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- Chapter 3 – Data Analysis: This chapter presents and discusses the data collected and is divided into three major parts: data regarding actions and events in biographies, point of view

PART 1: INTRODUCTION

1 RATIONALE

There have always been biographies since the dawn of human writing – works that chronicle the changes that these normal men bring to the world The early days of biographies were evidenced in ancient Assyrian, Babylonian and Mesopotamian society Ancient Greece and Roman Empire also had biographies for religious purposes Through the Medieval, then the Renaissance until modern days of history, this literary-historical genre persists Perhaps to understand what great men did with their time and circumstances

is always the concern of the other people – great or ordinary they may be

Nowadays, biography is one of the most popular categories of books A simple search with the key word “biography” at www.amazon.com yields 220,442 results; 7,303 biographical dictionaries 787 biographical encyclopedias available on this popular book vendor website These impressive statistics are undoubtedly indicators to the popularity of biographies According to Nye (2006), a 1994 poll on reading habits in Britain revealed biography to be the most popular category of non-fiction book and a genre considerably ahead of contemporary fiction (preferred by 19% percent of readers, compared to 14% for contemporary fiction.) James Atlas, a biographer and the editor of the Penguin Lives

Series, writes in the New York Times Book Review of a rainy afternoon leisurely spent in a

London bookshop, where he was “stunned by the sheer profusion of ‘lives’, as the British people call biographies” Biographies of Churchill lined an entire back wall, surrounded by shelves of biographies of people unknown or unfamiliar to Atlas

Greene (2006), over the past few years reading the “Book Review” section of the New York Times, noticed a pattern: biography is reviewed more frequently “One year, 2000, I counted: there were 188 reviews of books related to biography, amounting to three-plus

reviews each Sunday Curious, I dug around in the Bowker Annual and confirmed my

inkling In 1994, 1,758 biographies were published in the United States; seven years later, 4,887 appeared.”

The importance of biographies to the education of children and young adults need hardly

be stressed Even a mature person can still benefit from a biography Kett (2002) noticed that twelve- and thirteen-year-olds were beginning to break away from fiction and she believed that biographies make a good literary transition into non-fiction Any grown-up adults must stretch their imagination to hypothesize how they have grown up without reading one or more biographies of some famous persons American magazines in the nineteenth century, according to Kiskis (1999), published myriad articles on the purposes

of biography In their diaries, women and men in all U.S regions described reading biographies and taking useful lessons from them Biographies are certainly not primarily a vehicle for meeting the insatiable demands of a public that made and dropped celebrities, every fifteen minutes When biographies succeed, they did so by influencing people’s lives, not just stimulating their imaginations literary or otherwise In Kiskis’s dictum, biography has “constructive, cultural purposes”

Such omnipresent and influential as biographies are, they have received little attention from linguists Biographies have never been investigated in the light of DA and related linguistic research work is scanty, therefore implying the need for a DA of biographical discourse

Most research pertaining biographies are from historians, scientists and demographers, who utilize the biographical data to analyze the political, social and demographic situations

of a particular country at a particular historical period, especially in the past

Almost no research work in linguistics which derive its data from biographies can be identified If biographies are even more popular than contemporary fictions and a multitude of people are reading the genre today, exploring the distinctive characteristics of the genre is an imperative task for the linguistic researcher

TIME’s series of articles namely “100 Most Important People of the Century” is among those biographical works that do not teach – they inspired The first reason why this series

is intriguing lies in its attempt to vote for the most important people of the 20th century From a revolutionary to an entertainer, from a scientist to a hero of courage and selflessness, from a person from a small country, to the president of a vast territory, from a child to an elderly woman: all of them engraved in the 20th century traces that cannot be

erased The second reason why this series of articles deserves exploration is its language Briefness, clear organization and eloquence are the first impressions

In order to have a holistic look at the genre of biography, we choose to follow the approach

of discourse analysis Only by using the DA approach can the genre of biography be comprehensively inspected Thus we choose the name of the thesis “An Analysis of Biographical Discourse”

2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to examine the characteristics of biographical discourse, both at the holistic and analytic level The objectives of the study specifically are:

- To investigate the biographical characterization through transitivity and point of

view

- To frame a template biographical discourse structure

More detailed explication as how the aforementioned objectives have been formulated and

how these objectives can be attained is specified in Chapter 2: Methodology

3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Although we are well aware that the wider the range of biographical data we achieve from, the more reliable the research results will be However, within the constraints of time and resources, the data that we opted for include 30 out of the 100 biographical articles that are compiled by the TIME ® magazine in 2001 in the serialized “100 Most Important People

of the Century” Criteria for ensuring the representativeness of the data are as follows:

- biographies of people that have influence in different areas: science, revolution, innovation, entertainment and philanthropy

- biographies of both male and female personifications of the century

- biographies written by both male and female biographers

4 METHODOLOGY

We choose the descriptive research approach as it grants permission to our attainment of the objectives First of all, the descriptive research is both synthetic (holistic) and analytic (constituent) This characteristic is in accord with our general research aim: to investigate the characteristics of biographical discourse both at the macro level and at the constituent level Secondly, the descriptive research operates on the basis of hypotheses, thus its deductive nature In our study, hypotheses are generated based on previous related research and careful study on distinguishing features of the biographical genre (see chapter 2 for the study’s hypotheses) Thirdly, the descriptive study aims to gather data without any manipulation of the research context, which makes it non-intrusive and deal with naturally occurring data Our data are pre-existing as published articles and the preexistent data are retained without any adjustment of the researcher Fourthly, the descriptive study’s subjects can be both treated as individuals and individual variations, enabling the average behavior for the subjects group Therefore, each biography in our archive can be explored

in details and variations in the results yielded can be compared and conclusions can be drawn with regards to the underlying reasons for the differences Average numerical results can also be attained to describe the general characteristics of the genre as a whole

5 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The thesis consists of 3 main parts:

- Part 1 is Introduction, which discusses the rationale, the aims and objectives of the study, the scope of the study, methodology used in the study and the organization

of the study

- Part 2 is Development, which includes three chapters as follows;

- Chapter 1 - Literature Review: This chapter presents all related theoretical background that precedes and necessitates the formation of our research

- Chapter 2 - Methodology: This chapter describes the research procedures that have been utilized in the study

- Chapter 3 – Data Analysis: This chapter presents and discusses the data

collected and is divided into three major parts: data regarding actions and events in biographies, point of view in biographies and biographical discourse structure

