OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 2 ppsx

A shon answer relates to the subject and aUxiliary verb of the question.. Questions and answers 20 Question tags -+ Audio A The form of a negative tag The form of a tag depends on the s

Questions and answers

19 Answering questions

A How long shou ld an answer be?

Some questions can be answered in a word or phrase, but for others you need one or more complete sentences., Here are some examples from real

conversations

Didn' t you hear abolilche bank robbc ly?- No

I've gal a hac '" What c%ur?'" BrauJII

Do you like school? - Yes , I do It 's OK

/l ow long do yo u prac t ise? '" About /Jalf all /J our

How is Lucy? S /J e's a laC b etter flOW In fact I think s h e' ll be back at

sc hool next week

Why did you sell lil e car? '" It was gillillg m e too much tr oub l e I was spend ing more money on it Ihan it was worth spending money Oil

It is usually enough 10 give the relevant piece of information without repeating all the words of the question There is no need 1 0 say No, I didn ' t Ilear aboUllhe bank robbery or fh e haL is brown in answer to these questions NOTE

People some tim es gIve an indirect ;lJlswer or avoid answering the qUl :s tuJIl

W l ua lime will yO/~ h e I)(u; ki'- We ll , the$ e me eti ngs so metimes go 1m/or I lOurs

Are you (I member of tllis club?- Why do yo" ask?

B Yes/no short answers

We can sometimes answer with a simple yes or no , but English speakers often

use a 'short answer' like Yes, I do or Nu, we haven 'c A shon answer relates to the subject and aUxiliary verb of the question A positive answer is yes +

pronoun + auxiliary A negative answer is ' /0 + pronoun + auxiliary + 11 '1

I s it raining?

Have you finished?

Can your sister swim ?

In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do

Do YOll play lit e piano?

Did we do Ow righl thing?

Positive

Yes, I do Yes, we did

Negative

No, I don 't

No, we did" 'to

In this example, Ihe question has be as an ordinary verb

Positive Negative

Are you in a !wr/:V? Yes, I am No I 'm not

19 Answering questions

We can someti mes use another phrase or clause instead of yes or 110

Am I ill the l eam?", Ojcourse (y ou are)

Were youlale? ,J'm afraid I was

Does the jacket go wilh Ihe sh irl? , I think it does

We often add information or comment after a simple yes or tlO or after a short an~wer

Were you late? v Yes , J missed the bus

Did Carl gel the job? -N o, h e didn't, unfortunately

/-lave you read this book?, " Yes, r halle I really enjoyed it

TIP

In some situations it can seem abrupt or unhelpful to simply answer

Yes or Yes, it is In a friendly conversation, it is better to add something relevant to keep the conversation going

Is this CD player new - Yes, it is J bought it last week

NOTE

a The full form 11m In a short answer is [onnul or emphatic

Was (he sd/eme a S/.Icce:-,s? ~ No, it was IIot It W(u a complete failure

b We ca n u ') e a s hOl1 answer to agre e or dls<lgrce with <.l st,H cm e nt

Agreemg These photos are good "" Yes, riley are

II doesn't feel very /lJarm ~ No, it doe.m't

Disagreeing: J posted the leller ~N(J, you didn't /l's still 011 the table

We c(m' t afford (l car '" Yes, we call, If Wf' borrow tile mOlley

c We c an use a pronoun + aUXi liary whpn we an swer a wh-qucst IOJI

Who filled lhis crossword 111" "-' I did

C Requests, offers, invitations, and suggestions

We cannot usually answer these with a short answer such as Yes, yuu can or Yes, I would

Can I use your phone, plea.se?, " Sure.lO[ course_

Would you like a chocolare?, Yes, please, Thank you

Would YOIl like to co me to my parry?, Yes , I'd love to_ Thank you very much

S hall we l uwe a coffee?",C ood idea rYes, wily not?

A negative answer to a request, invitation or suggestion needs some

explanation

("m r use your phone, plea se?"",S orry, someone' f '(Sing it at the moment Wuuld you like to come !O my party on Sat urday ? -I'm sorry I'd like to, but {'m goillg to be away this weekend

S hall we haw a coffee?", I've just had one, but you go ahead

29

Questions and answers

20 Question tags -+ Audio

A The form of a negative tag

The form of a tag depends on the subject and auxiliary of the main clause:

/l 's isn'l it? The slmcture of a negative tag is au iliary + n ' t + pronoun

It's raining , isn 't it?

You ' v e finished now, hav en' t you?

Th e others can go, can't they ?

I n simple tenses we use the auxjliary verb do

Louis e works at th e h ospita l , do es n't s h e?

You came h ome lat e, didn ' t you ?

In these examples the main clause has the ordinary verb be ,

I t's colder today, isn', it? Those sausages were nice, weren't they?

Arter I am or I'm the lag is aren ' t T?

I'm ulte , aren't I ?

NOTE

A negati ve tag occas i ona ll y ha s th e full form 'lOt Ins t e ad of ,, 't Nol co mes af t e r th e prono un

Progr ess is bcHig made , is it n t?

