English practice grammar advanced with answers

The book consists of 153 units, each on a grammatical topic. The units cover the main areas of English grammar. Special attention is given to those points which are often a problem for learners: the meaning of the different verb forms, the use of the passive, conditionals, prepositions and so on. Many units contrast two or more different structures such as the present perfect and past simple (Units 1415). There are also a number of review units. The emphasis through the whole book is on the meaning and use of the forms in situations.

B K NHA XUẤT BẦN TỬ Đ IỂN BÁCH KHOA

Oxíord Practice Grammar

Advanced With answers

George Yule

O X P O R D

U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

A b i l i t y : carìy couldy be abỉe to

P e r m i s s i o n : catĩy couldy may, mighty

be alloxveả to

P o s s i b i l i t y : m a y , m ight, carĩy couỉd

N e c e s s i t y : musty have tOt have got tOy

need tOy needn^t

D e d u c t i o n : musty have to, h avegot to,

Aỉỉ a n d bothy h alf a n d whoỉe 8 8

Each a n d every, either a n d neither 8 9

there are a n u m b e r o f innovative g ram m ar

exercises in this book, speciíìcally designed

for stud eiìts vvho are b ec o m in g íTiore

We can form sim ple sentences with a subject and a verb in a single clause Ụ en ny

laughed) We can include auxiliary verbs (6e do, have and modals) as part of the verb

phrase and an adverbial after the verb {She was siưing at the table) We can use verbs with

an object {She was drawing a picture) vvithout an object {She giggled) or wilh two objects (She showed me the picture) We can also use linking verbs with com plements

ụ t looked very silly).

We form com pound sentences with clauses joined by the coordinating conjunctions and,

but and o r ụ made some coffee, butUenny wanted orange juice) We form complex sentences

with clauses joined by subordinaling conjunctions such as afíer, because, ịf

and while (We chatíed in the kitchen while I cooked breakíast).

1 Read th ro u g h th is nevvspaper report and find;

1 another simple sentence

2 a compỉex sentence wilh two conjunctions

2 M r Oweĩĩ m ade lunch. • ỉ brought som e cakes. • We drank tea. • Everyone enịoỵeả it.

Sim ple sentences w ith linking verbs, such as be or ỉooky have co m p lem en ts th a t d escribe the subject

Verbs

M o s t v e r b s a r e a c t i o n v e r b s , u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a c t i o n s ( v v h a l w e d o ) a n d e v e n t s ( w h a t h a p p c n s )

S o m e v e r b s a r e S t a t e v e r b s r a t h e r t h a n a c t i o n v e r b s T h e v a r c u s e d t o d e s c r i b c s t a t e s : v v h a t vvc i h i n k( 7 ) , h o w w e f c e l ( 8 ) a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n c i u s i o n a n d p o s s e s s i o n ( 9 )

\Ve d o n 't usually use State vcrbs in the co n tin u o u s ( n o t ' ĩ l tat suitcase is beỉong iitg to m e.)

O t h e r S t a t e v e r b s i n c l u d e : c o n s i s t o f , e x i s t , i n c ỉ u d e , m a t t e r , o w n , p r e f e r , r e a l i z e , r e m e m b e r , r e s e m b l e

W e a ỉ s o u s e l i n k i n g v e r b s {be, íeem, e t c ) t o d c s c r i b e s t a t e s : h o w t h i n g s a r e o r s e e m t o b e

1 0 These fỉowers a re beautiful. • Everything seem s fine • Your frietĩd a p p ea rs to be nervoiis.

VVc c a n u s e s o m e v e r b s , s u c h a s taste o r wcigh, a s S t a t e v e r b s ( 1 1 ) o r a s a c t i o n v e r b s ( 1 2 )

1 2 Have you ta ste d this soup? • Theỵ \veighed ừ a t the posĩ office.

W e u s e t h e a u x i l i a r y v e r b s he, do a n d have w i t h o t h e r v c r b s w h e n w e f o r m d i f f e r e n t t c n s e s ( 1 3 ) ,

qucstions and ncgatives (14) and for emphasis (]*>),

1 3 The boys h ave been xvaiting for you Ị think th e y \e gone outside Theỵ*re pỉaỵing/ootbalL

1 4 W hat d id Ịosh saỵF ~ He diản*t say anything * Does he w ant coffee? - ỉ don*t thirĩk so.

' 1 5 You a re n t working very hard. ~ / AM workirìg hardỉ • You ảoTỈĩ mi$s me - ỉ DO mìss youl

W è a l s o u s e be, do a n d have a s m a i n v e r b s : He is lazỵ He does nothing He has no money,

W e u s e m o d a l a u x i l i a r y v c r b s ( m o d a l s ) s u c h a s caìĩj must, shouỉd o r w iỉl w i t h o t h e r v e r b s t o e x p r e s s

c o n c e p t s s u c h a s p e r m i s s i o n , o b l i g a t i o n , n e c e s s i t y , p r e d i c t i o n , e t c

1 6 Can I ỉeave now? • You shouĩdn^t go ỵet. • ỉ m u st catch the next btts or 7 7 / be ỉate fo r work.

Find an exam ple o f each o f the fol!ow ing in the nevvspaper re p o rt on page 2

1 a s i m p l e s e n t e n c e w i t h a l i n k i n g v e r b :

2 a c l a u s e w i t h a n a c t i o n v e r b a n d a n a d v e r b :

3 a c l a u s e w i t h a m o d a l :

Subjects and verbs

Subjects

T h e s u b j e c t o f a s e n t e n c e is u s u a i ỉ y t h e í ĩ r s t n o u n p h r a s e o r p r o n o u n i d e n t i í y i n g w h o o r v v h a t is

p e r f o r m i n g a n a c t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y t h e v e r b ( 1 ) I t c a a i d e n t i í y w h o o r w h a t is e x p e r i e n c i n g s o m e t h i n g( 2 ) I t c a n a l s o b e t h e f o c u s o f a d e s c r i p t i o n ( i e w h o o r w h a t t h e c o m p l e m e n t is l i n k e d t o ) ( 3 )

W e u s u a l l y p u t t h e s u b j e c t b e f o r e t h e v e r b e x c e p t i n q u e s t i o n s ( 4 ) a n d s e n t e n c c s u s i n g i n v e r s i o n ( 5 )

T h e s u b j e c t c a n a l s o b e a g e r u n d ( 6 ) , a n i n f i n i t i v e ( 7 ) o r a c l a u s e ( 8 )

8 T h a t L a bo u r w ou ỉd w in the election was never in douht. • W h a t he sa id w a sn t very poỉite.

Subject-verb agreement

I t is t h e s u b j e c t t h a t d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r t h e v e r b is s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l ( 9 ) I t is t h e m a i n n o u n a s

s u b j e c t , n o t a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , t h a t m a k e s t h e v e r b s i n g u l a r ( 1 0 ) o r p l u r a l ( 1 1 )

1 0 A new p air o f shoes doesn^t cost a ỉot. • A woman with three chiỉdren w as w aiting outside.

W e u s e s i n g u l a r v e r b s a í ì c r i n d e í ì n i t e p r o n o u n s {everybodyy noboảyy e t c ) a s s u b j e c t s ( 1 2 ) W c I i s u a ỉ l y

u s e s i n g u l a r v e r b s a f t e r s u b j e c t s b e g i n n i n g w i t h none o f a n d neither o fìn í o r m a l s i t u a t i o n s ( 1 3 ) W e

s o m e t i m e s u s e p l u r a l v e r b s i n i n í o r m a l s i t u a t i o n s ( 1 4 ) ,

1 2 Everybody in the coim try w a n ts one o f these * N obody except his parents w as wiỉỉing ĩo heỉp.

