ely, I'll call [he rolice

A The pattern is if + present + presenr

If the doorbell rings, [he dog bark.,

If you add twelve and fifteen, what do you get?

Th e balleries take over if the mains supply!aiL<;

This pallcrn means that one Ihing always follows aUlOmaticaJly from another

We can use when inslead of ifwhen the meaning is 'each lime'

IpM l hell / reverse the car, it makes a funny noise

( = Each time I reverse the car, )

For more about ifand when , > l49A

B We can also use Type 0 for the automatic resuh of a possible future action

If the leam win tomorrow, They gel promotion 10 a higher league

We could also use a Type 1 conditional with they will get

245 Type 1 conditionals

A This is a very common type The basic pattern is If + present + will

I f it rains, the reception wm take place indoors

If we don 't hurry, we won 't get there in cim e

If we wallt 1 0 ask questions, will we be allowed I.O?

The milk will go off if )' 011 leave it by til e radiator

The if-clause expresses an open condition In the first example if it rains

leaves op n [he question of whether it will rain or no! The present simple

(rains) expresses future lime For more examples of rhe present lIsed in this way, e.g Let's wait until everyone arrives, > 59

If this medicine does m e/will do me good, I'll take it

For will in the if-clause cxprcsslIlg willingness, > 245D

NOTE

We can u se ~hall inslCad of will aflCr /I we > 54/\

If we dOll ' I hurry we willlshtlil miss elU! Iram

B As well as the present simplc, we C~1I1 use the prescnt conlinuous or perfect

If we 're ',ailing a party, we'll have to invite the neighbours

If I've finished my work hy ten, I'll probably walch {l film on 'Iv

As well as will, we can usc other modal verbs and similar expressions in til(' main clause

If someone sees me, how can / explain what I'm doing?

If you challge the lime o],your flight, you may be charged a fee

I'm going to look silly If I can't answer any of the questions

We can also lise the imperative in the main clause

If you've got a problem, ring ()ur Ilel pline

If you make a mistake, don't panic

C A prescnr tense in (he if·clause can refer to the present

If you think modelling is glamorous, think again

If iI'S raining already , I'm definitely not gOi'lg ma

D We can use will in the if~dause for willingness and won ' t ['or a refusal

If all of you will lend a hand, we'll soon get Ille job done

If lhe car won't start, I'll have to ring the garage

For more about this meaning of will and won'l, > 54 O

We can use will in the if-clause for a request

If you'll take a seal, someone will be with you in a moment

If you'll JUSl sign here, please Thank you

E Instead of a Type 1 conditional wi{h If you + simple present, we can usc this pattern with and and Qr in informal speech

Touch me and I'll scream

(= If you touch me, I'll scream.)

Go away or I'll scream

(= If you don't go away, J'll scream.)

345

Conditional sentcnccs

246 Type 2 conditionals

A The basic pattern is if + past + wou ld

If I flad lOIS of mOTley , I would travel round th e wo rld

I'd tell you th e allswer if I knew what it was

If we did,, ' t think the plane was s afe, we wouldn 't fly it

Here the past tense expresses an unreal condition In the first example,

If I had lots of money means that really 1 haven't got lots of money; I am

only imagining a situation where I have For more examples of the past used

in this way, > 230

We do not normally use wo uld in the if-clause

(NOT 1 ! I tIJ(mItH'twtHttl., ttf "'_y;- )

N Ul r

a We Clm usc S IIOI~ld instead of wuulrl afler IIwc

If Ili a d luiS of mOTley, I UlQIl/tl/ (IIOu l d tra w l rout/d the world

Would I S lIIo r e usual S hould i s rathe r lit erary here

b In inr n rmul American speech woltlfl l s ~omelimcs used to exprcss an unreal condillon

If tho se pt.'Op/e WlJuld get u nu c kar bomb , It UJou ld be a great threat to u s

Hut thi s IS nUl acceptab l e in wrning, so you shou l d avoid it

e We so metimes use were IIlstead of was in an if - clause > 23 1 C

l[ I was/were a IJlllionaire, would " 'auel round the wor ld

8 We also use the Type 2 pattern for a theoretical possibility in the future

I f we ca u ght t h e ea rly trai" lOmorrow, we'd he in York by lunch lime

I f you lost the video , you would Il ave 10 pay for a flew one ~

Here the past tense refers to a possible future action such as catching the

early train tomorrow

Compare Types 1 and 2

T)'pe I: I f we stay in a hOlel, it will he expen s il J e

Type 2 I f we s ta ye d in a hOlel, it would b e expells;'Je

Type I expresses the action as an open possibility - we Illay or may not stay

in a hotel Type 2 expresses the action as a theoretical possibiliry only, something more distant from reality