- Part 3 is Conclusion, which summarizes the major findings and implications of the research and suggestions for further study

* * *

1.1 DISCOURSE AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

According to Cook (1994), the recent decades have seen a very considerable growth of interest in discourse analysis Therefore, the term ‘discourse’ has been widely used by linguists Most of them defined discourse as language in its social contexts For example,

Potter in Wood & Kroger (2000) offers a definition of discourse as text and talks in social practices That is, the focus is not on language as an abstract entity such as lexicon and set

of grammatical rules (in linguistics) or a systems of differences (in structuralism) Instead, language is the medium for interaction; analysis of discourse becomes, then, analysis of what people do with language Embedded in Potter’s definition of discourse and discourse analysis is the assumption of the difference between text and discourse, whereby discourse

is a process or a practice and text (or talk) is the product of that process

The aforementioned perspective on discourse and DA stands in correspondence to that of

earlier linguists Brown & Yule (1983) considers DA the analysis of language in use As

such, DA cannot be restricted to the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes of functions which those forms are designed to serve in human affairs Cook (1994) claims that DA has focused very much upon the social nature of communication, stressing contextual aspects of meaning which are interactive and negotiated, determined

by the social relations and identities of the participants in communication Halliday, as cited by Cook (1994), holds the view that language is a social semiotic and believes that the function of all discourse is a blend of interpersonal and ideational As in Brown & Yule (1983), the two corresponding functions of discourse, in their own terms, are interactional and transactional

From all the definitions of discourse and DA, an inference can be safely drawn: DA cannot

be restricted to the description of text However, the linguistic pitfall here may lead to a

DA novice to the conclusion that the descriptive method has been deprived of its import in

DA According to Coulhart (1994), all branches of linguistics are first and foremost

descriptive Please note that the descriptive factor of DA does not and should not hinder

the parameter of the area

1.2 TYPES OF DISCOURSE

There are a number of ways of classifying discourse As Wood & Kroger (2000) noted, we can probably agree on the specifications for gross categorizations, for example, written versus spoken discourse or telephone versus face-to-face talk, and we have no trouble identifying a particular instance of discourse as a member of such category The issue will

be less manageable if we notice that the difference between different types of discourse can

be a matter of structure (e.g of turn-taking, the use of pauses) or a matter of orientation to power and purpose Wood & Kroger (2000) also highlights the obscurity of discourse categorization by the specious dichotomy of monologue and dialogue They claim that all discourse are dialogic in nature In sum, we cannot make statements about forms of discourse in general in terms of some set of essential properties Wood & Kroger (2000) denies the possibility of an exhaustive list of all types of discourse, but proposes a tentative possible data that DA researcher may draw upon

Spoken discourse Written discourse

Sub-type Examples Sub-type Examples

Locations: home, school, offices or work sites, etc

Face-to-face

Activities: household chores, recreational interactions, parties, meetings, etc

Correspondence Letters, memoranda,

messages, e-mail (including “chat” group)

Telephone Conference calls, calls to

information, compliant, reservation, etc

Publications Articles in magazines,

newspapers, journals, books, book chapters, etc

Mediated or

other

Television, film, documentaries, etc

Unpublished Dairies, shopping lists,

memos, notes, etc

Table 1: Types of Discourse

The kind of discourse probed in this research is a series of articles from the TIME magazine – therefore, it is written discourse and belongs to the subtype of publications The biographical nature of the selected data will be reserved for later discussions in 1.4

1.3 METHODS OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

In the field of DA, various methods have been developed According to Hatch (2001), when we follow one method, adopting the units and processes described by that method,

we arrive at one picture of what discourse is When we follow another method, the picture changes as the units and processes change and the focus of the research changes Each new method adds another layer to the total discourse picture Moreover, none of the methods seems more “correct” than the others; each has its own purpose – some focus on writer’s intent, others on component forms or templates, and others on more abstract notions of how discourse and language may be modeled or mapped as cognitive system Wood & Kroger (2000) offers a three-way classification

Methods in DA

1 Goffman’s system components

2 Labov and Waletsky’s narrative structures

3 Levinson’s (1983) deictic and Halliday and Hasan’s cohesion ties

4 Analysis of differences in features across modes

A Linguistic and cognitive

templates (text characteristics)

5 Speech act analysis

1 Schank and Abelson’s script analysis

2 Mann and Thompson’s rhetorical structure analysis

3 Participant cohesion

4 Pragmatics of speech acts

B Linguistic and cognitive

processes (text structures results

from selection/ activation based

on speaker’s/writer’s goals and

intents) 5 Clece-Murcia’s (1980) contextual analysis

1 Schegloff’s conversational analysis

2 Goffman’s ritual constraints; the playing of ‘self’

3 Labov’s evaluation component

4 Tannen’s and Chafe’s (1982) involvement features

C Social, linguistic and

cognitive processes (text

structure evolves from socially

Like Hatch (2001), Wood & Kroger (2000) discourage the idea of there being a or the

method of DA However, they are also mindful of the potential pitfalls of eclecticism They do not propose a simple combination of approaches or methods, but suggests that each researcher should have a strategy of drawing upon resources – notions, techniques, devices, and strategies from different perspectives as appropriate to the specific project at

hand They have a predilection for made-to-order DA rather than off-the-rack DA

From Hatch (2001) and Wood & Kroger (2000), the methods for a DA research should depend on the resources of data In the following parts of the chapter, we will discuss the characteristics of the data that we chose to research: biographical discourse

1.4 BIOGRAPHY

1.4.1 Definitions

Gentz (2001) states that biography is a recent term in Western lexicon, although the tradition of biography extends back to antiquity Biography was often practiced to memorialize, commemorate, extol, and morally instruct readers and listeners The word

biographer was first used by Thomas Fuller in his History of the Worthies of England,

written in 1662, where he argued for a more objective approach to writing, even about

saintly figures (Parke, 13-14) The word biography was first used by John Dryden in 1683,

who wrote on one of the earliest practitioners of biography, Plutarch (Winslow, 8)

According to Désilets (2006), biography is the study of a life It reveals a personality and

an analysis of an individual’s work in the context of the age in which it existed The author

or biographer does not merely recount a narrative; they make judgment about what the individual was like and about their significance in history Biography can also be the story

of a person's life written by someone other than the subject of the work A biographical work is supposed to be somewhat factual However, since the biographer may be prejudiced in favor of or against the subject of the biography, critics, and sometimes the subject of the biography may come forward to challenge the accuracy of the material