1 3 None o f the canảidates has much support. • Neither o f King Henrỵ's sons w as born in Prance.

1 4 She shouĩedy 'None o f you h ave a chanceJ • He's compỉaining that neither o f them were asked

W e u s e s i n g u l a r v e r b s a í t e r s o m e s u b j e c t s t h a t s e e m t o b e p l u r a l : s o m e n o u n s e n đ i n g i n -5 ( 1 5 ) ,

p h r a s c s d e s c r i b i n g a n a m o u n t ( 1 6 ) a n d s o m e c o m b i n a t i ơ n s v v ith and ( 1 7 ) T h e r e a r e s o m e n o ụ n s

s u c h a s peopỉe a n d p o / i c e w h i c h a p p e a r t o b e s i n g u l a r , b u t w h i c h a r e u s e d v v ith a p l u r a i v e r b ( 1 8 )

1 5 The news w asn't too bad. • Cards is more than a gam e for some people. • Measles is a disease.

1 6 F iftỵpounds is too much • Twenty mỉles w as too far and rvi^o days wasn*t enough time.

1 7 Tom and Ịerry is a rather vioỉent cartoon. • Sausage and beans doesn*t cost very much.

1 8 The poỉice are trỵing to stop speeding in the city, but peopỉe a re stiỉỉ driving too fast.

W e c a n u s e a g r o u p n o u n a s s u b j e c t t o r e f e r t o s e v e r a l p e o p l e , v v ith a p l u r a l v c r b ( 1 9 ) , o r l o r e í e r t o

t h e g r o u p a s a s i n g l e u n i t , w i t h a s i n g u l a r v e r b ( 2 0 ) , d e p e n d i n g o n o u r p o i n t o f v i e w

1 9 The Weỉsh team are getting tired. • The committee h ave not expresseả aỉl ĩheir vie\vs,

2 0 The Weỉsh team is in seconả pỉace. • The committee hasn’t reached a ảecision ỵet.

O t h e r g r o u p n o u n s i n c l u d e : a u d i e n c e , c l a s s , c r o w d , e n e m y , í a m i l y , g o v e r n m e n t , o r c h e s t r a , s t a f f

N o t e t h a t , i n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h , a s i n g u l a r v e r b i s t y p i c a l l y u s e d a f t e r a g r o u p n o u n :

M ỵ wifẽ’sỷam ily aỉways has a big get-together with a barbecue on ]u ly 4th.

4 Find an exam ple o f each o f the fo llo w in g in the nevvspaper re p o rt on page 2.

1 a c l a u s e w i t h a n i n d e í ĩ n i t e p r o n o u n

2 a c l a u s e v v ith a n o u n r e í e r r i n g t o a g r o u p

5 Add one o f these verbs to each o f the sentences.

/ does ảoesn t has have is is n t are a re n t was w a sn t w o n t

7 Com plete each senỉence w ith One o f these vvords plus h a s o r have.

l^xamplc; D ia b ẹ lẹ s .b ạ s , bccoiiic a I i i o r e conim on discasc, mainly bccause o f thc way we cat.

Verbs w ith objects (transitive verbs)

Verbs w ithout objects (intransitive verbs)

9 D arw in d ie d in 1882. • ỉ s ĩe p t untiỉ noon. • Theỵ are kn eeỉin g on m ats and p ra y in g to God.

1 0 It ca m eỷro m Argentina. • L ets go to bed, • W e w a lk to the park and then we run round /í

Verbs used with and without obịects

W c c a n u s e s o i ĩ i e v e r b s , s u c h a s eatoT reaả, v v ith o b j e c t s ( 1 1 ) o r v v i t h o u t o b j e c t s ( 1 2 )

11 She rea d his note. • ỉ đon ĩ ea t ỷỉsh • We w on the rnatch. • Do you sp eak Engỉish?

1 2 H e aĩw ays rea ds wheri he's eating. • D id ỵou win? • She was so upset she couĩdn^t speak.

O t h e r s i n c l u d e : c o o k , d r a w , d r e s s , d r i n k , d r i v e , h u r t , p a i n t , s p r e a d , s t ư d y , w r i t e

T h e r e a r e s o m e v e r b s , s u c h a s die o r smỉỉe, t h a t w e u s u a l l y u s e v v i ứ i o u t a n o b j c c t ( 1 3 ) » b u t w h i c h c a n

a l s o b e u s e d v v ith O n e p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t ( 1 4 )

1 3 M iss Reynolds sm ile d and said she was quite certain that none o f us w ould ever die.

1 4 Nina s m ile d her bright smile She seemed unconcerned th at she m ỉght d ỉe a painful death.

O ứ i e r s i n c l u d e : d a n c e , d r e a m , l a u g h , l i v c , s i g h

W e c a n u s e s o m e v e r b s , s u c h ^sfight or meet, v v i t h o b j e c t s ( 1 5 ) W e c a n a l s o u s e t h e m w i t h o u t o b ị e c t í i

a f t e r p l u r a l s u b j e c t s v v h e n each 0 t h e r ( ỉ 6 ) o r with each o th e r {\7 ) is u n d e r s t o o d ,

1 5 When I m e t Sergio ifĩ M adrid, he em braced me ỉike a brother. • John had to fig h t ívựo thugs.

1 6 We m e t in Rome. • O urfiỉĩgers touched. • The old women em braced. • Theỵ hugged and kỉssed.

1 7 Ịohn a n d ĩ a lw a ysfig h t. • Two o f Austraỉia*s m ajor wine producers h ave m erged.

Verbs and objects

8 Usirg a d ic tio n a ry if necessary, com plete these d e íin itio n s w ith trtre no u n s and

appropriate fo rm s o f the verbs Add the w ord things after any verb th a t needs an object.

9 Chcose an answ er (a -d ) fo r each question (1-4) and add a p p ro priate fo rm s o f these

ve n s If necessary, add the pronoun It and/or a prepositlon.

10 AdJ the co rre c t pair o f in tra n sitive verbs to each sentence Use a p p ro p ria te form s

Verbs with indirect objects and clauses

Verbs with indirect objects

W e u s e t w o o b j e c t s a í t e r s o m e v e r b s : a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t a n d a d i r e c t o b j e c t W i t h a v e r b s u c h a s sendy

w e c a n p u t t h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t a f t e r t h e v e r b : ( 1 ) o r a f t e r t h e p r e p o s i t i o n to ( 2 ) T h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t

iỵou, Joe, everỵone) r e c e i v e s t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t (postcard, note,form ).

1 7 7 / send ỵo u a postcard. • She handed Joe the note. • D id ỵou give everỵo n e a form?

O t h e r s i n c l u d e : b r i n g , l e n d , o ffe r> p a s s , p o s t , r e a d , s e l l , s h o v v , t e a c h , t e l l , t h r o w , w r i t e

W e d o n t p u t to + i n d i r e c t o b j e c t b e í o r e a d i r e c t o b j e c t (N O T Đ iđ you give tữ cyeryonc a fo rtn ĩ)

W i t h a v e r b s u c h a s buỵy w e c a n p u t t h e i n d i r e c t o b j c c t a í t e r t h e v e r b ( 3 ) o r a f t e r t h e p r e p o s i t i o n for

( 4 ) T h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t {him, me, ỵou) b e n e í ì t s f r o m t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e r b {huỵ, do, make).