Sometimes it can be more polite to li se Type 2 rather than Type I, for example when making a request

Would it be all ri g ht if I brought a fri e nd ? - Ye s, of c Ollrs e

I-It:re Type I would be more direct and less tenta ve

C You might occasiona y see a mixture of Types I and 2

I f b'flgland win against Germany tonight , il would be a miracle

However, this is unusual Normal,ly we do not mix Types I and 2

(NOT 1[J't;e gal OOt.1 &/JII(hlt!') , fbQu l d-trttbd If : H"td-tfttHtI(tf'/d.) )

•

TIP

Do not mix Types 1 and 2

Say If you break it , you will hav e to pay for it

OR If you broke it , you would have to pay for it

NOT if}fJ/4 hi eak it , }6/:t tt!6t1 {ti ha bt! td pa, lar it

a nd N OT -If -yttlr brttlre i t:;-yQ u-wifl-have-tfj-parior-it

NUfE

24 7 Type 3 cond it ionals

a We ca n use a mi x iur c ofl h e pa s l I c n se and will when we com b in e a p ast cot ld ition wIth

a fmure res u lt

If th ey llOsreu fil e pa rcel ),es terday, it won't get here hefore Friday

b A Type 2 p a tt e rn can h e Ih e past of a T ype I , for example in reponed speech

T y e I : lx m 'lgo If yo II accept the inIJitQlion, you will regret it

Typ e 2 J w i d you fila.t I f YO " a cce pted tile invitation, you would regret it,

D As well as the past simple, we can use the past continllolls or co uld in the

jf-clause

lj the sun was shining , everyt h ing would b e perfect

Ij I could have my child looked after, I would go out to work

As well as wou ld, we can lise other modaJ verbs such as coul d or miglll in the main clause

If I had a light, I c ould see what I'm doing

If we could re-starl the computer, lhaI mighl solve the problem

We can also use continuous forms

If S hake s pear e was alive lOday , he would b e writing Jor wlev isi on

E We can use would in the if-clause for a request

If you wouldn't mind holding th e line, J 'lll ry to put yo u t hrou gh

If you 'd j ust sign h ere p{ea.~e Thank you

We can also use wo uld l ik e

Ifyou 'd lik e to see the ex hibilion , it wou ld be n i ce 1 0 go together

A The basic pattern is If + past perfect + WOf.dd + perfect

Ifyou ha.d taken a taxi, you would have got here in lim e

I would have bought that guitar yeste rd ay if I'd had e nough money

My brother would have been promoted if h e' d stayed in h i s job

W e 'd huzle gone to the talk if we ' d known abo Lll il

(= We would have gone jf we had known.)

-Here the verb forms refer to something unreal, to an imaginary past action

In the first example, if you had taken a taxi means that really you didn't take

a taxi; I am only imagining a situation where you did For more examples of

the past perfect used in this way, > 230C

347

Conditional sentences

We cannot use the past simple or rhe past perfect in the main clause (NO r if j'Qtl - hatl-tttkefHt- ltt:X +.-yott-hud-gtJt-ftere-itt-time )

Anti we do not normally use would in the I-clause

(NO T /f-yotJ - wotJllHtfJtJe-fOlretHl' IttXr.-yolrltfOtllti - hove , ~ol - h ert ""';n - time ) NOTe

You lIla~ ' ocras i ona ll y hear a for m suc h as UJOllfd IUllle lakell (OM had Im llt' laA:clI) in an I · clause in informal s p eech Rut lllil ny peuple regard i t a s ;n cOi reet and It is nOI acceptable in writ in!:: so you should uvoid i t

B We can use could + perfect in the if-clause

If I could Itave warned you in lime, I would have done

As weli as would we call usc other modal verbs such as cou ld or might in the

main clause

If I'd wrillell lite address dowll I could hav e sa ved myself some trouble

Th e plan might not have worked if w e hadn ' t had a piece of luck

We can aJso lise continuous forms

If h e hadn ' l been ev icted by his landlord , h e wouldn ' t have been sleeping

on Ih e s treets

C We can mix Types 2 and 3

If Tom was ambitious, he lVould have found him se lf a beller job years ago

/ fyou hadn't woken me up in the ni gh l , J wouldn't/eel so lir e d now

We can also use a Type 1 condilion with a Type 3 main clause

If you knolll London s o well y OIl sho uld,,'t hav e got so hopelessly lost

The following types of clause are rather formal

A We can usc shou ld in an if-clause to talk i.lbollt something that might possIbly

happen

If yo u should fall ill, the company will pay yo ur ho s pital ex pens es

If I s hould be c ho sen as your represent.alilJ(! , I wou ld d o my best for yO Il