Th i s s l ruclUre i s us ed in a formal sty le or 1 0 a dd e mph as is

B The form of a positive tag

A positive tag is like a negative one, but without n ' l

It is n 't raifling , is it ? You have,, ' t finis h ed, /rav e you ?

These beans d n', taste very nice , do th ey?

C More details about the pronoun

We can use the subject th ere in a tag

The r e we r e lots of people at the carnival, weren't there?

But we do not use this, that , these or those in the tag, We use it or ch ey instead

11wt !Va s lucky wasn't it?

Th ese plates aren ' t very expensive, are they?

If the subject is a word ending in -one or -body (e.g anyone obody) , we use

Ih ey in a tag

Anyone could just walk in here, couldn ' t th ey?

Nobody lik es go in g to the dentist, do th ey?

If the subject is a word ending in - thi"g, we use it in a tag

So m e lh illg/e ll aUla/your bag didn ' l il ?

20 Question tags

o Summary of structures with tags

OFF T O A USTRALIA

lames: It' s colder today, isn't il l

Tim: Yes, it's not lIery warm, is it? But I'll be off to Australia s oon ,

as usual

James: Lucky yo u You go there every year, do you ?

Tim: Yes, I always s p end our winter in Sydney

lames: You gee che best of both worlds, don't you ?

There are three main structures

Positive statement + negative tag:

Negative statement + positive tag:

Positive statement + positive tHg:

N OTE

for tags with th e imp e rat ive and l et's >lIE-F

II 's your birthday , isn't it ? > E

Il isn't your birthday, is it ? > F

It's your birthday, is it? > G

E Positive statement + negative tag Audio

This kind of tag asks the hearer to agree that the statement in the main clause

is true rt is sometimes obvious that the statement is true For example, in the conversation in D, both James and Tim know that it is colder today In the

sentence It's col der coday, isn't it? the tag is nut really a request for

information It is an invitation to the hearer to respond

It's col d , isn't it ?- 1t' s freezing I s h ou ld ha ve put a coa t on

You 're Italian, aren't you?- Yes, I come from Milan I'm staying here with so me frie nd s

We can use a tag in a reply

It's not so warm today - No , it's freezing, isn't it?

Here the tag expresses agreement We do not need to reply to it

When the statement is clearly true, a falling intonation is used on the tag

/t 's cold, isn't it ? Co a/fires are nice, aren't they?

Bur when the speak r is not sure if the statement is true, the voice can rise on the tag

You'll be b ac k in the spring, , won " you ?

We ' re go ing the ri g ht way, , aren't we? '" I hop e so

In the second example the speaker can choose a rising intonation in order 10 ask for reassurance

N OT E

Sometimes a tag with a rising i ntonatio n can exp re ss surpris

They have central heating, do,,'t riley? Everyone has cen t ral hea ting nowadays

Compare Don'l they haw cen/rat heating?, which aJso exp r esses surpris~ > 18A

31

Questions and answers

F Negative statement + positive tag -+ Audio

This structure is used mostly in the same way as the examples in E The tag invites the hearer lO respond Compare the'se sentences

You didn't make a scene, did you? -No, of course I didn 't

You are n 't stay in g in bed ail day, are you?

The second example means 'I hope you aren't staying in bed all day.'

We can also use the structure with a rising intonation to ask a tentative

question or make a tentative request

You hallen't heard th e test results, have you ?-N o , so rry , I haven't

You cou ldn' t lend me t en pounds, could you ? '" Yes , OK

A negative statement can have a negative word other than not

There's bee n no news yet, has there?

You nev er: tell me anything, do yo u ?

G Positive statement + positive tag -+ Audio

This structure has a different meaning to the examples with a negative statement or a negative tag Look at this part of the conversation in D

James: I'll be off to Australia soon, as usual

Tim: You go there every year, do you?

Tim realizes from James's words (as usuafJ that James goes every year The

information is new to him He is expressing interest and inviting James [0

continue the conversation and give him more details Tim's words mean 'Oh,

so you go there every year.'

Here are some more examples

I've g ot no time at th e moment , You're busy, are you ?

- Very busy, I'm afraid

Vi C kY doesn ' t live h ere any more '" Oh, ' sh e's moved, has she?

, , She moved out a bout a month ago

In the second example she's mOl/e d, has she? means that I realize she has moved but I would like you to confirm this and perhaps tell me more

Compare the positive and negative tags

W e can't move this cupboard., ,.lt 's h eallY, isn 't it ? I t ri ed to lift it , but

21 Echo questions and echo tags

NOTE

a 111 infu r mal speech a sta t eme n t tag is somet1me s u s ed afte r a po s iti ve Statement

Yuu're crazy, YOII are That was great , that was Jt makes me mati, it does

The tag adds emphasis to the statement

b A po sitive sta t e menl + positive rag is nol u sed in Ame ri ca n Enghsh

21 Echo questions and echo tags

A Echo questions

We can use an echo question when we do not understand what someone says or we find it hard to believe

I often eat bies of wood ~ What do you eat?/You eat what?