O t h e r s i n c l u d e : b u i l d , c o o k , c u t , d r a w , f e t c h , f i n d , g e t , k e e p , l e a v e , o r d e r , p i c k , s a v e

W e d o n ' t p u t for + i n d i r e c t o b j e c t b e f o r e a d i r e c t o b j e c l ( n o t / 7 / m akcỷor you a sanềw ich -^

W e p u t s h o r t e r o b j e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y p r o n o u n s , b e í o r e l o n g e r o b j e c t s ( 5 ) V V h e n w e u s e p r o n o u n s f o r

b o t h o b j e c t s a í t e r t h e v e r b , w e p u t t h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t p r o n o u n f i r s t ( 6 )

6 Show m e it. ( n o t Shơw-it me.) • ưlỉ m a k eyo u one. ( n o t v u makc one-ỵeu:)

1 0 She said that she wouỉd be late. • He expỉained that there was no money ĩeft.

N o t e t h a t t h e w o r d th at is o í t e n o m i t t e d : He thÌTỉks the students are ìazỵ.

A f t e r v e r b s r e p o r t i n g q u e s t i o n s , w e c a n b e g i n t h e c l a u s e v v ith ift whether ( 1 1 ) o r a v v /i- v v o r d ( 1 2 )

1 1 The teacher asked i f anyone was absen t • Theỵ enquired whether it was legaỉ or not,

1 2 VVe shouỉd ask w h at it costs. • / wonder when th e ỵ lỉ make the decỉsion.

After reporting verbs such as rem ind or teiu w e m ust have an indirect object beíore the clause.

1 3 r u rem ìnd him th a ty o u r e here. • You toỉd m e that he was iỉL ( n o t ¥ ou -toỉd-ềha t he Ui)

O t h e r s i n c l u d e : a s s u r e , c o n v i n c e , i n í o r m , n o t i í y , p e r s u a d e

A f t e r a r e p o r t i n g v e r b s u c h a s admit^ w e m u s t u s e to b e f o r e a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t b e f o r e a c l a u s e

1 4 He adm itted to th e p o lỉc e that he had stoĩetĩ the money. ( n o t -ff o tkí* tUa^ị

O t h e r s i n c l u d e : b o a s t , c o n í e s s , d e c l a r e , h i n t , p r o p o s e , r e v e a l

11 Com plete each sentence in such a way th a t it is as sim ỉỉar as p o ssib le in meanỉng to the sentence o r sentences before it.

5 In a university, if certain courses a r e , it means that all stuđents must take those

Linking verbs

Linking verbs and complements

L i n k i n g v e r b s , s u c h a s be o r seem, a r e f o l l o w e d b y a c o m p l e m e n t t h a t d e s c r i b e s o r i d e n t i í ĩ e s t h e s u b j e c t

o f t h e s e n t e n c e C o m p l e m e n t s c a n b e a d j e c t i v e s ( 1 ) , n o u n p h r a s e s ( 2 ) o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s ( 3 )

2 ĩ a m a stu den t. • Anna beca m e m ỵ hestỷrien d. • Despỉte the scandaỉ, he rem a in ed p r e s id e n t

3 She said she w a s on a d i e t • H e seem ed in a g o o d m oođ. • Som etim es ỉ fe e ỉ ĩik e an ỉ d i o t

L i n k i n g v e r b s a r e a l s o c a l l e d c o p u l a s o r c o p u l a r v e r b s ,

W e c a n u s e seem a n d appearas l i n k i n g v e r b s w i t h a n i n í ĩ n i t i v e a n d a c o m p ỉ e m e n t ( 4 ) W e c a n a l s o

u s e seem w i t h o r v v i t h o u t to b eb e ìo re c o m p l e m e n t s ( 5 ) Seem is l e s s f o r m a J t h a n appear.

I n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h , to be i s n o t l e f t o u t a f t e r seem: He seemed to be a harả-w orking student.

W e c a n u s e v e r b s d e s c r i b i n g o u r s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e s ự e e l smeỉỉ, taste) o r o u r o p i n i o n s (ỉooky sound) a s

l i n k i n g v e r b s w i t h a d j e c t i v e s ( 6 ) o r w i t h / i 7 c e b e f o r e n o u n p h r a s e s ( 7 )

6 ỉ/e e lg r e a t! • You look much better. • The fooả didn't sm eĩĩ good a n d iĩ ta ste d terribỉe.

a-m h )

W i t h s o m e v e r b s (make, fitĩả, caỉỉ) w e c a n u s e a d j e c t i v e s a n d n o u n p h r a s e s a s c o m p l e m e n t s a f t e r t h e

o b j e c t s t o d e s c r i b e o r a d d i n í o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e o b j e c t s

N o t e t h e w o r d o r d e r : Let*s p a in t the w aỉĩ white. ( n o t Let'ỷ'p a iní-w k itc thc w aỉl.)

Linking verbs used to éxpress change

W e u s e become a n d get a s l i n k i n g v e r b s t o t a l k a b o u t t h e r e s u l t o f c h a n g e

W e c a n u s e become ( n o t get) a s a l i n k i n g v e r b w i t h n o u n c o m p l e m e n t s ( 1 0 ) a n d g et ( n o t become) i n

m a n y c o m m o n p h r a s e s d e s c r i b i n g a c t i o n s ( 1 1 ) G e í is l e s s í o r m a l t h a n become.

1 0 Traffic deỉaỵs h a ve becom e a probỉem, • We becam e/riends. ( n o t We bccamc to hcỹricnds,)

1 1 Theỵ w o n t g e t m arried, • H e g o t dressed quickly. • Let*s g e t ready. ( n o t Let*s becữtne reaảy.)

We can use go and turn to taỉk about change (12) We use turn inĩo beíore a n oun phrasc for a

c o m p l e t e c h a n g e o f S t a t e ( 1 3 )

1 2 r i ỉ go crazy i f I have to w ait. • O ur dog 15 go in g blinả, * She tu r n e d pale, • The light tu m e d green.

1 3 Joe tu rn eđ in to a maniac. • The caterpiỉlar tu m e d ỉn to a butterfỉy. ( n o t The catcrpiUar-tu rncd a

L- ^ \

vTỆtWTjTỴ:)

We use come and grow as linking verbs with adjectives in phrases that usually express slower change,

u n l e s s m o d i í i c d b y a d v e r b s s u c h a s suddenly OT unexpectedỉy (Ĩ 4 ). W e c a n u s e come a n d grow b e f o r e

i n f i n i t i v e s t o d e s c r i b e g r a d u a l c h a n g e ( 1 5 )

1 5 A s w e ca m e to k n o w her betten w e g re w to like her a ỉot We c a m e to see thÌTĩgs as she did.

W e u s e s o m e v e r b s {keepy remain, staỵ) a s l i n k i n g v e r b s t o t a l k a b o u t a s i t u a t i o n n o t c h a n g i n g

1 6 Please k eep quiet. • She k e p t husy. • Everỵthing rem a in ed the same. • We tried to s ta y w arm

N o l e t h a t t h e s e v e r b s a r e n o t u s e d w i t h to be, ( n o t v u kccp to be (Ịuict We stayed- ■ '

14 ChDOse an answer (a -f) fo r each question (1-6) and add the línking verbs belovv Use the apỉropriate form

15 Ccmplete each paragraph w ith appropriate form s o f the verbs fro m one group

he.ome / get / make / seem feeỉ / get / staỵ / turn

iisa p p o in tm e n t, he later decided to (5) a priest

c Elena was reading a novel with a red dragon on the cover It (6) ỉike a large

l i z a r d w i t h w i n g s T h e n o v e l w a s a h o r r o r s t o r y , s h e s a i d , f u l l o f p e o p l e w h o ( 7 ) living n o rm al lives, b u t were actually vam pires, and One character w h o (8) into

Compound and complex sentences

17 VVrite the num bers o f ap p ro p ria te exam ples in the spaces

Compound sentences

A compound sentence has two 2 or more 1 clauses joíncd by coordinating conjunctions: and, buty or.