More neutral would be If you fall ill , and If I was c ho sen

We can also usc /tapp e n lo

If yo u (s hould ) iullJpen to fall ill , 'he cnmpany will pay YOllr

ho s pital expe n ses

B Sometime." we use were instead of was > 231 C

If the pi c wre was/ were genuine, i t uJ{Jlild be worlh a m.iIlion pound s

We can also li SC were to for a theoretical pos~ ihilit y

If rile (./(!C :is ion were to go again st u s, w e UJOuld appeal

249 More details about if

C In a condition with should or were, we can invert the subject and verb and

leave out if

Should you fall ill, the company will pay your hospital expenses

Should we nul succeed, the consequences would he dis astrous

Were thl! picture genuine, it would be worth a million pounds

Were the decision to go against us, we would appeal

We cannot do this with wa s

Tf the picwre was genuine, it Ulould he worth a million pounds

(Ncr! Was - tlte-piettffe-genttine, it /:t;ottlti he; t:.,(), th - a-tllilli8Jl )l(}Itf'ttij )

We can also use inversion with the past perfect (Type 3, > 247)

Had you wken a t(lxi, you would halJe guc here un lime

Had I not carrie d (Jut the order, I would have iJeen sacked

But an jf-c1ause (//you had taken a taXi ) is mor e c ommon , especially in informal English

D Look at these examples with II nol for

You sailed my life If it hadn ' t been for YOll, I'd luwe droumed

(= Without you, I'd have drowned.)

I'd give up teaching if it wasn't!werell 'I for the holidays

We can also usc bue for > 251B

But for you, I'd have droume.d

A When and if

When we talk about the future, we usc when for something that will happen

and if for something that might happen

When the doctor comes, C WI you lei her in? (The doctor will come.)

If the doctor comes, can you leI her in? (The doctor might come.)

We use if (not when) for an unreal condition

If I had a credi l card, I would spend euen more money

(I don't have a credit card.)

In some contexts either when or if is possible > 244A

I always feel guilty when/if I use my credit card

B Then

After an if-clause we can lise then in the main clause

I f the figures don't add up, then yuu must halJe made a mistake

If no one else has reqllesr.ed (he book, then you can keep it jar al/Olller

three weeks

349

Conditional sentences

Here th e n is not an adverb of time It emphasizes the link between the condition (e.g no one eL<;e h as requested the book) and the result of the

condition being met (e.g yo u can keep it) We cannot use so in this way

(NOT Ifthe-Jigttres- don 't fldti - up; s e-yott-tftt1.Sr~mt1de-tc-m i s -tak e.)

We can somClimes use a short clause with if leaving out the subject and the verb

I'd like a room with a view of the sea if (that is) possibl e

If (you are) in difficulty , ring thi s number

We can do this when the meaning is still clear without the missing words

For if so and if not, :;; 28D

We can usc what if to ask someone to imagine a situation

What if the ti cke t s don ' t arriv e in t me?

Mlat if yo u'd h ad an accident?

We can also use it to make a suggestion

What if we all meet i n London at the weekend?

Suppose and supposi n g are used in the same way as what if > 230

Supposing the tickets don't arrive in time?

E Even if

We llse even if to express both a condition and a contrast

I'm going to finish lhis report even if it takes all night

(This report mayor may not take all night, but I'm going to finish it.)

We cannot use even on its own as a conjunc on

NOT Fm-goiflg fa jillish-lfti5 rfp(Jf-t-even it-ltik-e-aU-nighe

Compare even if and even though

Even if the rumou r is untrue , people will scill believe it

(The rumour may or may not be untrue.)

Even though the rum our is untrue, people will still believe il

(The rumour is untrue.)

25 0 U nles s

250 Unless

A Unless with a positive verb is equivalent to if with a negative verb

The cluh will go bankru pt unless it finds a new backer s oo n

(::: if it doesn't find a new backer soon.)

Unless I get up wh e n I w ak e , I feeL tired all day

(::: If I don't get up when I wake, )

We ' re going to have a pi c ni c - unless it rains, of course

(= if it doesn't rain, of course.)

In these examples, the main clause is negative

You can't g e t y uur money ba c k unless you've got a receipt

(::: You can get your money back only if you've got a receipt.)

Won 't YOIl join us? - No t unless you apologize first

(= I'll join you only if you apologize first.)

B We do not normally lise unl ess meaning if not to express an lInreal

condition

If you didn ' t talk so much, you'd g e t more work dune

lIthe horse hadn't/allell, it would have won the race

(NOT i+ttie.'1 5 l lte-iICtfSe - h ttd-[allertoff- !lJ(JUitJ- hatJe - Wtffl;;he fftCe )

We do not use unless to talk about a feeling which would result from

Laura will be upset if yo u don't come to h er party

I'll b e very surprised if you don ' I get the j oh

( NO T J 'IJ-be -very-mrpr ised tI fileSS }'61l - geHhe-jttIJ.)