My father knew Bill Clinto n - Who did he know?/ J-Ie knew who?

Did you see the naked /ody? - Did I see th e what?

The second speaker is asking the first (Q repeat the important information

The voice rises on the question word

, What ha ve they done? They've done " what?

NOTE

We can u se a S latelllcm with rising intonation to check t hat we heard correc.:t ly

I often ear bilS of wood.- You ear bits of wood?

B Echo tags Audio

We form an echo tag like a question tag A positive statement is followed by a positive tag, and a negative statement is followed by a negative tag

We're moving hou se soon - Oh, are you?

The team played brilliantly -Did they r eally?

My sister isn't very well , " I sn't she? I'm sorry to hear that

The children can't sw i m.-Ca n 't they ?

These tags express interest in what someone has just said The voice rises

O h are you? Did t h ey" r ea ll y?

Now look at these examples

We're moving house SOOIl."'" You aren't , ar e you?

The children ca n 't swim They ca n , can't th ey?

Max won the prize He did" 't, did he ?

The last example expresses surprise or disbelief The speaker didn't expect

Max to win [he prize

We can use a negative tag in reply to a positive statement

•

That was great Yes, waslI't it?

/t 's a lovely day '" It is, isn" it ?

The team played brilliantly - Yes, didn't they ?

In the last example both speakers saw the team and agree that they played very well

33

Leaving out and replacing

No, J wouldn'r say so,

They're very nice I like them

I rather like chern, yes

1 think chey suit you extremely well

Susan: I chink they're good

l prefer rhem to the last ones

Yes, I think they're nice

They're a different shape, definitely Yes, they're very circular The olher ones were a bit more - were lhey a Vil more square?

Yes, tha.t's right And these are photochromic

In many of these sentences, some words are left out or replaced by a pronoun We do this to avoid repeating a word when it is not necessary to repeat' it For example, the topic of the conversation is Mary's glasses, so there is no need to keep repeating the word glasses

I like the glasses

And these glasses ani photochromic The glasses are very nice

I wouldn't say that she looks different That the other ones were a bit more square is right

23 R e placmg and lea v ing out nouns

NOTE

So m e llme s we ca n I cave OU I or rep la ce wo rd s Ihal co m e later in the s enl e n cc

If you WI1n( 10 you Cl m pay by credit (.1m/

(= If yo u wa nt t o pay by credit ca rd )

After h e ha d been gi ve " oxygen, rh e patient re cove r e d

(= After the patient had b een give n oxygen , )

Here he r e f ers forwards to the paciem , whic h comes l a l e r i n the sent t' nce

B It is not always possible to avoid repetition We sometimes need to repeat a word to make the meaning clear

I bought a book and a CD yesterday I'v e got the book her e , but I ca n ' t remember where I pUl the CD

We cannot u~e it instead of the book or th e CD because we need to make clear which one we are talking about

It is sometimes more helpful to repeal things because it makes the meaning easier to understand

After aboll/ half a mil e you'll see a school on the lefl Tum right just after

the school

We can also repeal words for emphasis

This ja c e t is COllon, th e b es t cotton you can gel

It is possible here to say th e best you c an get, but the speaker chooses to

emphasi?e the fact that the jacket is made of cotton

23 Replacing and leaving out nouns

We often replace a noun phrase with a pronoun to avoid repeating the noun,

as happens with glasse s in MAny'S ( ;L ASSES in 22

Mary's got some new glasses They're very ni ce

Have you see n Mary? She ' s got so me new glasses

For more details about pronouns, > 175

We can also leave out a noun after certain words

A number: Ther e's only one CD il1 h e re "" No, tI, ere are

We cannot leave out the whole noun phrase

(NO T I've got some chocolate h e e Wottld-y&tJ-like1)

35

Leaving out and replacing words

36

A A sentence can end with an auxiliary if the meaning is clear from the context

I'm doing this wrong - Yes , it looks as ifyuu are

Kale hadn't broug/u an umbrella She was pleased 10 see that l auren had

I dOIl ' t want to answer chis leller, but perhaps / should

Can you get c able TV? We can

If the verb is in a simple tense, we usc the auxiliary verb do

I don ' t e njoy parties as much as my wife does

Don'llaugh IJ you do, I'll kill you

We can also end a sentence with the orciinary verb be

This piece isn ' t long enou.gh 111i s one is

V\'e of len use this kind of sentence when we are expressing a comparison

or contrast

The meeting went OIJ [oliger than I thouglll it wou l d

I'm fWI a s wd e nt , but my girlfriend is

NOTE

The stress can be on the auxiliary or the s lIbject , whichever i s the ne w i nfurm a on

I've made a mlSwke - Yes I'm afrOld you HAVE (focus on the fact)

Someo ne 's matte a mIstake - Yes, I'm a/rrJuJ ~ 'OU have (fOl" ll S on the person )