As analyzed in the Introduction, biography is the most popular categories of books – and indeed the most popular category among nonfiction books, according to one British poll Nye (2006) claims that a 1994 poll on reading habits in Britain revealed biography to be the most popular category of nonfiction book and a genre considerably ahead of contemporary fiction (preferred by 19 percent of readers, compare to 14 percent for contemporary fiction) Biographies also hold an important place in the history of Canada, according to Désilets (2006) According to Marcus (1994), the ancient Greek public square was where the first biographies were first told In China, the first biographies were composed around (100 B.C.) (Gentz, 2001) and had a rigid and formalized form

1.4.2 Types of biography

Park, C A., as in Gentz (2001), classifies five broad categories of biographies as in the following table

1 Popular biographies narrating the lives of current celebrities–movie stars and

sports heroes, for instance

2 Historical biographies emphasizing their central and influential figures'

relations to and effects on their times

3 Literary biographies recreating the life and personality of artists, attempting

to account for the particular bent of their talent and sometimes, as in critical biographies, interpreting and assessing their work

4 Reference biographies also called collective biographies, consisting of

alphabetically arranged, relatively brief entries on notable figures, associatively collected by several factors, such as profession, notable achievement, and geographical-historical coordinates of their lives

5 Fictional biographies taking factual materials about real people and events

and developing them by applying fictional narrative techniques

Table 3: Types of biographies The type of biographies we choose to analyze is historical biographies, since it was a

series of articles depicting the lives and influences of 100 most influential of the 20thcentury Therefore, historical biographies are more academic than popular biographies or reference biographies but less literary than fictional biographies However, we hereby will discuss a question: Should biographies be regarded as being literary, or, in other words, is biography eligible for a literary genre?

1.4.3 Biography as a genre and style

Biography has always been considered a genre – however, the term ‘genre’, although attractively sounding, is slippery Genre, as defined by the www.geocities.com dictionary

of literary terms, is a class or category of literature having a particular form, content or

technique, i.e epic poetry, comedy, an fiction For example, Shakespeare's Othello falls in the genre of dramatic tragedy Sophocles Antigone is an example of epic drama Joyce's The Dead could be labeled as realistic fiction

According to Swales (1990), a genre comprises a class of communication events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes These purposes are recognized by the expert members of the parent discourse community, and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre

Elizabeth Brus, cited in Marcus (1994), indicates a criterion for a kind of literary texts to become a genre She claims that to become a genre, a literary act must be recognizable by a particular community of readers and writers, and that its function must be relatively stable All definitions of genre so far have underscored the function and the shared characteristics

in structure of discourse that belong to a genre Biographies can be recognized both by laypersons and linguistics experts as a set of discourse with certain purposes: either to edify some popular figures or to revitalize the lives of influential people in a certain period

of history Therefore, biography can be considered a genre This explains why we use in this research some techniques of genre analysis, which usually focuses on framing an overall template for the genre (Hatch, 2001) An example in Swales (1990) is a graphic overall organization of the research paper, with the inception of an Introduction, followed

by Procedure and Discussion The methods of Genre Analysis is important in our research

in order to attain the third research objective: constructing an overall structure of the biographical genre

The biographies that we investigate are historical biographies Historical biographies are not as ‘literary’ as fictional biographies, but being less literary is not synonymous with the fact that historical biographies do not resort to fictional narrative techniques (a significant feature of fictional biographies) To some extent, a study of a historical biography can employ achievements in studies in narrative techniques

Fowler in Carter (1997) argues that in terms of linguistics properties, there is no special variety of language which is distinctively or exclusively literary “Some of the varieties used in the constitution of a specific literary text may tend to occur regularly in some, but not all, other ‘literary’ texts, but they are not restricted to literary texts (rhyme and alliteration are found in advertisements); and ‘literary’ texts also draw upon patterns which tend to occur in ‘non-literary’ texts (conversation, news report) From this viewpoint,

stylistics is concerned with many types of discourse, none of which are exclusively

‘literary’ or ‘non-literary’

Moreover, the literary nature of biographies, though not as strong as in epic poetry, novels

or drama, is an essential In biographies, one can find literary tropes such as metaphor, metonymy, irony One can also discern syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (which, according to Galperin (1981), are two important stylistic tools) Consequently, the techniques and research results of Stylistics can also be employed in this research Simpson (1997) defines stylistics as a branch of language study which is principally concerned with the integration of language and literature Later in his career, Simpson (2004) asserts that modern stylistics is positively flourishing, witnessed in a proliferation of sub-disciplines where stylistic methods are enriched and enabled by theories of discourse, culture and society He also names discourse stylistics as a branch of modern stylistics and acknowledges the contribution of DA methods to the procreation of modern stylistics Carter (1997) also quoted Leech (1983) “Stylistics may be regarded simply as the variety

of DA dealing with literary discourse” The entwinement between DA and stylistics entails

a combination of methods so that a literary discourse can be best analyzed

A obfuscating term has been used discursively in our previous arguments about the characteristics of biographies: ‘narrative’ Are biographies axiomatically narrative?

According to Labov (1997), narrative and the broader field of story telling has become a keen focus of attention in many academic and literary disciplines A simple definition of the word in Merriam-Webster Dictionary is a story, an account of a tale Jann (2005) claims that a narrative presents a story A story, in its turn, is a sequence of events which involves characters Hence, according to Jann, a narrative is a form of communication which present a sequence of events caused and experienced by characters Toolhan (1998) also offers a definition of narrative A narrative, is at minimum a text in which the reader

or addressee perceive a significant change In a narrative, something happens, such that we sense a ‘before’ and an ‘after’, one state of affairs is displaced by a different state of affairs, and this latter state is, ideally, not merely temporally but causally related to the former state

A biography, seen in this system of reference, is the story about one’s life All biographical discourse, including newspaper articles, have a central character, or protagonist (heroic or not heroic) – the real person whose life is being edified by the biographer Undoubtedly there are always other surrounding characters apart from the protagonist The life of the hero or antihero in a biography usually consists of some events that shaped or changed the person’s life, some obstacles or some risks they took As aforementioned, a biography is not a mere narrative account of a person’s life, but it should be narrative first before being evaluative of the influence or the qualities of the hero (antihero)