251 Other ways of expressing a condition

A As long as, provided, etc

As well as if, we can use as long as or SO l ong as to express a condition

You cftn s moke as long as you do it o ut si de th e building

I do n ' t care what a car looks like so long as it gelS m e from A to B

We can also use provided (that), pro v iding (t hat ) , and all c ondition that The machine will go on working for yea r s provided (that) i t is looked

af ter properly

W e are willing to accept your offer providing (that) payment is mad e within seven days

'l11 e country was g iven aid on condition tllat it 1 signe d a tr(l(i e agre eme llt

These conjunctions are more formal

351

Conditional sentences

B In case of, with, etc

We can use the prepositions i'l c a se of and in the eu(mt of

In case of fire, break gUlS S (on a sign)

(:;: If there IS a fire, _.)

In rite eve"t of a major emergency, local hospiwls would be alerted

(.;: If there was a major emergency • )

The prepositions with, without , and but Jor can also express a condition

With a bit more time, we could do a proper job

(::;: If we had a bit more time, )

Without my mobile, I would Iialle been in big trouble

(~ If 1 hadn't had my mobile, )

But for rile climate, Edinburgh would be a per/ ec L place to live

(::;: If il wasn't for the climate, )

In {hal case means 'if that is so'

I've lost my tickel In that case you'll have to buy another one

We can also use otherwise fo express a condition If means 'if that is not so'

I'd better wriw the address dOWIJ , oilierwise I'll forget il

C In case

Compare if and in case

I'll get some money from the cash point if I need some

(I'll wait until I need some and then get il.l

I'll ger some mOlley from the ca.'ihpoint in case I need some

(I'U get it now because [ might need it later.)

Here are some more eX(lInples with ill case

You should insure your belongings in case they get stolen

(::: because they might get stolen.>

Ilefl a glass of umter by my bed in case I woke up thir s ty lfl the night

(::: because I might wake up thirsty in the night.)

We can also use should or mighl in a clause with in case

J'II take my mobile in case you should/might need to contac t me

We can lise in case as an adverbial

/'Ii get some money from the cashpoi'lt UUSl) in case

But for in case of, > 13

NOn:

In I\l1lelican English III calC cil n m ea n the s am e as if

1/),011 ' wed J In rose yo u l/(!f ~ d any help let mc know

Noun clauses

A A nOLln cla use begins with tl1m, a question word or 'f l whether

J expecte d tllar there would b e diffi culties

The price depends on where you want to sit

We ' ll have to d L~ ide ifiwhelher we c an afford iI,

A that-clause relates 10 a statement

Tlwre would be difficulties -+ that there would be diffiwllie s

A wh-clause relates to a wh-qucstion

Where do you wanf to sit? -+ where you warll lo sit

A clause with if or I v ll /h er relates to a yes/no queslioll

Can we afford it ? -+ iJ7whetlter we can afford it

B In informal English we can often Icave out that

I k"ew ( that ) you weren' t list e ning It) me

In a clause relating 10 a question, we normally use the same word order as in

a s«Itcmcnt

We'll have to d ecide lflwhe th er we ca n afford it

(NOT We ' H ~ have-ffHIeeitk-tfltttltelher ,a" WI "jfof {J-iJ )

i We can sometimes usc a to-infinitive with a question word or wl1 et her

> 108

The problem was where to plug in all the electri c al e qUipmelll

C We lise the term 'noun clause' because these clauses generally function ill

the same way as noun phrases: they can be the subject, the object, or the complement, or they can come after a preposition

1 noti ced that the door was open > 253

The result is that no Olle knows what to do

> 254C After a preposition: We had a talk about who should b e invited > 255

We can <llso use noun cla ses in other patterns

With it: It wam ' lpo ssi ble Uwt h e co uld be mistaken >2:'4 B

Afler an adjective: I'rn disappointed that I didn't gellhe job > 256A After a noun: J h eard a rumour that lite professor has been

kidtlapp e > 2561l

Noun clauses are used in indirect speech after verbs like s a)' and ask > 259

You said you I-4 I ant ed to come wilh us,

Someon.e asked what tlt e matter wa s

353

Noun cla u ses

253 Noun clause as object

A A noun clause can be the object of a vcrb

We regret th ai you did n t fi n d our produc t sat is fac to ry

[can't believe anyolle wo ul d b e so s t upi d

The figures show h o w muc h th e populatio ll h as inc r eased

I wonder whethe r th a t 's a goo d idea

There are m.my different verbs that we com usc before a noun clause Here

are some of the 1110st common ones

assume fi n d rea l ize suggest unde r t and

beli e ve know say suppose wonder

NOTE

Sometimes we pllt flOI in the m<:lin clause when you might expect it in the noull clause