B The auxiliary can be positive or negative A positive auxiliary cannot be a short form

Am I too late? - Yes , I'm afraid you a r e ( NOT I!m - afraid ,Ob ' e.)

fiU( an auxiliary can be followed by rWi or uy the short form It 'l

Am I too late? - Of course you aren 't/y ou ' re not

We can use a negative auxiliary to contradict someone

VI ' hal did you ha ve Jor breakfast ? / did~l 'I I never hav e br eakfast

C Usually everything aFter the auxilial)' is left out

Can you see now?, , Yes, I can

After can we leave out see now BUl in some contexts we PUI a word or phrase after the auxiliary, for example, a tag or an adverbial

This is a nice colo ur -I t is , isn't i ?

I s there a markettoday ?- I don ' l know There was yes(erday

In the second example a market is left out of the allswer, but yesterday is new

information

D Sometimes we have to use two auxiliary verbs When the first auxiliary is a

new word in the context, we cannot leave out the second

Hav e th e team won?- Everyo n e's smiling, so they mllst have

I don ' t know If Tom i s s till waiting He might be

When i s th e fence going to be r epaired? '" It already has been

In these examples mu s t , might and has ar~ new in the context, so we use

both verbs

25 Other structures where words are left out

Bur when the (wo auxiliaries are both In the previous sentence, then \VC can

leave OllI the second auxiliary

The gale hasn't been repaired, bl.ll the fence has (been)

YOIl could have hurl yourself, jumping off there - I suppose } could ( ha lle)

In British English, do is sometimes used after an auxiliary

I don't want La answer this leller, but perhaps I s hould (do)

Have we won the contract?, , nveryone's smiling , so we must have (do li e)

Here do means 'answer the letter', and done means 'won the contract'

25 Other structures where words are left out

A Short questions

A short yes/no queslion consists of an auxiliary + suhject

I've been to New York before Have you?-No, I haven'l

I wanted Karen to pa ~s her tes t , "And did she? - Yes , forwnately

Here it is clear from the context thal And did she? means 'And did she pass

her test't

In a short wh-question, we simply use a question word or question phrase

I think I'm going to give up my course , Really? Mty?

I've gOl a hair appointment litis afternoon "" What lim e?

When the question word is the subject, the ClLlxilial), can come after it'

Something rather strange has happened '" W/1at ( has )?

A sub-clause can also end with a question word if the meaning is clear from the context

The road is closed to traffic No one knows why

I put the [eUer somewhere, and now I can'l remember where

NOTE

For wily III s tructures s u ch a s WIl Y lite /iurry? and Wily bOllle r?, > I SA NOle h

B Leaving out a to -i nf i nitive clause

When there is no need to repeat a to-infinitive clause, we can sometimes

leave out the words after to

Would you like to join us for lunch? Yes, I'd love to

lane gut (he job, al(hough she didn '( expecc lO

We need people to serve ref reshments Are you willing to ?

I didn't take any notes becaLL~e I didn't feel ale need ~a

You've swieched the campUler of! I coLd you not to, aidn't I?

This happens most often when to follows a verb, adjective, or noun, c.g love

to, willing to, need to

But we repeat an auxiliary after lo

iane was chosen for the Job, although she didn ' l expect to be

Leaving out and replacing words

Sometimes we can leave out to This happens especially after the verbs like ,

try and want

You can s cay as long as you like

Take one 0/ th ese brochur es If you want

We often leave Out to after an adjective or noun

You can ' come through now if you're ready

I'd love t , o ask that qu es lion , but / Ilaven ' t gOlthe nerve

C Leaving out the main verb

The main verb can sometimes be left out

The boy s sat on the wall and the girls on the seal

{ and the girls sat on the seat.}

America ha s won twelve medals and Australia ten

( and Australia has won ten medals.)

We do not need to repeat the verb when there are twO clauses with the same structure and the same verb

26 Leaving out the first word

A In conversational English certain kinds of words can be left out at the beginning of a sentence if the meaning is clear without them

A: Ready ?

B: Sorry, no CaIl'C find my car lceys

A: Doesn't maller We can go in m y car Betl er gel going, or we'll be late

lt is clear in this situation that Ready? means 'Are you ready?' and that Doesn ' t matter means 'It doesn't matter.'

B The pronoun J can be left out at the beginning of a statement

Can't find my keys [ = I can't find my keys)

We can leave out J and a positive auxiliary

Sorry I was late (= I'm sorry I was lale.)

Talk 10 you suo n (= 1'lIlalk to you soon.)

It, it's, or ther e's can also be left out

Peels colder coday [= It feels colder today.)

Co ld e r today (= U's colder today.)

A cold wind coday (= There's a cold wind today.)

We can sometimes leave out alan or th e before a noun at the beginning of the sentence

Cup of coffee i s whac I lIeed (A cup of coffee )

Television's broken down (The tel~vision )

2 7 Too, either, so, and neither/nor

C We can leave out the auxiliary or the ordinary verb he from a yes Ina question

Your problem been sorted out? (= Has your problem been sorted out?)