2 D ave slept a n d ỉ reaả. • ỉt wa$n*t c o lả ,b u t ỉ was shivering, • You m u st heỉp us o r we w ill fa il

We usually leavc out the same subjcct »thc samc subject + vcrb or the samc subject + auxiliiary from later clauscs in a com pound sentence.

Leaving out the subject and/or other parts o f the scntcnce is callcd ellipsis.

We usually leave out the samc verb + object after an auxiỉiary vcrb in later clauses , but we preííCr

to leave out repeated objccts and/or prepositional phrascs from the íìrst clause

6 /7/ wash an d peeỉ the potatoes • McGregors have ỉived an d d ied in C riefffor centuries,

We can em phasize the relationship between tw o clauses in com pou n d sentences by using diíĩerent combỉnations of conjunctions Theỵ can express an addỉtion , an altemative , a

com bỉnatỉon or a com bination o f negatives

10 / wilỊ n eỉth e r sleep n o r rest until thừ i$ over, • He n eith e r speaks Engỉish n o r understands iL

11 You can e ith e r g o w ith U5 o r stay here aỉone. • They m ust e ith e r p a y you o r give you tim e off.

Compỉex sentences

We create com plex sentences bỵ joining tw o or m ore clauses with subordinatỉng conjunctions suchỉ as

12 / couldn^t sleep hecause I was thinking abou t alỉ the work ih a t Ị h ad to do heỷort I could leave.

Note that thc samc subject is repeated (NOT ỉ t ouiàtitệsleep becttuseWứs thinking.)

Others inciude: although, as, if, in ordcr that sincc, whcn, who

put adverbial clauses, foỉlowed by a com m a, at thc beginning o f com plex sentences

13 / didn*t reaĩize that Brían wasn*tỷeeling weIL * Did you know that he was marriedĩ

15 / had a shower a fte r ỉ ran. • He*s stiỉỉ working althou gh he*s 72, • We won't p la ỵ i f i t rains,

Com pound-complex sentences

Wc form com pou n d-com p lex sentences with three or m ore clauses joined by both coordinating anid subordinating conjunctions.

1 7 We h it a lam p p o st a n d it shattered the glass on the fro n t ảooT bẹfore I m anaged to bring

the bus to a hãỉt.

18 H arvo U sa id , 7 was so relieved th a t no one eb e was hurti b u t I h o p e d the driver yvould survive'

18 Choose an ending (a -d ) fo r each beginning (1-4) and add the co n ju n ctỉo n s and, but or or.

1 Y o u c a n le a v e n o w a s h e c a n a l s o r e a d w r i t e it

2 H e s a y s h e n e e d s a k n i f e ( ) b d r i e s t h e m s t r a i g h t a w a y

3 S h e n o t o n l v s p e a k s A r a b i c , ( ) c s t a y h e l p u s í ĩ n i s h t h e j o b

4 B o b u s u a l l y v v a s h e s t h e d i s h e s ( ) d s c i s s o r s t o o p e n t h e p a c k a g e

19 Comptete these sentences w ith a verb o r subject verb from below

20 Complete the d e fin itio n s w ith these nouns and conjunctio ns

but

which teỉl

B ld e n tify the one underlined e xpression (A, B, c o r D) th a t m u st be changed i n order to

co rre ct the sentence

c Conplete th is text w ith approprìate ío rm s o f the verbs A đd the o th e r w o rds in the

E Cim plete th ỉs text w ỉth approprỉate fo rm s o f the verbs pius a com plem ent in each space

Tense is the relationship betvveen the form o f the verb and the tim e o f the action or State it describes We ofỉen use the auxiliary verbs be and have with other verbs when we form

different tenses See page 17 for a table of English verb íorm s and tenses

1 Read th ro u g h th is text and fln d ;

1 another sentence with be as a main verb

2 a sentence with be and a sentence with have as auxiliary verbs

ĩh ìs October 31st is a scary day fbr Dylan Bames,

just because ít is Halỉovveen, but becausc it

a special anniversary fbr h im |For several

w ill have been trying to lum a good idea i

successílii business via the Internet He

doing anything special to celebrate ứie

mainly because his business vetìture

tnade any moriQ^ fbr most o f the past year

two basiness paiíners beíbrc him, he w ill

to dọ someứiing else.

B VVhen they started» it had seemed likc such a great

idea Dylan and his friend, Michael Undenvood, had

been vvriting up their lecture notes as compỉete sets,

with revievv sheets and sample tests, and selling them

lo other students They had used that money to pay

complete sets o f noics ÍTom other big lecturc

^lasses, which they then sold to an eager population

^new students They were siarting to make a small

proíìt when ihey met Terry Lloyd Terry had

crcating home pages fbr his ửiends, ứien larger

ĩites on the Inỉemet, and he showed them how

it too Using the initials o f their last names,

created ‘Bullnotes’, established a website, and set

become entrepreneurs of the iníbrmation age

>n found thai studcnts were looking íbrmore

:ture notes They needed tộ ^ 0 other ứiỉngs

^ ‘ ■ Ịinc

have you

e kind of meone has mmendation

load the basic

ị ị ÍOI your

»E

w an ts these things, nts to p ay for them

g this letter in support of whom I have known fbr , ycars’, aind

o f fòrms available ÍTOm Ịppiication fbrms to thiosí working day and niight mặtỊỊaaÌ avulable, but he didn’t th:ink doing in terms o f a business irhe

soớa dỉỉcovered is ứiat everyone

ứiesiỄỆdỊQ^ but no one wants to pay fbr them

In what put to bc a common experience fbt many peâp|p ưỉed to create Internet businesises they hàd a kicccssíul vvebsite, but thcy didn*t really make any money fix)m ÌL

Terry quickly íbund a highly paid job wiứi an investment company and Michael went o ff to Wí 0 rlt fbr a soíhvare manuíacturer Dyỉan is stỉll iooking fbr

a way to make Bullnotes work as a business> tout these days he is always counting his pennies

is having a hard time paying his bills He ha^i about taking a teaching job aíter

teacher o f busỉness wrìting wiứi b u s in ^

He has lots o f experiencc now and ihexỆr Ịị

be a probỉem with ửie letter o f applu

Choose one o f the fo llo w ìn g as the final sentence o f each o f the paragraphs (A -E ) abov€,

1 They were ready to becom e millionaires ( )

2 He also knows vvhere to fĩnd som e good lecture notes ( )

3 Everyone acted as if the iníorm ation was free ( )

4 He will have to find a job ( )

5 VVriting was a couple o f clicks» then a fill-in-the-blanks exercise ( )

Verbs, auxiliary verbs and tenses

T h -' b a s e f o r m o f t h e v e r b is l i s t e d i n t h e d i c t i o n a r y ĩ t is u s e d i n t h e i m p e r a t i v e a n d t h e i n í ì n i t i v e

Stop! • Pỉease w a it. • D o n t be impatienĩ. • Ask someone to heỉp you. • Leĩ's tr y to fin d a sohttion

T h : b a s e f o r m is a l s o c a l ỉ e d t h e b a r e i n f i n i t i v e o r t h e i n í i n i t i v e w i t h o u t to.