I don' t think we'IJe got rime J dOll' t ex f H!c t it'll take uery long

TIllS is more \lsual than' thmk we hallen ' l got (Jt/le or J expect it won ' t (ake very {allg

We prefer to put not in the main clause w1th believe , expect , imagme, suppose , llnd think

B Sometimes there is an indirect object

We told I l u ! d r ive r we were ill a hurry

1 persuaded La ur a that she ought to give up smoking

The wuman asked t he po li cem an what was happening

The indirect object is usually a person > 6A

The verbs we can use in this pattern include the following

advise convince persuade rem in d tell

assure notify reassure teach write> Note

In British English wrote CO me is more usua l

C With certain verbs we can use a p rase 'Nith 10

[ mentioned to Ka r e n that you would be here

The verbs that we can use in this pattern include the following

admi t

announce

complain

declare explain indicate

mention point out propose

We can always leave out the phrase \o\rith to

remark report

say

suggest

write

254 Noun clause as subject and as complement

D We can use a noun clause after a passive verb

It was assumed that the stock market would continue to rise

For more details, > 921\

254 Noun clause as subject and as complement

A We sometimes use a noun clause as the subject of a sentence

That you lVant to be independent IS only natura l

How they 're going to enforce the la w isn't clear

But it is more usual 10 put the n un clause later in the sentence > B

We cannot le ve out that when the clause is the subject

(NO' 1 ' ffltt wtt ttH e-be-iltdepentiett+-is-ottiy-natttffti )

We can use w helher (bur not ifJ when the clause is the subject

Wh.ether I'll be able to come depends UTI a number of things

B We often lise it and put the noun clause at the end of the sentence

It' s only nar u ral that you want to be independent

It isn't clear how they're going to enforce lhe law

Il 's hard to say iftwhether it's going to rain or not

Il was easy to see how it could ha ve happene d

We do this because the clause is long and comes morc naturally at the endNOTE

a For it wi th seem, happen etc, > 36C

If see m s that I've made a mlSlake

b ror it with a passive ve rb, > 92A

It i s fea r d lhal many lives have been lost in the earthquake

c We can lise the foll owing pauern wi th it as the object > 36B

They haven't made it dear huw they're going to enforce {he law

C A no n clause can be a complement of be

The truth is that 1 don 't get on with my flal ~ mate

The ad vantage of DVD is that it gives you much better picture quality

Before he we often use nouns lke these: advantage, answer, effect,

e planation, fear, idea, point, problem, reason, result, situalion, truth

, ,

A A wh-cJause or whether can come after a preposition

The government is looking into what needs to be done

'/hen there's the quest ion of who pays for all this

The Singer made nu comment on whether he had sold his story

to a newspaper

We cannot use if in this pattern

355

NOLIn clauses

We cannot use a that~cJau se after a preposition Compare these examples

No one lold me that Nicola was ill

No one told me about Nicola's i llll ess

N o olle fOld me about N icola being ill > 115B

(HUI NUT No-tme tttld-me-abom Nieoltt ttlttHll)

B Many verbs, nouns, and adjectives can be followed by a particulm

preposition: wonder about, an effect on, s urpri sed at, illtere s ted in Some

combinations of lhis kind can be followed by a wh-c1ause or whether

'1he elections will have an effect all whether the Pre side nt call push ahead with reforms

I'm interested i ll ho w business deci s ion s are made

Sometimes we can leave out the preposition

I was wondering (about) who's going to be in lhi s band

We were all su r prised (a t ) how cold it was

Ilere arc some expressions with verbs and adjectives where we can leave out the preposition before a wh-c1ause

some research inLO/on

256 Noun clause after an adjective or noun

A We can use a that· clause after some adjectives

/l ' s esse n tia l t lr al you fit smoke alarms

I'm hopefu l we call reach all agreement

The girl was s u re s i te would be able t o recog n ize her attacker

I was as cer t ain as I cou ld ue that my calcula t ions we r e cor r ect

The adjectives that we can use in this pattern include the following

afraid certain co nvinced hopeful sorry

amazed clear disappointed nice sure

annoyed concerned glad pleased surprised

aware confident graleful satisfied worried

257 Nominalization

\lVe can also lise a wh-dause after some adjectives

I wasn '( Sllre what th e lime wa s

J\re Y OIl aw a r e who is c ausing {lil/his trouble ?