Everything all right? (; Is everything all right?)

We can sometimes leave out the subject as well, especially if the subject is

you or there

Tired? (; Arc you tired?)

Any free seats in here? {= Are there any free seats in here?}

Need a loan? Just give us a ring (= Do you need a loan?)

The last example is from an advertisement which is written in a

conversational style

D We can sometimes leave out an imperative verb, especially be or a verb which expresses movement

Careful (; Be careful.)

This way, please (; Come this way, please.)

A Too and either

After a clause there can be a short addition with lOo or either It expresses the idea that what is true of one thing is also true of another These are the patterns

Positive: subject + auxiliary + too

You're yawning '" You are, too We ' re bOlh tired

Negative: subject + aux.iliary + n ' l + either

My sis t e r can'l drive , and lIer husband can't either

In simple tenses we use the iluxiliary verb do

I like chocolate / do, lOO

That calculato r doesn't work This one doesn't either

We can also use be on its own as an ordinary verb

I'm tired -1 am, laO

In informal English we can say Me too or Me neither

I'm lired '" I am, too.lMe too

I haven't gOI any money "" I haven't eirher.lMe neither

B So and neitherfnor

We can also form a short addition with so and neither or 110r Here so means

' l OO', 'also'

39

Leaving ou' and replacing words

Positive: so + aux iliary + subject

I like chocolate - So do I

You 're beawiful - So are you

C hildren s hould be ha/l B lhemsellJes, and so should adults

Negative: neither! nor + auxiliary + subject '

My s i sler can 't drive, and neil her / nor can her husband

We haven't got a colour printer - Neither/Nor have we

The apples don't taste very nice ", Neither/Nor do the oranges , I'm afraid

So do I means the same as J do too, and neither! nor do I means the same as J

don 't either

N OTE

fo r C h i ldr e n s l w ul d beha ve th e m se l ves, as should adults, > 23 3 D N Olc

C Negative after positive; positive after negative

In these examples, a negative addition follows a positive statement, and vice versa This kind of addition is used to express a contrast \"'hat is true of one thing is not true of another

I'm ti r ed "-' Well, I'm not

We don 't go bowling , WE do

The stress is on the subject J and we

We can also use a short statement to contradict what someone says

You're tired '" No, I'm NOT

You don ' t go bowling , , We DO

The slless is on not or on the auxiliary

A So replacing a clause

The word so has a number of different uses In these examples, it replaces a whole clause

Will you be going out? '" Yes, J exp ect so ~

(::: I expect] will be going DUt )

I'm not su.re If this is the right an swer, bl l t 1 think so

[s your luggage insured? [ don ' t know I hope so

-Has the committee reached a deci s ion? '" iN, e ll il seems so

V v e cannot leave out so, and we cannot use, i t in these contexts

( NO T - ¥es.+expeel ) and (N OT -Y er,-/-eJ:: pee /.-t l)

In this structure with so replacing a clause, :we c an lse these verbs and expressions: be afraid, it appears/appe ared assum e belie e, r.xpec l, guess, hope, imagine, presume, say, it seems/see m ed, suppose, suspec t, teil

(someone), think Por do so, > 29A

28 50 and not · I think so, I hope not etc

We do not use knuw or b e sure in this structure

The flight has been ca ncelled '" Ye s, I know ( NOT ¥e~tUHtJ-"W J

The flight h as been ca ncelled Are you s ur e? (NOT Ar e-J'otHU r e-stt?)

NOTE

We can u s£' s o wit h the ve rb be

r m travellmg around t i ll! world Is rllal so?

Here Is thut so? (= I s that tru e?) ex pre ss es mter est

B So or not in the negative

There are two negative structures

Negative verb + so: Will you be going ou t?, , I don't e xpect so

Positive verb + ntJl : I s this watch broken? - ! hop e not

With the verbs expect, imagine, and think, we usually form the negative with

n ' t so

Is it a publi c holiday on Monday? , , J don't think so

I think not is possible but rather fomlal

There are some verbs and phrases which always form the negative with not It's no use wailing any longer I gue ss flat

Is this pictur e worth a lot of money ? -I'm afraid not

These verbs include assume, gues s, hop e, pr es u me, and s u spect We also use

not after afraid

Some verbs can be used in either structure

Will they give us a day off? '""' 1 don't s uppose so

We can' t just le ave without t e lling a nyon e.- I suppose not

These verbs arc appear, believe, say, see m , and su.ppose

The two structures with say have different meanings

I s the illn ess se riou s? - 1 don't kn ow The doctor didn ' t say so

l s the illtwss serio u s? '""' No, it i SH' t T he doctor said flat

C So at the beginning

With a few verbs, so can come at the beginning of the clause We use this

structure to comment on the truth of a statement

I s there going to be an extra day's holiday?- Well, so I've h e ard

The exam has been po s tp oned Or so I understand

These verbs include assum e, believe, h e ar , s a y, and und e r S land

We can use so th ey s a y to express the idea that a piece of information may be just a rumour