It will be a more cogent argument if a researcher who considers biography a narrative

genre can be named In what Jann (2005) footnoted as an incomplete list of various

narrative themes and genres, there are narratives of personal experience (Labov), biblical narratives (Kermode, Sternberg), teacher’s narratives, children’s narratives, doctor’s narratives, etc., and a kindred of biography: historiographic autobiography/fictional autobiography (Lejeune, Cohn, Loschnigg) (names in parentheses are researchers with works on the narrative genre aforementioned) Autobiography can also be a sub-type of biographies; thus it can be inferred that Jann (2005) may have put biographies in this list if there had been one (or more) linguists choosing them as data for their research

Hence, another resource in our DA attempt has been identified: Narrative Theory or Narratology Narratology is the theory of the structures of narrative To investigate a structure, or to present a ‘structural description’, the narratologist dissects the narrative phenomena into their component parts and then attempts to determine their functions and relationships

So far the discrete discussions of stylistics and narratology seem to put them at two unconnected domains Probing through the works on stylistics and narratology, we found out that they overlapped in a Venn’s Diagram According to Jann (2005), the objects of

stylistics are not restricted to narratives, whereas the objects of narratology are

Figure 1: The relationship between Stylistics and Narratology

To the extent that narratology (more appropriately, discourse narratology) focuses on the ways, means, and effects of telling narratives, narratology is of, or intersects with, stylistics in the sense that the tools of narratology can be used for the purposes of stylistic analysis However, one cannot say much of interest about an epic's narrative quality by examining its meter, or about a lyric poem by examining its narrative situation A subject

of narratology can be oral talk about a personal experience, e.g in response to a question

“Were you ever in a situation where you were in serious danger of being killed?”, which is beyond the subject scope of stylistics In set-theoretical terms, imagine two intersecting circles, one large, one small The large one is stylistics, the smaller one is narratology Biographies can be the chosen data for stylists, because they are literary; they also provide

an option for narratologists, whose aim is to explore the narrative genre It turns out that biography lies in the intersection of the two circles: stylistics and narratologists Techniques and devices of the two areas can thus be employed in our DA of biographies

1.5 SIMPSON’S MODEL OF ELEMENTS IN NARRATIVE DISCOURSE

From this point onward, we would gradually narrow the research focus by examining different elements of narrative discourse (with relations to biographical discourse) Only the two elements in characterization will be chosen: actions and events along with point of view

STYLISTICS

NARRATO-LOGY

x

biography

According to Simpson (2004), in its most minimal form, a narrative comprises two clauses which are temporally ordered Of course, most narratives, whether those of canonical prose fiction or of spontaneous stories of everyday social interaction, have rather more to offer than just two simple temporally arranged clauses There is, in fact, more to a narrative than just a sequence of basic clauses

Two basic concepts for much work in stylistics and narratology are narrative plot and narrative discourse The term plot is generally understood to refer to the abstract storyline

of a narrative; that is, to the sequence of elemental, chronologically ordered events which

create the ‘inner core’ of a narrative Narrative discourse, by contrast, encompasses the

manner or means by which that plot is narrated Narrative discourse, for example, is often characterized by the use of stylistic devices such as flashback, prevision and repetition – all

of which serve to disrupt the basic chronology of the narrative’s plot

As implied in the title of our research, our objective is towards the understanding of the narrative discourse rather than narrative plot However, the distinction between the two concepts does not mean that the two terms are mutually exclusive For example, when we explore the structure of biographical discourse, we will have to resort to the developments

of the biographical plot

The next step in stylistic DA proposed by Simpson (2004) is sorting out the various stylistic elements which make up narrative discourse The model below is provided in order to organize narrative analysis into clearly demarcated areas of study

Figure 2: Simpson’s model of Elements in Narrative Discourse

The first of the six is textual medium, which refers to the physical channel of

communication through which a story is narrated In the case of biographies we discuss in this research, the channel is written magazine articles – so we would not choose to explore this into details

Sociolinguistic code expresses through language the historical, cultural and linguistic

setting which frames a narrative Sociolinguistic code encompasses, among other things, the varieties of accent and dialect used in a narrative Sociolinguistic code, therefore, is not

the focus of our research The sixth element, intertextuality, overlaps, in case of biographies and narrative, with sociolinguistic code; thus this element will not be

examined in our data

According to Simpson (2004), the first of the two characterization elements, actions and events, describes how the development of character precipitates and intersects with the

actions and events of a story It accounts for the way in which the narrative intermeshes with particular kind of semantic processes, notably those of ‘doing’, ‘thinking’ and

‘saying’, and for the way in which these processes are attributed to characters and narrators In order to investigate the actions and events, thoughts and perceptions that are

represented in the grammar of the clause, stylistics resort to the system of transitivity by

Halliday (1994) However, Simpson (2004) emphasizes that what is of interest to stylisticians is “why one type of structure should be preferred to another, or why, from possibly several ways of representing the same ‘happening’, one particular type of depiction should be privileged over another” Because of this predisposition of certain

structure(s) in a certain type of narrative, Simpson concluded that the “choices in style”

have a profound impact on the way texts are structured and interpreted

This element in a narrative is one of our main concerns Given the penetrating influence that the representation of actions and events exert in any narrative, we assume that the same conclusion about a preferred style as choice (in transitivity) will be of a considerable import in biographies Since biographies has a central character and the life of this character must be edified to readers, processes as those described in Halliday’s 1994 Functional Grammar are usually used However, from a stylistician’s view, one should not only list the processes that have been employed but has to find out the most privileged

“choices in style” that characterize biographies

Also pertaining to the mechanism of narrative characterization, the fourth element, point of view, stipulates whether the events of the story are viewed from the perspective of a

particular character or from that of an omniscient narrator, or indeed a mixture of the two The way speech and thought processes are represented in narrative is also an important index of point of view

Point of view will also be one of the main foci of this research

Textual structure accounts for the way individual narrative units are arranged and

organized in a story A stylistic study of textual structure may focus on large-scale elements or plot, or alternatively, on more localized features of story’s organization In our research, we will explore the macro-organization of biographical narrative, with recourse

to narrower aspects of narrative cohesion when necessary

The term intertextuality, the sixth narrative component, is reserved for the technique of

‘allusion’ Narrative fiction, like all writing, does not exist in a social and historical vacuum, and it often echoes other texts and images either as ‘implicit’ intertextuality or as

‘manifest’ intertextuality However, this component is more concerned with a critical DA, and therefore, will not be our concern