For dctatls about the use of a preposition before the wh-c1ause, :> 255B

8 We can use a that -clause after some nouns

TIle n ews lhm th e plane h ad eras/red c am e as a ter ribl e s I wek

You can't gel around th e fact that his fingerprints w e re on the gun

Whateve r gave you th e id e a tlral J C Ull s ing ?

11LCrc 's a rumour going round that th e exam papers have been 'ito t en

We do not normally le ve out thaL except occasionally in informal speech

The nouns that we can usc in this pattern are mainly to do with thoug ts or speech They include the following

as s umption

belief

c laim

conce rn dange r evidence

257 Nominalization

A Compare these three examples

fa ct hope idea

news

r epor t rumour

sca l eme n' sugges ti on view

Main clause: The ca mpaign succee d ed, ami this meant tl ua lives were

sl1ve d

Noun c1i1use: Thefacl tlU11 th e c ampuign succee ded meunt LhaL lives w ere

s aved

Noun phrase: The su ccess of the campaign meam that liv es were saved

A statement like The camp aign s u.cc ee d e d can be a main clause or we can

turn it into a that-clause and use it as part of a larger sentence Sometimes we

can also turn a clause into a noun phrase sllch as I he s u ccess ofllIe c ampaign

Here this involves changing a verb ( u cceeded) into a noun (success) Using a

nOlln phrase rather than a c1allse is called 'n rninalization' EspecialJy in

written Engli h, it is often neater to usc a phrase

Here aru some more examples

-Th e r es id ents protest e d

T i le doc: w nelll was publi s h e d

Th e land sc ape is b e autiful

The r es id e lll s' prot es ls were ignored

The publi ca tion of tlt e documenl wa s

Noun clauses

B When we change a clause into a noun phrase the suhject of a clause either has the possessive form or comeS in an of phrase

Our visitor departed Our visitor's deparlure I The departure of ou.r visitor

was a great reUef

With people we lise a possessive form, and sometimes we can use the of·structure With things we use of ror more details about the choice of the possessive form or 0[ > l33

C A verb + object becomes a noun + preposition + object

, -:- ~- --: -: -"

They will open the new skateboard The opening of the new skateboard

They've changed the law

I've requC?sted a transfer

-place yesterday

there's be e n a change in the law

rue made several requests for a transfer

The most common preposition after a noun is of For more details > 226

D An adverb in a clause is equivalent to an adjective in a noun phrase

Adverb

The residents protested angrily

The landscape is amazingly

Indirect speech

258 Introduction

A We usc direct speech when we report someonc's words by quoting them

'I'll go and Ileal some milk,' said Ag n es (from a story)

Gou ld w a s til e first to admit , 'We were simply fJealen by a better side '

(from a newspaper report)

'Ma d e me lau g h more tha n any comedy J ha ve seen in the West End th is year' - E/Jening Standard (from an advertisement for a play)

B Instead of quoting the exact words we can report the meaning in our own words and from our own point of vicw This is called 'indirect speech' or 'reported speech'

Agnes said s he would go and hea l some milk

Gould adm itt e d lhat his team w e r e beat e n by a better side

One o f th e crilics claims it' s lhe funniest play ill the West E nd

I ere the indirect speech is the object of said, admitted, or claims These arc verbs of reporting > 259

NO ' IE

a Whe n we li SP indirect speech, we no rma l ly cxpress lllc I1ICaning of whal was sa i d rnt l lt ~ r

L h an the t'!xaci wor d s that were spo k e n

' f had a really gmal tune,' S lI e said she had enjoyed lIerself

b We ca n re p ort thoughts as well as s p e c h or w ritin g

1 thought I had plenty oj lime, but in fac t I onl) , just made il The speake r thought 'I' ve gO! plenty of time' , bu t the thought s were not n ecessanly

ex pre ss ed in s pe ec h

orten think is used to report expressi on s of opinion,

My ca reer s adlll sur think s I sl/Ould do business studIes

In Ihe contex t of a di s Clls s ion between the careers advisor and lhe student, it i s dea r that th e opinio n was ex pr essed in s peech

C Vve often use that in indirect speech, but in informal English we can leave it

out, especially after a common verb like say

Tom says ( that) h e' ll only be flve minutes

We can sometimes use a gerund clause or a to~infiniti vc clause

Could admitted having lo st to a b e tter si de > 265F

I warned yo u tn tak e care > 2650

NOTE

a Somet imes the indi rect s pt"e c h comes fir s t (in a tlnire f clau s c ), anu th e i n furmation abou t who said it co m es at the end, as a kind of af t ertho u ht

H IS team were lx ~a/ el1 by (l he tt er S ide, G ould admiued

There wtll be 110 trains on Nelli Year ' s Day the rail compal/ie s wlllOUllced yeslerday