M f S t v e r b s a r e u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a c t i o n s o r e v e n t s ( 2 ) S o m e v e r b s a r e u s e d f o r s t a t e s ( 3 )

VVedon t usually use State verbs in th e co n tin u o u s form (NOT / m bciie^ i ng-yữU:)

' H a v e you b een sỉeeping? • It h a srử been ra in in g recenúy • We h a d heen s tu d ỵ ìn g fo r hours.

T h : c o n t i n u o u s r b r m is a l s o c a l l e d t h e P r o g r e s s i v e

VVe u s e m o d a l a u x i l i a r i e s ( m o d a l s ) w i t h t h e b a s e f o r m o f t h e v e r b o r w i t h t h e a u x i l i a r i e s be a n d have.

Ị They w ilỉ h eĩp us. • / ’/ / he yvaiting foT you. • VVe won*t have finished. (K O T Wí^ w o n

t-3 C o nplete th is ta b le w ith one example o f each form from the text on page 16

P i t u r e c o n t i n u o u s : w iỉl + + p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e wiỉl be p ỉa ỵ in g

F u u r e p e r í e c t : w iĩỉ + have + p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w iỉỉ have p la y e d

F ư u r e p e r í e c t c o n t i n u o u s : wiỊl + have + been w ill have been pỉaying

+ ĩ r e s e n t p a r t ì c i p l e

F o n n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t i r r e g u l a r v e r b f o r m s s e e p a g e s 2 8 6 - 7

1 7

Present simple and present continuous

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t s i m p l e f o r p e r m a n e n t s i t u a t i o n s ( 1 ) a n d t h i n g s t h a t a r e g e n e r a l l y t r u e ( 2 )

W e a l s o u s e t h e p r e s e n t s i m p l e f o r h a b i t s ( 3 ) , t h i n g s t h a t h a p p e n r e g u l a r l ỵ ( 4 ) , v v ith v e r b s t h a t

d e s c r i b e c u r r e n t s t a t e s ( 5 ) a n d i n i n í o r m a l r e p o r t s o r i n s t r u c t i o n s ( 6 )

10 M y sister Fiona is ỉiv in g w ith A ỉa n ịu s t now, She isn*t w o r k in g ỵ e t She*s lo o k in g fo r a job.

W e c a n u s e be a n d have i n t h e p r e s e n t s i m p l e f o r a t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n o r S t a t e ( 1 1 ) a n d i n t h e p r e s e n t

c o n t i n u o u s f o r a t e m p o r a r y o r s p e c i a l s i l u a t i o n ( 1 2 )

1 2 Wendỵ*s b ein g w iĩd tonighĩ She*s h avin g a graduation party.

Present períect and present perfect continuous

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t t o t a l k a b o u t o r d e s c r i b e a n a c t i o n o r s i t u a t i o n s t a r t c d i n t h e p a s t v v h ic h

con n ccts to thc present (1 3 ), vvhen we m ean ‘at a n y p o in t up ÍO n o w ’ (14) an d vvith State verbs (15).

1 3 H ow ĩong have you w o rk ed here? - / V e w orked here since 1997, ( n o t I work herc sincc 1997.)

1 4 This is the best coffee ĩ have ever tasted. • / haven*t been to an opera, b u t / V e $een one on TV.

1 5 I h ave knoyvn Tony fo r about fỉve years. ( n o t / h w w hhn-fơr fiv€ ycars. / bcen khowing him-

for ^ ^•cỵcars.)

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r f e c t c o n t i n u o u s w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t a n a c t i v i t y i n p r o g r e s s u p t o t h e p r e s e n t ( 1 6 ) a n d t o a s k a b o u t o r d e s c r i b e a c t i o n s w h i c h g o o n o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e u p t o t h e p r e s e n t ( 1 7 )

1 6 Theỵ*ve heen re p a irin g our Street and it*s been causing a ỉot o f traffic probkm s.

1 7 H a v e ỵ o u been yụaiting long? - / V e been sittin g herefor an hour '

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t c o n t i n u o u s t o d e s c r i b e s o m e t h i n g a s i f i t is a c o n t i n u o u s a c t i o n u p t o t h e

p r e s e n t ( 1 8 ) a n d t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t t o d e s c r i b e i t a s a s e r i e s o f s c p a r a t e a c t i o n s ( 1 9 )

1 8 He*s been caỉĩin g fo ry o u • ỉt has been raining a ỉot recentỉỵ. ( n o t ỉt's ram ingữ ìot reecntly.)

1 9 He has ca ỉĩed fo u r tim es and he has asked for you each time. ( n o t H c has bccrĩ-eíìlỉing four tim-eỷ-.)

W e c a n d e s c r i b e a n a c t i o n a s a p r o c e s s g o i n g o n f r o m e a r l i e r u p t o t h e p r e s e n t ( p r e s e n t p e r í e c t

c o n t i n u o u s ) ( 2 0 ) o r a s t h e p r e s e n t r e s u l t o f a n e a r l i e r a c t i o n ( p r e s e n t p e r í e c t ) ( 2 1 )

2 0 V V eV e been m a k in g chicken soup That*s \vhy the kitchen is hoĩ and steamỵ.

2 1 V V eV e m a d e chicken soĩip T h a ù what everyone is eatirig Would you ỉike some?

Present and present períect

4 Complete each paragraph w ỉth one set o f verbs, using the present sim ple or present

(15) the library as her classroom

5 Using a d ic tio n a ry if necessary, com plete these sentences w ith the nouns and the verbs

in the present pertect

6 Choose an answ er (a -d ) fo r each question (1-4) and add these verbs in the present

perfect or the presen t pertect continuous

Past and past períect

Past simple and past continuous

W e u s e t h e p a s t s i m p l e f o r c o m p l e t e d a c t i o n s i n t h e p a s t ( 1 ) a n d p a s t s t a t e s ( 2 )

W e u s e t h e p a s t s i m p l e f o r t w o o r m o r e p a s t a c t i o n s i n s e q u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n n a r r a t i v e

He took off his hat and ca m e forward The/ỉoorboards creaked under his boots.

T o t a l k a b o u t h a b i t s i n t h e p a s t o r t o m a k e a s t r o n g e r c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e p r e s e n t , w e c a n u s e t h e f o r m

used to ( 4 ) T h e n e g a t i v e is d id n t use to o r ( m o r e í o r m a l l y ) used not to ( 5 ) W e c a n a l s o u s e wouỉd t o

t a l k a b o u t t y p i c a l a c t i o n s o r a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g a p e r i o d i n t h e p a s t ( 6 )

W e u s e t h e p a s t c o n t i n u o u s t o d e s c r i b e a c t i o n s i n p r o g r e s s a t a s p e c i í ì c t i m e i n t h e p a s t

7 W hat w ere ỵou ả o in g a t 8.30 last nìght? - / wasn*t d o in g anything speciai ỉ w a sju sĩ reading, •

During the Ỉ890s, m any peopỉe were leavin g the South and m o vin g to the north to ỉook fo r work.

W e c a n u s e t h e p a s t c o n t i n u o u s v v ith s o m e v e r b s {wonder, hope) t o m a k e a r e q u e s t m o r e p o l i t e

W e c a n u s e t h e p a s t s i m p l e w h e n w e w a n t t o d e s c r i b e a p a s t a c t i v i t y a s a s e r i e s o f s e p a r a t e a c t i o n s ( 9 )

a n d t h e p a s t c o n t i n u o u s t o d e s c r i b e t h e p a s t a c t i v i t y a s i f i t w a s a c o n t i n u o u s a c t i o n ( 1 0 ) I n m a n y

c a s e s , t h e p a s t s i m p l e a n d p a s t c o n t i n u o u s c a n b e u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y

1 0 Before the finaỉ exam, however, she was goin g to the ỉibrary and stu d y in g every singĩe day.