1.6 HALLIDAY’S MODEL OF PROCESS TYPES

The first element that will be further investigated in more details in chapter 3 is the characterization element: action and events As discussed in 1.5., in order to explore actions and events in a narrative discourse, one has to resort to Halliday’s concept of

transitivity This section will provide Halliday’s insight in transivity and all these concepts

discussed will be reused in chapter 3

The particular grammatical facility used for capturing experience in language is the system

of transitivity Transitivity refers to the way meanings are encoded in the clause and to the way different types of processes are represented in the language According to Halliday (1994), a process consists, in principle, of three components

(i) the process itself

(ii) participants in the process

(iii) circumstances associated with the process

The figure on the next page, adapted from Simpson (2004) and Halliday (1994) illustrates the types of processes in English, as in Halliday (1994)

1.6.1 Material processes

Material processes are processes of ‘doing’ They express the notion that some entity

‘does’ something – which may be done ‘to’ some other entity Associated with material processes are two inherent participant roles which are the Actor, an obligatory role in the process, and an optional Goal, a role which may or may not be involved in the process For example:

(2) The washing machine broke down

World of abstract relations being

sensing doing

Physical world

World of consciousness

EXISTENTIAL

(existing)

‘There was a nip’

MATERIAL (doing)

‘I nipped Daniel’

BEHAVIORIAL (behaving)

‘She frowned at the mess’

RELATIONAL (being)

‘The best Irish writer is Joyce’

VERBALIZATION (saying)

‘The minister announced the decision’

MENTAL (sensing)

‘Sibohan detests paté’

Figure 3: The grammar of experience: Types of processes in English

Material processes are not necessarily concrete, physical events; they may be abstract doings and happenings Material processes are also manifested in passive voice For example

(3) The two schools combined

1.6.2 Mental processes

Mental processes are essentially processes of sensing Unlike material processes which have their provenance in the physical world, mental processes inhabit and reflect the world

of consciousness, and involve cognition (encoded in verbs such as ‘thinking’ or

‘wondering’), reaction (encoded in verbs such as ‘liking’ or ‘hating’) and perception (as in

‘seing’ or ‘hearing’) The two participant roles associated with mental processes are the Sensor and the Phenomenon Here are illustrations of the three main types of mental processes:

(1) Mary understood the story

(2) Anil noticed the damp patch

1.6.3 Behavioral processes

This is a type of process that, in the words of Simpson (2004), “sits at the interface between material and mental processes” and is a process that “represents both the activities

of ‘sensing’ and ‘doing’ Behavioral processes embody physiological actions like ‘breathe’

or ‘cough’, although they sometimes portray these processes as states of consciousness as

in ‘sign’, ‘cry’ or ‘laugh’ They also represent processes of consciousness as forms of behavior, as in ‘stare’, ‘dream’ or ‘worry’ The key participant in behavioral processes is the Behaver

(1) That student fell asleep in my lecture again

1.6.4 Relational processes

Relational processes can be considered ‘processes of being’ in the specific sense of establishing relationship between two entities Relational processes can be divided into three main types: intensive, circumstantial and possessive This three-way classification is rather complicated by the fact that it intersects with another distinction between attributive and identifying relational processes

Type Mode

intensive Paula’s presentation was lively Joyce is the best Irish writer

The best Irish writer is Joyce possessive Peter has a piano The Alpha Romeo is Clara’s

Clara’s is the Alpha Romeo circumstantial The fete is on all day The maid is in the parlor

In the parlor is the maid However, we will not consider all 6 subtypes of relational processes We will only deal with the two types: attributive and identifying In the attributive mode, the entity, person or concept being described is referred to as the Carrier, while the role of Attribute refers to the quality ascribed to that Carrier In the identifying mode, one role is identified through reference to another such that the two halves of the clause often refer to the same thing This means that unlike attributive processes, all identifying processes are reversible One entity (the Identifier) picks out and defines the other (the Identified)

1.6.5 Verbal processes

These are processes of saying, but ‘saying’ has to be interpreted in a rather broad sense.; it

covers any kind of symbolic exchange of meaning, e.g The notice tells you to keep quiet,

or my watch says it’s half past ten The grammatical function of the notice and my watch is

that of Sayer Other participant roles in this type of processes are Receiver (the entity to which the speech is addressed) and the Verbiage (that which gets said) Thus:

(1) Mary claimed that the story had been changed

(2) The minister announced the decision to parliament

1.6.6 Existential processes

Existential processes constitute the sixth and last category of the transitivity model Close

in sense to relational processes, these processes basically assert that something exists or

happens The only participant role in this type of process is the Existent

Following is a summary of 6 types of processes and their respective participant roles

Process type Category meaning Participants

action

event

volitional non-volitional

Existential ‘existing’ Existent

Table 4: Processes and Participants

1.7 LEECH & SHORT’S MODEL OF STR TYPES

Point of view, as the concept is employed in our research, refers to the specific

perspective(s) from which the characters and events in a biography or narrative are viewed

and the manipulation of perspective switching

According to Simpson (2004), in an influential publication on prose composition, the

narratologist Boris Uspensky proposed a four-way model for the study of point of view in

fiction This model was later revised and refined by Roger Fowler; thus it is probably best

to refer to this composite framework of analysis as the ‘Fowler-Uspensky model’ The four

components identified by the Fowler-Uspensky model of point of view are as follows:

(i) point of view on the ideological plane

(ii) point of view on the temporal plane

(iii) point of view on the spatial plane

(iv) point of view on the psychological plane

This four-component classification is provisional rather than absolute For example, the concept of ideological plane is abstract and almost unmanageable, due to its lack of parameters The point of view on the spatial plane is about the narrative’s ‘camera angle’ and is a device which has palpable grammatical exponents in deixis and in locative expressions Spatial point of view in biographies is used within limitation, and therefore, will not be examined further in this research In the Fowler-Uspensky model, temporal point of view is about the way relationships of time are signaled in narrative ‘Time analysis’, to Jann (2005)’s dictum, is concerned with three questions: When? How long? How often? These three questions lead to three main concepts: order, duration and frequency Although the parameters in researching temporal point of view are clear-cut, we will not focus on this aspect within the limited scope of our research Psychological point

of view is the focus of our research, investigating the speech and thought representation

(STR) in biographies

There are frequent incidences of the narrator’s attempt to switch his psychological point of view As clarified in previous discussions, a narrative can be either homodiegetic (recounted by one who is also a character in the main story line) or heterodiegetic (a narrative imparted by a person who was not a character in the main story line) In biographies, the biographer usually stands on the sidelines of the story, but (s)he also switches the position frequently As an omniscient narrator, the biographer sometimes narrates as if (s)he knows what the character thought or heard what the character speak Besides, the biographer may resort to an external character, who presents some thoughts or speaks about the biography’s main character The biographer’s thoughts are also represented in the biography As Simpson (2004) comments, ‘while it is true that a great deal of what makes up a story is actions and events, it is also the case that stories contain a great deal of reported speech and thought’ Exploring the representation of speech and thought has always been an important preoccupation of narratologists, not excluding those whose primary concern is biographical discourse

According to Simpson (2004), the most influential framework for the analysis of speech and thought representations in narrative fiction is undoubtedly that developed by Mick Short and his co-researchers Leech and Short’s textbook (1981) contains the first systematic account of this important narrative technique In this research, we choose this model, as introduced in Simpson (2004), with some adaptations and examples from Freeborn (1996)

Speech representation Thought representation

Direct Direct Speech (DS)

E.g She said, ‘I’ll come here tomorrow’

Direct thought (DT) E.g He wondered, ‘Does she still love me?’