We do not begin wi th ' /1ull w h e n the indirect speech come s nr s t

h We ca n usc a phr ase with accordillg to 10 show who said something

According to Go u ld hi s team were beale n by a beller side ,

359

Indirect speech

o With direct speech, we can sometimes invert the verb of reporling and the

suhject This happens mainly in literary English, for cxnmplc in SlOries

,/,11 see yo u I l ll e r , ' said Sam

'Bill that' s 1I0t tru e,' replietlll l e "liUl

We can do this with most verbs of reporting, but not with a verb like t e ll

which has an indirect object

We do not usunlly put a personal pronoun after the verb

'N1t:c to meel you, ' lie said

E You may see a mixture of direct and indirect spe ch This is from a

newspaper report ahoLlt a man staying al home 10 luok after his children

Bllt Briall b e li e l teS wClfc:hing th e kids grow up and lC'arn new lil i n gs is lh e

bigg es t j oy a dad ca ll eX I Je ri e n ce 'Some people th ink il 'S a wom an 's joh , but

J don'T think thal ' S r e l eva nl an y mor e '

F \¥hen someone says something that goes on for more than a single sentence,

we do not need to lise a verb of reporting in every sentence This is from H

newspaper report about a court case

Prosecufor David A.ndrews said Wilson had s tolen (.l go l d wedding ring and

c r e dit card and had u sed th e card to artempt to wilhdraw money from a bank In the sec ond offe n ce W il sun had burgled pr em i ses and tak e n a

bri efcase co ntaining taking s from (J s hop Poli ce had lat e r rec o ve r ed the

bank n Ole.\· from his home

II is clear that the whole paragraph is reporting what the prosecutor said It is

not necessary to say, for example that Mr Andrews added thaI police had

lat e r r ecolle r ed til e bank nOl es from h is hO ll w

259 Verbs of reporting

A We can use a verb of reporting with a that·clause or a wh-c1ause

Poil y says (t hat) s h e isn't feeling lJery we ll

H e wontleretl why elJeryone was s milin g

Most verbs of reporting can also be used with direct speech

Poll y says, 'I'm IIOf f ee ling vel)' well '

'W h y is elleryulle s miling ?' h e wondered

We al!)o use verbs of rcporting with other patterns such as a to-infinitive

clau se or a gerund clause > 265

We asked lit e waiTer to bring anoth er bottle

ril e fllJologized for keeping e ver yo ne waitillg

NOTI:

So me Vl'rbs express how a sentence is spoken

' Oil, 11(1/ ng(lln, , s he g((uuwd

S uch verbs m d u"t ~ groall, laugh, m/l rmur , m llf ler, ~( , I "f'(lm, ~ /IO UI S igf l , s ob and IIJJ I/ \fJe r

rhey <lrc IYP1CUlty used with direct speech in slOrici> alll i novels

259 Verbs of r e porting

B There art! many different verbs of reporting Here arc some that we can usc before a Ihat·c1ause or a wh·clause

With many of these verbs we can use I passive pattern with it > 9 A

At that time it was already known that the earth orbit e d lh e s un

N or E

In inforrlwl l\ pecch be lik e is s omelllnes u <;e d e spl.' dally by youngCI speakers when qUOllng

s omc n c' s word!

We / w /' c m a ki ng a I Ji of a /lo i se, an d m y dild U'W'lS /ike , ' What 's smllg 0 11 her e?'

C Sometimes there is ,.111 indirect object after the verb of reporting

No one told me you wer e leaving

The police have warned tire pllblic that the man Lli dangerou s

The verbs we can use in this pattern include the following

advise

assure

inform nocify

promise remind

reassure tell

warn

With some of these verbs we cannolleave out the indirect object

W e informed everyone chat lhe lime had been changed

( NOT We i.tfol mf!tf tltttt - the tilllt! 'I(;I:d !J~1l dw"ged )

These verbs arc assur e, inform , notif y , reassur e , r e mind , and ,ell (> 260)

We c n use the verb of reporting in the passive

/;'l le lyolle was informed that the lime had been changed

NOTl:

For wnl e with an indir ec t obj ect, , 2 311 N otc

D Sometimes we use a phrase with to after a verb of reporting

C.an someone explain to me what's happening?