I n s e n t e n c e s w i t h when- a n d > v /i/7 e - c la u s e s , w e c a n u s e t h e p a s t c o n t i n u o u s t o d e s c r i b e a n a c t i v i t y i n

o n e c l a u s e t h a t s t a r t s b e í o r e a n a c t i o n i n a n o t h e r c l a u s e ( 1 1 ) T h e a c t i v i t y t h a t s t a r t s l a t e r m a y

ì n t e r r u p t t h e í ĩ r s t a c t i v i t y ( 1 2 )

11 w / i / 7 e he w as ả rỉvin g , ỉ f e ỉĩ asỉeep. • We saw Henrỵ while we w ere w a lk in g in the park.

12 / w a s ìisten in g to the news when she phoned. • When ỉ w as runtting, í s ỉip p e d and fell.

N o t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n When $he came back, we were watching TV í = W e v v e r e v v a t c h i n g b e í o r e

s h e c a m e b a c k ) a n d When she came back, we watched TV ( = W e w a t c h e d a í t e r s h e c a m e b a c k )

Past períect and past perfcct continuous

We use the past perfect (or pluperíect) when we are describing an action vvith the past simple and we

w a n t t o r e f e r t o a n a c t i o n f u r t h e r i n t h e p a s t ( 1 3 ) W e a l s o u s e t h e p a s t p e r f e c t f o r e a r l i e r e v e n t s a í t e r

c l a u s e s w i t h r e p o r t i n g o r t h i n k i n g v e r b s i n t h e p a s t ( 1 4 )

1 3 We w ent to his office» bu t he h ad left. • Susan d id n t have the m oney because she h ad spen t it.

1 4 Ịoe toỉả me our team h a d scored twice, • Ị thought we h a đ won. ( n o t / thought iỲC hoYC w on:)

W e u s e t h e p a s t p e r í e c t c o n t i n u o u s f o r e v e n t s i n p r o g r e s s b e f o r e a n o t h e r e v e n t i n t h e p a s t

1 5 ỉ h a d heen th in k in g about th at before you m entỉoned ừ.

S t a t e v e r b s a r e n o t u s e d i n t h i s w a y ( n q t / had bccn know ing abữut th at heỊorcyoiề m cnùotícd i> )

W e c a n d e s c r i b e a n a c t i o n a s a p r o c e s s g o i n g o n b e f o r e a p a s t e v e n t ( p a s t p e r í e c t c o n t i n u o u s ) ( 1 6 )

W e c a n a l s o d e s c r i b e i t a s t h e r e s u l t o f a n a c t i o n b e f o r e a p a s t e v e n t ( p a s t p e r í e c t ) ( 1 7 )

1 6 We h a d been m a k in g chicken soup 50 the kitchen was stilỉ hot and steam y when she came in.

1 7 We h a d m a d e chicken soup and so we offered her some when she came ỉn.

8 Com pleỉe each paragraph w ith one set o f verbs, uslng the past sím ple o r past

contin uous

9 C om plete th is text w ith these verbs in the past pertect o r past p eríect contin uous

T h e t e l e p h o n e c a l l f r o m t h e p o l i c e w a s a s h o c k , b u t n o t a c o m p l e t e s u r p r i s e M o l l y

(1) c o n s t a n t l y a b o u t t h c o l d h o u s e l y i n g e m p t y d u r i n g t h e tw ^o m o n t h s s ì n c e

h e r m o t h e r w e n t i n t o h o s p i t a l S h e (2) t o g o r o u n d a n d c h e c k t h e e m p t y p l a c e ,

b u t s h e ( 3 ) e x t r a b u s y a t w o r k r e c e n t l y A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o l i c e , a h o m e l c s s m a n( 4 ) i n t o t h c h o u s e T h e y ( 5 ) h i m o n e m o r n i n g a s h e w a s l e a v i n g

enough pain in r e c e n t vveeks and really didn’t need any m ore bad nevvs.

10 Editing C o rrect the m ỉstakes in the use o f tenses in th ìs text

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t v v h e n \v c t h i n k a s i t u a t i o n h a s n o t e n d e d ( 1 ) a n d t h c p a s t s i m p l e v v h e n vve

t h i n k t h e s i t u a t i o n e n d e d ( 2 )

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t w i t h t i m c e x p r e s s i o n s f o r a p e r i o d u p t o n o w {ìateìy, sofar) ( 3 ) W e u s e

t h e p a s t s i m p l c w i t h t i m e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r a p e r i o d t h a i e n d e d e a r l i e r {ỉast Tĩight, yesterday) ( 4 )

W e u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t v v h e n w e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t a c t i o n s u p t o t h e p r e s e n t v v h ic h m i g h t h a p p e n

a g a i n ( 5 ) a n d t h e p a s t s i m p l e f o r a c t i o n s v v h ic h w e d o n t t h i n k w i l l h a p p e n a g a i n ( 6 )

She h a d three children.

I n c l a u s e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h ạ / í e r , as soon as a n d when, w e c a n u s e t h e p r e s e n t p e r í e c t f o r c o m p l e t e d

a c t i o n s i n t h e f u t u r e ( 7 ) a n d t h e p a s t s i m p l e f o r c o m p l e t e d a c t i o n s i n t h e p a s t ( 8 )

7 A fter/A s soon asAVhen he has m a d e his copies, ỉ wiỉỉ do mine (= He hasn’t made his copies yet

N e i t h e r h a v e I )

8 As soon as he tn a d e his copies, ỉ did mine. ( = H e m a d e h i s c o p i e s í ì r s t , t h e n I m a d e m i n e )

11 Complete each paragraph w ith one set of verbs, using the presen t períect o r past simple

have / not come í teĩl become l have Ị hear know ỉ meet Ị start

12 Complete th is dialogue wìth these verb$ in the present pertect o r past sim ple

Past períect or past sỉmple?

W ; e n w e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t a c t i o n s i n t h e p a s t , w i t h t h e p a s t s i m p l e (won)y a n d w e w a n t t o r e f e r t o

a c t o n s e v e n t u r t h e r i n t h e p a s t , w e u s e t h e p a s t p e r í e c t {had won).

O ỉym picSy b u t th is w a s h e r ỷ ir s t golci.

\ V : h t h e p a s t s i m p l c {arrived) i n a when~c\ause, w e u s e t h e p a s t p e r í e c t {h ad started) i n t h e m a i n

c l a i s e f o r a n e a r l i e r a c t i o n ( 2 ) a n d t h e p a s t s i m p l e {started) f o r a l a t e r a c t i o n ( 3 )

l When he arrived in the morning, we h a d s ta r te d work. ( = W e s t a r t e d w o r k b e f o r e h e a r r i v e d )

3 When he arrivcd in the morning, we s ta r te d work. ( = W e s t a r t e d w o r k a í t e r h e a r r i v e d )

N c t e t h a t t w o v e r b s i n t h e p a s t s i m p l e c a n s u g g e s t a c a u s e a n d e f f e c t : When ỉ caỉỉed, he came.

I n : o n d i t i o n a l s , w e u s e t h e p a s t p e r í e c t f o r s o m e t h i n g t h a t d i d n o t h a p p e n ( 4 ) a n d t h e p a s t s i m p l e f o r

s o n e t h i n g t h a t m i g h t h a p p e n ( 5 )

\V ể u s u a l l y u s e t h e p a s t p e r í e c t , n o t t h e p a s t s i m p l e , i v i t h s o m e a d v e r b s {aỉready, just, sĩiỉỉ).