Free

direct

Free Direct Speech (FDS)

E.g ‘I’ll come tomorrow’

Free Direct Thought (FDT E.g Does she still love me?

Elliptical Elliptical Direct Speech (EDS)

E.g He “immediately withdrew into his

shell” when relations became intimate

Indirect Indirect Speech (IS)

E.g She said that she would go there the

Free Indirect Speech (FIS)

E.g She would be there the following

Narrative Report of Speech (NRS)

E.g She spoke of their plans for the day

ahead

Narrative Report of Thought (NRT) E.g He wondered about her love for him

Table 5: Leech & Short’s classification of STR types

In this classification, we have added one type of speech representation: Elliptical Direct Speech This is because of the fact that many words or phrases, used by a certain person, have been used in biographies, without referring back to their whole statements

One problem arises here: in most biographies, speech and thought of the main character, as well as those of the biographer and of other characters (e.g other people commenting on the personality of the main character) are all represented As Jann (2005) points out, a narrative text can be divided into the narrator’s discourse and the characters’ discourse However, because there exists one central character in any biography, we will divide the biographical discourse STR into three types: the speech and thought of the main character, those of the ‘secondary character and those of the narrator (or biographer)

We also adapted the transition of speech and thought graphic proposed by Simpson (2004),

in order to illustrate the transition of speech and thought (of the main character, secondary characters and the biographer) in biographies Below is an example:

(Abbreviations used in the chart are in List of Abbreviations – 1)

1.8 LABOV’S MODEL OF NARRATIVE STRUCTURE

Discourse structure is the third research concern in this paper Any piece of discourse is not just a string of unconnected sentences, but a whole with its interrelated According to Georgakopoulou & Goutos (2004), this internal structure, consisting of a set of units, has been a major preoccupation in research on narrative discourse The search for structural

units of narrative text characterizes most classic work in the field, from Aristotle’s Poetics

to Propp’s work on Russian folktale Cook (1994) comments that positing larger structures

of discourse is often specific to discourse types or genres Fabb (1997) holds the view that the macro-structure of narratives is one of the aspects of narrative form which exists quite independently of language

Stein, in Georgakopoulou & Goutos (2004), devises an influential scheme of a story’s prototypical structure, identifying the following constituents

(i) Setting: the internal or external state and habitual actions that introduce

characters and their social and physical environment

(ii) Initiating event: some type of change in the protagonist’s environment

(iii) (The protagonist’s) Response or Reaction to the event

Figure 4: A sample chart of Speech and Thought Representation (STR)

Einstein

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

MC N SC NRS

(iv) Attempt: A set of overt actions in the service of the protagonist’s goal, initiated

by events or motivating states

(v) Consequence(s) of the attempt (e.g success or failure to attain the goal)

(vi) (The protagonist’s) Reaction to the consequences

The Stein’s model is often criticized because it can adequately represent the structure

of only some kinds of simple stories, for example, traditional stories, thus failing to capture the diversity of story patterns Another related critique is that of the lack of interest in the expressive or affective elements of stories as powerful means for encoding attitudes, values and emotions Criticism against this type of model has been more abundant than praise

Later, Labov’s model of narrative analysis, drawn from personal experience narratives, was developed and became the standard model for most researchers who want to examine the structure of narrative discourse

A fully-formed narrative is built in five parts It begins with an orientation, proceeds to the complicating actions, is suspended at the focus of evaluation before the resolution, concludes with the resolution and returns the listener/reader to the present time with the coda

Abstract Orientation Complicating Action

Climax

Evaluation

Resolution Coda

Following is a more detailed table illustrating the Labov’s model This table was designed by Simpson (2004), listing the six categories, the hypothetical questions they address and their respective narrative functions

Figure 5: Labov’s model of narrative structure

Narrative

Category

Narrative Question Narrative Function

ABSTRACT What was this about? Signals that the story is about to begin and

draws attention from audience ORIENTATION Who or what are

involved in the story, and when and where did

it take place?

Helps the audience to identify the time, place, persons, activity and situation of the story

COMPLICATING

EVENTS

Then what happened? The core narrative category providing the

‘what happened’ element of the story RESOLUTION What finally happened? Recapitulates the final key event of a story EVALUATION So what? Functions to make the point of the story

clear CODA How does it all end? Signals that a story has ended and brings

audience back to the point at which (s)he entered the narrative

Table 6: Simpson’s specification of Labov’s model

We will base on these key concepts of Labov to analyze the macro-structure of biographies

in Chapter 3 of the research

CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the steps in the research procedure will be presented in details The research questions will be presented in 2.1 Section 2.2 discusses the data collection phase Finally, 2.3 discusses theoretical frameworks used for data analysis

For even more manageable data, we have chosen biographical articles from TIME magazine rather than fictional biographies or other types of biographies (presented in 1.4.2.) The reasons why we chose data from this sources are as follows: first of all, TIME

is an accredited magazine which annually published widely read biographies of people who had the most important influence over the past year; second, the length of these biographies are reasonable and suitable for linguistic research; third, TIME’s biographers are diverse, including historians, university professors, famous journalists and writers,

defense and military specialists, popular figures such as Bill Gates, Lee Iacocca, etc – this background diversity ensure the variety of language used

More specifically, the serialized 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century was selected TIME has annual influential biographies published every year; however, the serial articles we chose consists of more diverse biographical lives The main characters of these articles range from people in the past, e.g Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Philo Farnsworth, to present-day celebrities, such as Bill Gates, Oprah Winfrey or Pele

Within our time and resource restraints, we only picked 30 out of these 100 biographies from TIME However, we also ensure the variation in the data by several criteria