Th ey' re giving away fre e ticket~'i Or so they say

So yo u s ay expresses doubt or disbelief about what someone says

You ' re b u nr } lO gel a nice welcome So you say I rather doubt it myself

We can also lise appear and see m after it

Mark and Laura are good [r,-end s So it appears I So it seems

41

I.caving out and replacing words

So and nOl can replace a clause after if

Looking for a higher rate of interest? If so, you need our Super Sa/Jers account _

Have you gOl transport? If not , I can give you a lift

E Not after an adverb

We can also use not after certain adverbs

Will your friend be fit w travel?-No , definitely not

These adverbs include certainly, definitely, maybe , of course, perhaps,

po ss ibly, presumably, and probably

A Do so, do it, and do that

We can use do so or do it to avoid repeating an action verb and the words that

rollow it Do so is a little formal

If you have not already paid this bill, please do so immediately

She had always wanted to fly a plane, and now al last s he was doing so l it

The stress is on do, not on so or it

When do has a different subject from the verb it replaces, we cannot use so

Everyone e l se jumped Why couldn't you do it?

Here the subjects everyone else and you are different

When we use do that, we usually stress lhal'

We need someone to serue drinks "-' I'll do TfiAT if you like

J might t ell th e boss exactly what J think oj her -Oh, J wouldn ' t do THAT if 1 were you

In this last example, that is stressed to express surprise or shock at the kind of action that is mentioned

B So in short answers

A short answer with so can express agreement The structure is so + pronoun

You can't go this way This is a one-wayslreet.-Oh, so it is

So it is means that the speaker agrees that it is a one-way street He/She is noticing or remembering it

Compare these t\vo structures

You ' ve made a mistake So J hall e (I agree that I have made a mistake.)

I've made a mistake '" So have I (I have made a mistake, too.)

c So and that way

So can replace an adjective after become and remain

The situation is not yet $eriotts, but it may become so

(::: It may become serious.)

30 Special styles

So is rather formal here In informal English we use get/stay That way

The situation isn ' t serious ye l , but it may gel that way

We can also use so after more or l ess

Il's usually quite busy here - more so in summer, of cou rse

o The same

The same can replace words just mentioned, such as a complement or

an object

Monday was beautiful, and Tuesday was the same

What are you having? Steak and chips , " I think I'll have the same

We can lise do the same (thing) to refer to an action just mentioned

The actorfargot his lines at a vilal moment The nexc night he did the same

( thing) (= The next night he forgot his lines again.)

We can also usc say the same (th in g) or think the same to reporl words or thoughts that have just been mentioned

The first person I asked said they disagreed with the idea, and everyone else

said the same (thing) (= Everypne else said they disagreed with the idea.)

The others think we should take part, and I think the same

(= J think we should take parL)

Note the expression feel the sa me or feel the same way

The ot her s think we should take part, and J feel the sa me (way)

We can use The same is true of or The same goes for to show that information about one thing also applies to another

Tile Labour Party is divided on the issue, and the same is true of the

Conservat iv es (:::: The Conservatives are also divided on the issue.)

There is a shortage of cheap housing here, but the same goes for other places (::: There is also a shortage of cheap housing in other places.)

NOTE

We can use (The) same to you to return good wishes

Ilappy New Year!- Thank you (The) same to YO"

30 Special styles

In some special styles of English, words are left out to save space

A Signs and labels

A sign or label usually gives the necessary information in as few words as

pOSSible, e.g Office, No entry, Airmail, Sold

Leaving oul and replacing words

B Newspaper headlines

Alan, the, and the verb be arc often left oui of headlines

Stone circle discovery (::: The discover)' of a stone circle)

PM on holiday (;: The Prime Minister is,on holiday.)

The simple present is often used to refer to recent events, where normally the present perfect would be used

Actor dies (;: An actor has died.)

Bomb kills boy (= A bomb has killed a boy.)

A passive participle on its own is often used instead of the present perfect passive

Six arrested in raid (:; Six people have been arrested in a raid.)

A to-infinitive is sometimes used with a future meaning

Factory to close (;: A factory is going to close.)

C Instructions

lh e is sometimes left out of instructions

Open bauery compartment cover by pushing in direction of arrow

(;: the battery compartment cover., the direction the arrow) When an instruction is on the thing it refers to, there is often no need for the

verb to have an object

Handle with care (on a parcel)

Do not cover (on a heater)

D Note style

English can be written in note style when information needs to be given as brieny as possible, for example on a postcard

Arrived safely Saturday Hot e l OK , weather marvellous, sun shining Lots to

do here Going on excursion tomorrow

However, this style would not be polite in a letter, where there is space for full sentences

This example is from i'I guidebook

French-style cafe on two /loors, just off Bridge St Nice paslries a.nd delicious coffee downstairs Some hot food served up s ta irs Trendy law-night

hangout; office crowd during the day

The words left out include J and we, alan and the, auxiliary verbs, the verb be

and there isl are

, Text messages often usc note style and abbreviations

Arrive in 30 mins CU soon

(:; 1 will arnve in thirty minutes See you soon.)