7 The books s tiỉỉ hadn*t a rriv e d when ỉ ỉeft. ( n o t T h cỵstiỉỉ d id n t arriv c -^^hcn ĩ ỉcft.)

ị The stuảents h a d ỷ u s t open ed their books when the fỉre aỉarm went off.

13 Cl^oose an ending (a -d ) fo r each beginning (1-4) and add these ve rb s in the past períect

14 Ccmpleỉe th is text w ith these verbs

Puture: w iỉl and shaỉl

There is no single form uscd as the íủture tense We can use w ilỉ plus the basc íorm of a verb to give

or ask for information about the íuture z and to talk aboul possible íuture actions when we make

p r o m i s e s , r e q u e s t s o r t h r e a t s W e u s u a l l y U S€ c o n t r a c t e d í o r m s a f t e r p r o n o u n s ( V /) o r i n n c g a t i v e s

(wanV) unless we are being íorm al or emphatic.

We can use shail with /o r w e to express detcrmination, or in questions to make offers or suggcstions.

3 We w iỉỉ /orgive, bu t w e sh alỉ never f o r g e t • Shaỉỉ I m a k e some tea? • Let's taỉk later, shaỉỉ we?

I n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h , w iỉỉ/w o n t ( n o t shaỉưshant) a r e u s e d w i t h / a n d w e

Puture continuous, fùture perfect and íuture períect continuous

We can use Wí7/ be + present participle (the future continuous) to talk aboul future actions in progress at a particular tim e and as a way o f expressing plans or intentions

We can use Wĩỉl + have + past participie (the íulure pcríect) to say thai somelhing will be completed

by a particular time We use w iỉĩ + have been + present participle (the future perfect continuous) when we look ahead to a íuturc time and imagine an action lasting firom a point beíore that time up

to that fủture tim e

W iỉỉ or be going tôi

We use w ilỉ for a prediction based on past cxpcriencc or knowledgc , especỉaUỵ in predictivc conditionaỉs , and b eg o in g to for a prediction bascd on vvhat wc fcel or think now Wc can use

8 O K no, I think ư m g o in g to b e s ic k • We*ve ju s t heard tha t Kim*s g o in g to h a ve a baby.

We use be going to for a decision alreadỵ made and wiỉỉ for a decỉsỉon madc at that momcnt

phone.

13 / need someone to take this to the post office. ~ ư u go! • That*s the phone ringing, * ư u g e t it!

Present sim ple and present continuous for the future

We can usc the prescnt simple for íủture cvcnts in a schcdule or timetable Wc also usc the prescnt simpie for íưture actions in clauses after subordinating c o n j u n c t i o n s We can use the prcsent con tin uou s to talk about a fủture action we have planned or arranged

1 4 ư m seein g the doctor ort Priday. • V V eV ep la y in g tomorrow. ( n o t /1*5 snow ing tom orroíỶ.)

16 Choose an ending (a -d )fo re a c h beginning (1-4 ) and add vv/7/, w iii be o r w i!i havebeen.

c Complete th is text by ch o o sin g o n ly one o f the verbs fro m each pa ir fo r each space.

A l i c e (1) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ t o g e t v e r y t i r e d o f s i t t i n g b y h e r s i s t e r o n t h e b a n k a n d o f h a v i n g

n o t h i n g t o d o : o n c e o r t w i c e s h e (2) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i n t o t h e b o o k h e r s i s t e r

(3) , b u t it (4 ) n o pictu res o r conversations in it, ‘an d vvhat

is t h e u s e o f a b o o k , ’ ( 5 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ A l i c e , ‘w i t h o u t p i c t u r e s o r c o n v e r s a t i o n s ? ’

D Complete each sentence in such a way that it ìs as sim ilar as p o ssib le in meaníng to the sentence above it.

E Complete th is text w ith these verbs

T h e v v o r l d i s g e t t i n g w a r m e r a n d t h e o c e a n s a r e r i s i n g W h y (1) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ t h i s

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ? O n e a n s w e r is t h a t i t c o u l d s i m p l y b e p a r t o f a n a t u r a l process A í t e r a ll,

t h e r e (2) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ic e a g e s a n d l o n g p e r i o d s o f w a r m t h i n t h e p a s t , s o w e c o u l d j u s t

( 3 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a n o t h e r v v a r m i n g t r e n d T h i s k i n d o f a n s w e r ( 4 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

m ore su p p o rte rs a few years ago \V hat scientists now (5) is th a t h u m an

activity is the cause For more than two hundred years, humans (6) gradually

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ t h e a t m o s p h e r e , m a i n l y a s a r e s u l t o f i n d u s t r i a l p o l l ư t i o n W e

(7 ) _an atm osphere a ro u n d the earth th a t, lik c a g ia n t glass Container,

'8 ) heat fr? m the sun th ro u g h and th en (9 ) i l in.

10) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I c m p e r a t u r e s a n d s e a l e v e l s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ■ r i s i n g ? T h e g e n e r a l

n s v v e r i s u n í o r t u n a t c l y y e s

77

The modals are a group of auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall,

should, will, would) that we can use with other verbs to say what is possible, permitted,

necessary, etc

The phrasal modals are a group of verb phrases (be able to, be allovved to, be going to, be supposed to, have to, have got to) that can be used instead of modals.

1 Read ỉhro ugh th is text and f\nà:

1 another negative modal

2 a sentence that contains three different modals

Superstỉtions are belieĩs that some ửiings

can’t be explained by reason and that ứiere

are certain objects or actỉons tfiat bring good

or bad luck Most superstítions are old and

people usually have no idea where they came

from We may be told, for example, thát we

should never open an umbrella indcx)rs

because ứìat will bríng bad liicK We aren't told

why or what kind of bad ữiing might happon to

us, but few of us are going to ưy to fincỉ out

Everyone knows ttìat ửilrteen Is an unlucky

number other thỉngs ữiat can brlng bad liick

ỉnclude breaking a mirror, walkỉng under a

ladder or spilling salt At least when you spíll

satt you cán avóld the bad luck by

Immediately throwing some of tíie sait over

your left shoulder wìth your ríght hand

Untortunately, ữie man sítting behlnd you at

that moment will suddenly get a shower of salt

all over him Obvỉously, hẽ must have done

someứìing earlỉer that brought hỉm bad luck

If you ask people why H Is bad tuck to walk

under a taclder tfiey usuaỉly say ữìat ỉt's

because someứiing might fall on your head It

cx)uld be a hammer a brick, a plecỡ of wood,

paint or water tt Is ỉnteresting that the

superstỉtion ỉs explained in terms of such

orđỉnary things TTie origin of the superstition

is much darker arxi more scary According to

the Oxf6rd Guỉde to Điltỉsh and American

Culture *ữiis idea may have developed ỡut of

ưie practlce ỉn medleval times of hanging

crímỉnals from ladders.'