First, we choose biographies written by biographers of different professions and different genders As stated above, TIME’s biographers are historians, university professors, famous journalists and writers, defense and military specialists, popular figures such as Bill Gates, Lee Iacocca, etc – this background diversity ensure the variety of language used

Second, we deliberately select biographies that portray people whose achievements are numerous along with people whose appearance in history is only a few minutes or a few days, but still had an important impact on other people For example, the influence of such famous people as Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill, Mother Teresa, Pele, etc., are globally well known However, the biographies we chose also include one entitled “the Unknown Rebel”, who was a Chinese anonymous person and merely appeared for several minutes and then disappeared into the crowd Nobody can even assure what his name or profession is We believe that this can guarantee the diversity of our data

Third, we opt for biographies of people from different fields of influence; thus we include people from all 5 of TIME’s categorization: (i) leaders and revolutionaries, (ii) artists and entertainers, (iii) builders and titans, (iv) scientists and thinkers, (v) heroes and icons Forth, we chose biographies written about contemporaries, e.g Pele, Oprah Winfrey, Bill Gates, etc., as well as biographies written about influential figures in the past, e.g Albert Einstein, Hitler

The list of biographies and their respective category in TIME classification is in the table below:

Name of character Category Name of character Category

3 Mohandas Gandhi (i) 18 Thomas Watson, Jr (iii)

7 Margaret Thatcher (i) 22 The Wright Brothers (iv)

15 Walt Disney (iii) 30 Franklin Delano Roosevelt (v)

Table 7: List of biographies analyzed in the study

2.3 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR DATA ANALYSIS

As discussed above, Simpson’s model encompasses other linguists’ research results In order to investigate the characterization – actions and events, Simpson has to resort to Halliday’s functional grammar, and more specifically, Halliday’s categorization of processes in English (refer to 1.6 for further details) The analysis of characterization - point of view can only be realized if the Leech and Short’s classification of STR (discussed

in 1.7.) Labov’s model (presented in 1.8.) is the third one that goes under Simpson’s model – Labov’s model is the template for analyzing the structure of biographical discourse

Although Simpson’s model is the backbone of our research, it need adaptations in order to meet our specific needs All the other models that Simpson used in his model also needed adapted so that they will suit our research data and yield the most reliable data The reason for these adjustments is that the mentioned model were designed for narratives in general Given the typical features of biographies, we have made some adaptations of the models as discussed below

2.3.1 Halliday’s model

In order to examine the actions and events in biography, we have developed a based framework with regards to specific features of biography

Halliday-In biographical discourse, the number of characters shaped is not large, and the pivotal role

is given to the character whose biography is being written about

The existence of this central character in biographies substantially facilitates the explorative goal Knowing the processes that are involved in formulating the main character’s image will help to identify the facets of the character The favor of one type of process over another can also be informative More revealing is the significance that underlie the usage of different types of processes to characterize the protagonist Some types of processes, though not very frequently used in most biographies, can appear more

in a certain biography to convey a certain implication

Evolving around the protagonist are the subordinate characters and the settings or comments that also help to construct the biographical legend Therefore, when examining the transitivity in biographies, we not only focus on the type of processes that are used, but also pay attention to the role that the character plays in each process

Another important adaptation is that in a biography, or in any other types of discourse, there are independent clauses and dependent clauses We see the need to set up criteria for

a clause to be qualified for analysis in our research The criteria regarding what is considered a clause is as follows:

(i) Only independent clauses are counted

- An independent clause is not dependent on another clause for context of function, whereas a dependent clause has to rely on another clause For example, in the following sentence, there is only one independent clause:

Carl Derek Cooper has reached an agreement to plead guilty to charges stemming from a

triple killing at a Starbucks coffee shop

- One subject and more than one verb can be considered several independent clauses

In our data, there are several sentences that has one subject that goes along with more than one verb, as in:

He have had forecasts this bad in the past and launched successfully

There is only one subject (‘he’) but more than 2 verbs – generally, this sentence will be considered to include only one independent clause However, in characterizing the protagonist of the biography, it is probable that the two verbs for the same subject may

indicate two different types of process For example, in the previous example, the first one

is a mental process (‘have had forecast’) and the second one is a material process Therefore, in our data, we will treat this type of sentence as two independent clauses

(ii) Dependent clauses are not counted

Linguists generally agree that dependent clauses can make sense of their own even when removed from context of the sentence but they should not be evaluated separately (outside the sentence) as they are dependent on the rest of the sentence For example:

The recession was over for a year and a half before he took office

This sentence actually focused on describing the existence of a recession, rather than on the fact that he took office Therefore, we assume that examining dependent clauses may only yield reliable results when this is combined with the evaluation of independent clauses However, within the limits of time and resources, we can only focus on independent clauses

Therefore, we have developed a worksheet which allows insights to the presence of the main character (MC) in each process Below is an incomplete sample transitivity analysis

of the biography of Winston Churchill with explanations following

Clause No. Action Event

In this template, the last column is reserved for the role that the MC(‘s) plays MC stands for Main Character (that is, our protagonist) However, if we only consider clauses with an explicit role of MC, an inadequate conclusion may be drawn upon the data Therefore, a range of the MC’s personality traits, successes, books, achievements, etc (abbreviated here MC’s) should also be regarded alongside the overtly expressed roles the MC her/himself Consequently, the data from the last column reveals whether the MC is involved in the process or not: if not, the sign “x” will be inserted; if the MC is involved, his/her role will

be specified by different abbreviations The abbreviations for the role of MC(‘s) can be found in list of abbreviations

Apart from the roles that were discussed by Hallidayan grammar, we have added the role

of Co-Actor, Co-Senser and Co-Identified when the MC together with another person plays the role of an actor, senser or the identified

We will only consider main clauses in a sentence, although an investigation of all types of clauses would yield more in-depth information However, main clauses usually contain the main focus of the writer, revealing the syllogism of the idea We will also exclude questions because of the lack of assertion of the role of the participants involved Besides,

in case a character is stating his opinion about the biography’s main character, the clause will be considered verbal process and the MC’s role will be that of Verbiage The clause in the verbiage will not be analyzed