Word order and emphasis

31 Introduction

A Imagine you are sitting in <l cafe \<\'i(h a friend drinking a cup of coffee when one of you makes this comment

This coffee ta s tes awful

This statement begins with the subject (This coffee) and the verb ( lastes ) This

is the normal word order in a statement Here a complement ( awful ) follO\-\'s the verb For details of what can follow the verb, > 4

We can also look at the sentence from the poim of view of the inform<1tion it

communicates The first phrase (1 l1i s coHee) is the IOpic, whut ~he sentence is about The lasl phrase (awful) is the important informmion nbout {he topic

This coffee is 'old information' hecause it is naturally in our thoughts in the

situation Awful is 'new information', the point of the message The sentence

Slarts with old information and then {ells us something new about it This is a

typical way of communicating informalion, although it is certainly not an absolute rule

B Sometimes there are different ways of saying the same tiling Compare thest' pairs of sentences

- - - -

-The S tudio Cafe do e s b e tter coffee

than this

A group of Wi /Ven t to the SlItdio

Caf e last week

I like the atmosph e re In this pla ce

-Each pair of sentences orders the information ill a different way The choice

of one or the other will depend on the context and what information is olel or new The rest of this chapter is about how we make such choices

32 Linking the information In a text

Olll (, li\ or TI JF tlNI\ · EHSE

lylrmy scient i sts think t hat (he ullilJer se wa s bom in a co lossal e xpl os io1l called the Big Bal1g [II thi $ e xplo s ioll, 15,{JOO J'llilliofl years a go, a{/ maller ,

en e rgy , s pac e anti rime were created Of COline 110 Olle was There to wU us

what happened But discoIJ e rie$ in pl'l ys i cs and ast ro nomy hav e cll{1hJed scient i sts to [race IILe Univ ers e's Ili story to its fir s l fra c tion of Cl second They

believe fiT Ihm time' the Universe loas squashed illlo a lin y /Jo ll/flle , alld il ha s

be e n expanding eve r s ince The Big Bong "l1-ieofy was put forward in 193 3

Anolher idea , called the Steady Stare Theor y, was suggesled in 1948 '1his said

45

Word order and emphasis

cltal Ilew mat erial was continuously being created, alld so overali lh e Uni ve r se would not cha nge The Stea dy S lat e Theory ha s now be e n

discounted More recemly, scientists ha ve been looking into Ih e f wur e of th e

Universe YVhal happens next?

( from Tile Dorling KUidetslt.ry Scie n ce Encyclopt.'CiUl)

When we are writing a text we usually try to stan each sentence with something known or expected in the context Usually it relates to something

just mentioned The new information comes later in the sentence For

example, in the sentence The Steady Slate Theory ha s now been di scou nt ed,

the theory is already in our thoughts because it has just been mentioned The

new and important information is that scientists no longer believe it

Here are some ways in which the startillg~pojllt of a sentence can link to

something mentioned in the previous sentence

Type of link lust mentioned in the Starting~poilll of the

previous sentence new sentence

Repearing a word in a colossal exp l osion In this explosion,

Using a pronoun have enabled scientists They bel i eue

Expressing something lhe Universe was +- The Hig Hang Theory

in different words squashed into a tiny was '"

volume , and il has been expanding ever since

Making a contrast has now been +- More recently ,

discounted sc iemi s t s

Most of the sentences in O RI G I N or TIlE U NIVERSE take as their starting-point an

idea which is already familiar or which links to something earlier in the text This helps the reader to see how one sentence follows on from another

TIP

When writing a composition, try to link your sentences by starting each

one with known information and then saying something new about it

33 Linking the subject

We often use the subject to link with what has gone before

The men ar e in pri so n They raided five banks

There was a series of mbberies Five banks were raided

The girls did well Celia won th e firs! prize

There w e r e lOI S of pr izes Ti , e first prize went to Celia

We can 'I ge l all thefurnirure in The sofa is too big to go through the door

Th e re 's a ,,,oblem The door isll ' l wid e enough to get the so fa through

34 Front positIon

We can often express an idea in differel1l ways, e,g, They raidedjilJe banks I Five banks were raided In these examples the subject relates 10 the previolls sentence and the new information comes at the end of the sentence

preposition (i n ) Here they are the subject of the second clause or sentence

111e house was empty, but the garage contained some old c hairs and tahles

(;;: There were some old chaits and tables in the garage.)