ỈS

More contusỉng are ỨKỉse superstitions tíìat seem to have dlfferent meanỉngs for clỉfferent people Some people wfll tell you that ỉt ỉs bad luck if a black cat walks ỉn front of you Others will say that seeing a black cat is supposed to

be lucky other tokens of good luck are a foot (not lucky for the rabbỉt, obviously), a special coin a four-leaf clover and

a horseshoe If you hang Uìe horseshoe over your tront door to bring luck to your house, you must be caretul to have tfìe open end pointing upwards If you hang ít the other way your

You can also wish for good luck by Crossing your ílngers You don't have to cross all of them, ònly the míđdle Anger over ứ>e Index finger

There are special phrases ứìat people use

to bring luck There's 'Good luck', of course Another expresslon is ‘Touch wood’ or 'Knock

on wood' This Is usualty heard when people talk about ttieỉr good luck or when they are hoping that they will be able to get or do someữiing ưiey want By usìng the expression, ứ)6 speaker trles to avoid having any bad luck that might be caused by talking about having good luck If there isn't anythỉng woođen to touch, some people will tap themseỉves on the head 8S they say 'Touch wood\ Howevef, actlng as tf you have a wooden head touching

ỉt WỈỨ1 your tingers crossed and sayỉng 'Knock

on wood' all at once wonl necessarily increase your luck

2 Choose one o f the fo llo w in g as the fỉnal sentence o f each o f the paragraphs A -E above

Modals and phrasal modals

2 ỉ c a n w a i t f o r h im • You m u s t ỉe a ve (NOT / ea n w a itin g ỷ^>f^hfm ¥ớu -m u s t to ỉeav e.)

O u g h t IS always fo llo w e d b y to: You o u g h t to go h o m e ( n o t Yỡtí~i>ughệ-gỡ h o m e )

W e d o n o t u s e do w i t h m o đ a l s i n q u e s t i o n s ( 3 ) o r n e g a t i v e s ( 4 )

4 S h e m i g h t n o t w a n t it • ĩ c o u ỉd n ^ t s w ìm v e ry fa s ĩ ( n o t

4-T h e m o d a l s shaỉl, w iỉỉ a n d wouỉd a r e u s u a l l y c o n t r a c t e d ( 5 ) , u n l e s s t h e y a r e b e i n g e m p h a s i z e d ( 6 )

W e u s u a l l y u s e t h e f o r m s couỉd, might znd woiỉỉd i n c l a u s e s a í t e r p a s t t e n s e v e r b s ( 7 ) , e s p e c i a l l y i n

1 0 M ost oỉd people a re a bỉe to ỉook after themseỉves {= T h c y c a n l o o k a í t e r ứ i e m s e l v e s )

However, we h a ve to make sure that they can cope. ( = W e m u s t O R W e should m ake s u r e

O t h e r s : b e a l l o v v e d t o ( c a n / m a y ) , b c g o i n g t o ( w i l l ) , b e s u p p o s e d t o ( s h o u l d ) , h a v e g o t t o ( m u s t )

\V e a l w a y s u s e p h r a s a l m o d a l s i n s t e a d o f m o d a l s i n í ì v e s t r u c t u r e s : a f t e r a m o d a l ( 1 1 ) , \ v h e r e a n

i n í ì n i t i v e ( 1 2 ) o r a g e r u n d ( 1 3 ) is n e e d e d , a n d i n t h e p e r í e c t ( 1 4 ) a n d c o n t i n u o u s ( 1 5 ) f o r m s

1 2 He seems to be a b le tỡ do everything • Ị ìỉope to be aU ow ed io stay,

1 3 ỉ lỡve bein g a b ĩe to sit outsiảe in the sun. • Ị hate h a vin g to repeat everỵthing.

1 4 They h a ve h a đ to vựait/or hours • Theỵ haven^t been a ỉĩo w ed to ỉeave the buiỉảing,

1 5 She is h a vin g to p a y extra • We aren^t being a ỉỉow ed to take the test early.

We can use two phrasal m odals together: V m g o in g to h ave to go to the sh o p fo r more bread.

Find the three sentence s in the text on page 28 th a t contain both a m odal and a phrasal modal

29

Complex modals

W e f o r m t h e m o d a l p e r f e c t w i ứ i a m o d a l b e ỉ o r e have p l u s a p a s t p a r t i c i p l e

1 N ic /c m a y h ave taken ỵo u r hook He shouĩdn^t h ave don e that. ( n o t H c shỡuldrì t donc thút.) •

Obviously, he m u s t h a ve d o n e something earỉier that broiight him bad ỉuck.

4 Complete these sentences w iỉh be, have o r have been,

4 W e w e r e n * t t i r e d W e c o u l d e a s i l y c h a t t e d f o r a n o t h e r h o u r B u t \ v e v v o u ld

p r o b a b l y a s k e d t o l e a v e t h e r e s t a u r a n t I t w a s g e t t i n g l a t e

5 W rite the e ig h t com pleted sentences from Exercise 4 in ap p ro p ria te spaces in thís table

P r e d i c t i o n : wiỉl, wouỉd, b eg o in g to , shalỉ b f

6 Choose an ending (a-e) fo r each beginnirig (1-5) and add these form s.

1 Som eone w ho says, *It i s that the police á ì á n t do som ething sooner* íeeỉs that

h ap pe n and n o t Oii a real s itu a tio n

8 E diting C o rre ct the m istakes in the use o f m odals in th is text

Prediction: wHI, would, be going to, shall

VVe u s e w iỉỉ f o r p r e d i c t i o n s ( 1 ) a n d t o s a ỵ w h a t \v e t h i n k is m o s t l i k e i y ( 2 )

W e u s e w iĩỉ f o r a p r e d i c t a b l e s i t u a t i o n ( 3 ) a n d wouỉd f o r a h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n ( 4 )

3 He^ỉỉ ỉook better xvừhout that scriiffy beani { - 1 t h i n k t h a t h e 's g o i n g t o s h a v e i t o f f )

4 H e 'd ỉo o k b e tte r w i t h o u t th a t sc ru ffy bearả 1 d o n ’t th in k th a t he’s g o in g to shave it o ff.)

W e u s e w iỉỉ p l u s t h e p e r f e c t f o r a p r e d i c t i o n a b o u t a n e v c n t t h a t h a s a l r e a d y h a p p e n e đ a t s o m e

f u t u r e t i m e ( 5 ) W e u s e w o u ỉd p \u s t h e p e r í e c t f o r a p r e d i c t i o n a b o u t a n i m a g i n a r y p a s t e v e n t o r

s i t u a t i o n ( 6 )

W e u s u a l l y u s e w iìỉ f o r p r e d i c t i o n s b a s e d o n p a s t e x p e r i e n c e o r l c n o w l e d g e ( 7 ) a n d he goìng to f o r

p r e d i c t i o n s b a s e d o n w h a t w e f e e l o r t h i n k n o w ( 8 )

7 T h e r e w i ỉ ỉ b e d e la y s b eca u se o f b a d w eather • Too m u c h coffee w i ỉ l g iv e yu ii a h eadache.

W e u s e be going to f o r a d e c i s i o n a l r e a d y m a d e ( 9 ) o r w h e n s o m e t h i n g is s t a r t i n g t o h a p p e n ( 1 0 )

9 V V eV e g o in g to spend Christmas at Home. • Paul and Ángeỉa are g o in g to get m arried in May.

1 0 Be careful - you^re g o in g to drop it! • Cỉose your eỵes Vm g oin g to give ỵotí a big surprise.

W e u s e was/w ere going to ( n o t would) f o r p a s t p l a n s : ĩ w as g oin g to do ỉaw, but changed m y mind.

We use shaỉl with / o r we in questions when we makc offers and suggestions or when we ask for

s u g g e s t i o n s ( 1 1 ) W e c a n u s e shaỉl ( o r wiỉỉ) t o c x p r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( 1 2 )

11 S h aỉỉ ĩ cỉose the door? • L e í 5 try again, shaỉỉ we? • Where sh all we g o fo r lunch today?

1 2 / sh a ỉl (OR r U ) finish this if ừ kilỉs me! • We ỉost a battỉe, hut we sh aỉl (O R w e'll) never gỉve upĩ

9 C om plete th is d ia lo g u e w ith these forms