I sIlggested to the others t/tat we s hould meet th e m here

The verbs that we can lise in this pattern include the following

admit

announce

complain

declare explain

indicate

mention point out

propose

remark reporl

sllggest write

We can always leave out the phrase with to

361

Indirect specch

E As well as verhs of reporting, we can also usc an adjective such as SlIre

or ce rtain

I'm s ur e someone's been looking 111rollgll my paper s

260 Tell, say, and ask

A We normally usc an indirect object after tell

You told me YO ll didn't like Chine.'ie food

SinuJIl told us he was going to Au s tralill

(NO ' I Sim(~wld-he-wa.'rgttill;g ttl Auslralif1 )

nut after say we do not usc an indirect object

You slIid you didn't like Chinese food

Simo n said h e was going to Australia

(Nur 5i "wfHlttid ter-he was-gmng -ttrAtlSfMlia )

B We can use either a that-clause or a wh-clause after sa y or t e ll

Kale told me ( lhal ) she's fed up

Kale said (tImt ) s he ' s fed up

Kale told me what the man er was

Say + wh-clause is used in a negative statement or a qllestion where the inrormation is not actually reported

Kat e didn't say what the tn f Jll e r was

Did your brother say how long he would be?

Say + \Vh-c1ause is less usual in a positive statement

NO TE

We con u sc leU imlin !cl Ubjl!t:1 abmu

Kale wid u s about lhe figiJt s h e iJad Willi IIer boyfri e nd

Wluu did Kal e say about lIer boyfri e nd ?

TIle compally won', say (myth;"g about its plan s

C There arc a few expressions where we can use f eU without an indirect object

I'm not very goo (/ at teilillg stories

Paul told a very funny joke

You mu s tll ' t tell lies You should a l ways t e ll th e truth

Can yo u tell tile differenc e betwe e n lap wat e r and bauled waler?

(= dislinguish)

NOTE

YO li l1l<t y somellm es sec /ell Wll hout an in direct ohjec i before li olV or of

Tile C OUflie told how t lu : y had lX ' 'eTl held IlOswge

I n:memlwI' r : ryillg when the radi o t o ld of tile death of th e Kmg

D After say we can use a pilmse with (0

J said to him , 'I've heen mugged.'

261 Changes In indirect speech

Hut this is tess usual in indirect speech

I said I'd been mugged

I told him I'd heen mugged

We prefer either of these to I said to him I'd been mugged

The mayor will say a few word s to the guests,

What did the boss say 1 0 YOII?

or what about

T he President spoke for an flour

We don't talk about politi cs

We do not use them as verbs of reporting

Ule announcer said {flal he had a surprise for us

( N O ' 1 -'FIte a, 1Ii B U, leer lftiketllstx#re · thttt- -he httd tt-Sttrpt'ise ft'r-tt.~ )

F We can lise ask with or withollt all indirect object

Kale looked a bit up se t, so f asked ( her ) if th e re was aflYlhing wrong

We told/asked Kate to 17ul'lY up

Direct speech Indirect speech

' What lim e is it?' h e asked/said_ -+ He asked what time it was

The time is ,' h e said -+ } I e said what time it was

261 Changes in indirect speech

A People, place, and time

Imagine a situation where Andrew and Tina are at home one afternoon Tina

wants to go out in the car, but it rcfuses to start She rings thc garage and asks

a mechanic if he can come and sec to it I-Ie is loo busy to comc right away, but he agrees to come the next morning

Mechanic: I'll be at your house at eight LOmorrow morning

A moment later Tina reports this to Martin

Tina: The mechanic says he 'll be h e r e at eighl tomorrow morning

he Tina says he'll be And the speaker is in a different place, so al your

house for the mechanic becomes here for Tina

Next day the mechanic has not arrived even by nine o'clock, so Tiua rings him again

363

IndireCI speech

Tina says tll is morning And the promise is now out of date, so will becomes

situation - a different speaker, a different place, or a different tme

\"'hen you report what someone else has said, both pronouns and possessives

'I'm reully enjoy ing my se lf ' -+ Ka le s aid sire was e njo y in g herself

C Adverbials of time

-now then/at that tim eli mm ediate l y

today yeste rda Y/ lli at daylon Tuesday, elc

) es t erday th e day before! clle previou s day / on Monday, etc

IOmo"ow Ih e nex l day/ th e/allowing day / on Thursday, etc

tl,i s week last weeki that week

la s t year the year beJore/the previous yea r l in 1 990, e t c

next month the month afcerl the following month lin Aug u st, etc

an f lOur ago an h our before/an hour ea rli er/a t t wo o'clock, etc

When we are talking ahoU( things other than time chis or th at usually

c a ges to th e in indirect speech, or the phrase is replaced by it

'This s t eak is nice.' ~ Ki r sry said tile s t eak was nice

' I'd l ike to bU) 1 c/ral gui tar -+ Tom 5fl W a guilar He said h e wallled to buy it

262 Verb tenses in indirect speech

The Jor ec a s t says it's goi n g 10 rain

I've heard lIwy might close rhi s pl ace down

statements were m a u e not long ago and that they are still relevant For