This has b ee n an eventful yea r for the company, September saw our move

to new offices (= V,le moved to new offices in September,)

Garage links 10 house because it is next to the house, and SeptemiJer links 10

year because it is pan of the year Note that ill the second example the

structure Seplember saw is rather formal

Sometimes we can use an abstract nOlln to refer back to the idea in the

contrast it with phrases in other sentences Putting a phrase in fron! position

Most kinds of adverbial can go in front position, for example truth adverbs, comment adverbs, and linking adverbs> 200-202

I'm flot su re why we're in chis traffic jam Maybe there's been an accident

I left the car unlocked Luckily it was s till there when I got back

The weather wasn ' t velY good Despite that , we had a good da y oul

Adverbials of time oflCn go in front pOSition Look at these instructions

First of all S ift the flour wld salt into a large roomy bowl Then pill a gra t er

in the bowl and coarse ly grate the par s nip s into the flour then to ss Ihem around After that, add the cubes of Parm esa n an.d c hopped sage and toss lhat ;11 Now lightly beat th e eggs and milk togelher

( from D Smith Delia 's Huw (0 C ook)

4,

Word order and emphasis

Adverbs of place and frequency can COllle in front position for contrast or emphasis

11 was warm and comfortable in the little cOflagf? Outside, it was geTting

dark ( Outside contrasts with in th e co ttag e.)

Everyone shops at , the big supermarket now Quite often th e little s hop IS

completely em pty (emphasis on quite of len)

An adverb of manner can also come in front position

Slowly the s un sank inlo the Pacific

This can be rather literary

B Inversion after an adverbial

This sentence has the normal word order: subject + verb +- adverbial

A furniture van was ou.t s ide the house

Now look at this same information in a written context \-\There the adverbial of place (outside the house) is in front positiofl to link with the information

( number sixteen) in the previous sentence

Alan walked along Elmdale A ve nue and found number si xteen without difficulty Outside the house was a furniture van

After the adverbial of place there is inversion of the subject ( a furniture van )

and the ordinary verb be (Nor 9tttsit1e-#te h(tt;tSe-a-fHfftftttre-tJa1't-ttffls.)

A furniture van is tlie new information and comes at the end of the sentence

We can do the same with other verbs of place and movement, c.g come, go , lie, Sil, stand

The room co ntained a table and four chairs On the table lay a newspaper

D e tectiv es were watching th e hause when oul afthefront duor came a man

in a bla ck coal

The important information ( a newspaper, a man in a bla c k coat) comes at the end of the clause or sentence

There is no inversion with other verbs,

Outside the hou se two women were talking

(NOT Gttt $i~ ~re ,'olking t-WtTwt.tmef!.)

NOTE

We c<ln also usc the St ructure lliere + be > 35

There was (.I furniture van ourslrie the house

C Inversion after here and there

We can use here and there in front position to draw attention fo something in the situation

Her e is em announcem ent for pa sseng er s on flight lW513 to Miami

(an airport announcement)

And there goes Wiiliams! Into the lead! (a sports commentary)

In this structure we can use b e, come, or go in the present simple There is inversion of the subject and verb The subject, the new information, goes at the end

Here is an announcement

35 The empty subject there

And (here g es Williams! Th ere he go es , look !

We can somelimes put an object in from position cspt!cially when it I S in

D o y ou prefer cats or d gs?- Dogs Il olJe, bur cats I call 'I S land

Hi s p os sessions from hi s pr eu i o s addr ess had b ee n d e livered to her door

th a t s arna morning : tu )(} h x es o f p e r so nal e Jf ec l s find all (I"Clem iroll

bi qcle The bicycle s h e wh ee l ed ill t o th e ha c k y ard The boxes s iz e car ri e d

up sta i r s

Ifrom R Ham s l mgma)

T hey e njo yed ril e h o lid ay Be s t of all w as the cons la n l s u nsh i ne

Th e sc h e m e ha s man y good p oi n ts, On e advallilige i s rh e IO llJ cos t

There I S inversion The subject U h e l ow cost) is the important new

information and comes after the verb he

,

A The use o f there

Imagine that two people are disclissing \'v ere to C HI, and one of them wantc,

to mention a Chint'se restamant which is just round the corner In this

situatIOn a sentence like A C hil1 ese r es t a urant i s round 'he c o" w r would be

would not usuiilly come at the bt'ginning of such a sentence Instead we use a

structure with t!tere + he

W h e r e ca n we e at ?- Th e r e ' s n Chi nese r es t aura nt rou n d th e co rn e r

Th ere + b e expresses rhe Idea that something exists

TIP

To point out the existence of something usc th ere

"'-big' ptff u de;w S"-yeS lerdu y -+ T h e r e was a b i g parade yeste rda y

NOT l:

T h e s ubject f ll(' n ' I S n O I l m l '!!>'i cd i Uld IS n orm a y s poken Ul it s we a k fo rm 1 0a l, li k e the T he

s u hje<' t then ' I S nut t i ll' s ame.l s t he a d ve r b there mean i ng ' in t h at pl a ce ' T I ll' advt'rb I S

p r onounce d I Oeil ( r) f

There I( ) ~ I was a res/Cw mnr tilere l(lcal lJhrmsl lud tlen f r um view