The specific steps for analyzing data regarding Actions and Events are as follows:

o In each archive, the number of PMCs and AMCs are drawn by using the function COUNTIF (range, criteria) in Excel Because we have labeled a AMC by the character ‘x’ in the column of “Role of MC('s)”, we are now able to use the COUNTIF function with the criterion as ‘x’ and the range up to the number of clauses available for analysis in each biography

o Then by using the dividing function in Excel, we are capable of finding the percentage of PMCs and AMCs in each biography as well as the ratio of PMCs to AMCs

o After that, by using the COUNTIF function, we compile the number of roles played by the MC('s) in PMCs For example, if the number of PMCs in which

MC('s) plays the role of the Actor (abbreviated in the archive as “A”), the function will be COUNTIF (l1:l200, ‘A’)

o Finally, all the results from each biography are put together in a general statistic table and different Excel functions are utilized to calculate the total number, the average number or the standard deviation of each statistics

2.3.2 Leech and Short’s classification of STR types

In the genre of historical biographies, three main streams of viewpoint can be identified: from the view of the main character (MC), the view of the narrator (N), and that of one or more secondary characters (SC) Consider the following examples from Einstein’s biography:

He (i.e Einstein) tossed off pithy aphorisms ("Science is a wonderful

thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it")

MC

"I still can't see how he thought of it," said the late Richard Feynman,

no slouch himself

SC What more could we ask of a man to personify the past 100 years? N

Table 9: Examples of STR in 3 channels

The first example is from the perspective of the MC, because it quotes the MC’s saying The speech and thought of the MC are represented in different ways in each biography and

is obviously not restricted to FDS as in this example (for a detailed classification of STR, refer to 1.7

The second example is the quotation from Richard Feynman about how he marveled at Einstein’s theory In biographies, a lot of secondary characters present their speech and thought about the MC, making the biography more objective to the readers

The third example is a FIT from the biographer himself, or the narrator (N) There are also other types of STR in the channel of the N

On one hand, one may syllogize that all statements in a biography is from the point of view

of the biographer This syllogism is true, given the subjectivity of any biography or narrative It is even more applicable to historical biographies, as the genre requires the biography to appraise the influence that one person has had on the 20th century history

However, the biographer is to reach a quest for one same thing: persuasiveness In order to

do this, the writer has certain resources at his disposal: speech and thought from the main character and other people’s judgment of the main character In most sentences in a biography, the biographer does not overtly present himself but instead choose to be camouflaged by the specious objectivity of the discourse Occasionally the thought (and even speech) of the biography may be embedded in the biography to explicate his personal stance

In analyzing our data, sentences that are void of explicit signals of speech and thought from the MC will not be considered a type of thought representation Only statements with evidenced clues of representing speech and thought are considered

Consider the following extract from Roosevelt’s biography:

In those desperate days the seeds were planted for a historic friendship between the British Prime Minister and the American President… There was something so intimate

in their friendship, Churchill's aide Lord Ismay noted They would stroll in and out of each other's rooms as two schoolboys occupying adjacent dorm rooms might have, staying up until 2 or 3 a.m talking, drinking brandy and smoking cigars… "It is fun to

be in the same decade with you," Roosevelt told Churchill "If anything happened to that man, I couldn't stand it," Churchill told a U.S diplomat "He is the truest friend;

he has the farthest vision; he is the greatest man I have ever known."

In the above extract, the narrator did not project himself directly However, he employs the speech of Churchill's aide Lord Ismay (a secondary character), of Roosevelt – the main character, and of Churchill (another secondary character)

Again, a closer look at the speech representations (SRs) here will illustrate the need for

framing criteria of each STR type Clearly, the sentence “There was something so intimate

in their friendship, Churchill's aide Lord Ismay noted” should be considered an SR

because of the phrase “Churchill’s aide Lord Ismay noted” However, deciding what type

of SR it is requires consideration This STR should be regarded as Indirect Speech (IS), because the verb ‘note’ suggests the verbal process, and because the verbiage was not put

in quotation marks Statement "It is fun to be in the same decade with you," Roosevelt told Churchill.” is Direct Speech (DS), because of the verb “told” and the presence of the

quotation marks Similarly, what Churchill said about Roosevelt is also DS

The set of criteria for STR types are presented below:

(i) Direct Speech (DS)

E.g "It is fun to be in the same decade with you," Roosevelt told Churchill

- the verbiage consists of at least one independent clause and is in quotation marks

- the sayer is mentioned (‘Roosevelt’ in the above example) and a speech report verb is present (e.g told, said, spoke, etc.)

(ii) Free Direct Speech (FDS)

E.g "Let no one delude himself by hoping for reform from within."

- the verbiage consists of at least one independent clause and is in quotation marks

- no sayer is mentioned and no speech report verb is used

(iii) Elliptical Direct Speech (EDS)

E.g He “immediately withdrew into his shell” when relations became intimate

- the verbiage consists of no independent clause (usually only a phrase is quoted) and is in quotation marks

- no sayer is mentioned, no speech report is used

- however, who the sayer is can be inferred from the surrounding context For example, if the paragraph preceding the above example discusses the speech of a person, then that

person can be the sayer of the phrase ““immediately withdrew into his shell”

(iv) Indirect Speech (IS)

E.g She said that she would go there the following day

- the verbiage is not in quotation marks

- the sayer can be identified

- “that” is not compulsory As in the example above, “There was something so intimate in their friendship, Churchill's aide Lord Ismay noted” (Roosevelt’s biography) is still

Indirect Speech although the pronoun “that” is not present

(v) Free Indirect Speech (FIS)

E.g She would be there the following day

- the verbiage is not in quotation marks

- there is evidence in the context that this is what a character says

(vi) Narrative Report of Speech (NRS)

E.g She spoke of their plans for the day ahead

- the verbiage has no independent clause

- a speech report verb is present (e.g speak, say, call)

(vii) Direct Thought (DT)

E.g.He wondered, ‘Does she still love me?’

- the thought is represented by at least one independent clause and is in quotation marks

- there is a thought report speech (e.g think, wonder)

(viii) Free Direct Thought

E.g “Does she still love me?”

- the thought is represented by at least one independent clause

- there is no thought report speech, but the character whose thought is being represented can be inferred from the context

- the pronouns are used as if the thought is of a certain character in the discourse

(ix)Indirect Thought (IT)

E.g He wondered if she still loved him

- there is a thought report verb

- the verbiage has subject and verb

- the thought is not in quotation marks

(x) Free Indirect Thought (FIT)

E.g Did she still love him?

- there is not thought report verb

- the thought is of a certain character in the discourse, but is reported through another character, or perhaps the narrator (N)

This STR type appears quite frequently in biographies in the form of rhetorical question When the author does not use a declarative statement but instead resort to a question, e.g