Sustainable energy systems role of optim

Such a tradition will certainly involve meeting the growing energy demand of the future with greater efficiency as well as using more renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w e l s e v i e r c o m / l o c a t e / r s e r

aProcessSystemsEngineeringCentre(PROSPECT),ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,FacultyofChemicalEngineering,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,81310Skudai,JohorBahru, Malaysia

bBiomassConversionResearchcenter(BCRC),DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,COMSATSInstituteofInformationTechnology,Lahore,Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o

Articlehistory:

Received10December2010

Accepted30May2011

Keywords:

Powergenerationandsupply,Optimization

andmodeling,Electricitygeneration

technologies,Sustainableenergysystems

a b s t r a c t

Electricityisconceivablythemostmultipurposeenergycarrierinmodernglobaleconomy,andtherefore primarilylinkedtohumanandeconomicdevelopment.Energysectorreformiscriticaltosustainable energydevelopmentandincludesreviewingandreformingsubsidies,establishingcredibleregulatory frameworks,developingpolicyenvironmentsthroughregulatoryinterventions,andcreating market-basedapproaches.Energysecurityhasrecentlybecomeanimportantpolicydriverandprivatizationof theelectricitysectorhassecuredenergysupplyandprovidedcheaperenergyservicesinsomecountries

intheshortterm,buthasledtocontraryeffectselsewhereduetoincreasingcompetition,resultingin deferredinvestmentsinplantandinfrastructureduetolonger-termuncertainties.Ontheotherhand globaldependenceonfossilfuelshasledtothereleaseofover1100GtCO2intotheatmospheresince themid-19thcentury.Currently,energy-relatedGHGemissions,mainlyfromfossilfuelcombustionfor heatsupply,electricitygenerationandtransport,accountforaround70%oftotalemissionsincluding car-bondioxide,methaneandsometracesofnitrousoxide.Thismultitudeofaspectsplayaroleinsocietal debateincomparingelectricitygeneratingandsupplyoptions,suchascost,GHGemissions, radiologi-calandtoxicologicalexposure,occupationalhealthandsafety,employment,domesticenergysecurity, andsocialimpressions.Energysystemsengineeringprovidesamethodologicalscientificframeworkto arriveatrealisticintegratedsolutionstocomplexenergyproblems,byadoptingaholistic,systems-based approach,especiallyatdecisionmakingandplanningstage.Modelingandoptimizationfoundwidespread applicationsinthestudyofphysicalandchemicalsystems,productionplanningandschedulingsystems, locationandtransportationproblems,resourceallocationinfinancialsystems,andengineeringdesign Thisarticlereviewstheliteratureonpowerandsupplysectordevelopmentsandanalyzestheroleof modelingandoptimizationinthissectoraswellasthefutureprospectiveofoptimizationmodelingasa toolforsustainableenergysystems

© 2011 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved

Contents

1 Introductionandbackground 3481

2 Discussion 3481

2.1 Currentstateofpowergenerationtechnologies 3481

2.2 Decentralizedsystems 3483

2.3 Optimizationmodelingstudiesrelatedtopowergenerationandsupplytechniques 3487

2.3.1 Powersupplyanddistribution 3487

2.3.2 Powerplantoperation 3490

2.3.3 Buildingenergyconsumption 3490

2.3.4 Industrialenergyconsumption 3491

2.3.5 Powerplantsandcarbondioxidecaptureandstorage(CCS) 3491

2.3.6 Renewableenergymix 3491

∗ Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+607553583;fax:+6075566177

E-mailaddress:grzahedi@cheme.utm.my(G.Zahedi)

1364-0321/$–seefrontmatter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved

2.4 Impactofoptimizationmodelinginpowersectordevelopment 3491

2.5 Futureprospective 3495

3 Conclusionandoutlook 3495

Acknowledgement 3495

References 3495

1 Introduction and background

There has been an enormous increase in the demand for energy

since the middle of the last century as a result of industrial

devel-opment and population growth Consequently, the development of

new and renewable sources of energy has become a matter of

pri-ority in many countries all over the world Electricity is conceivably

the most multipurpose energy carrier in our modern global

econ-omy, and it is therefore primarily linked to human and economic

development Electricity growth has overtaken that of any other

fuel, leading to ever-increasing shares in the overall mix This trend

is expected to continue throughout the following decades, with

large parts of the world population in developing countries

appeal-ing connected to power grids Electricity deserves precise attention

with regard to its contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions,

which is reflected in the continuing development of low-carbon

technologies for power generation A multitude of features play a

role in societal debate in comparing electricity generating options,

such as cost, gas emissions, radiological and toxicological exposure,

greenhouse, occupational health and safety, employment,

domes-tic energy security, and social impressions Decision-makers will in

general weight these aspects differently, and similarly the literature

deals with these issues in inconsistent ways.

Attempts to quantify the varied concerns of electricity

gener-ation in one end-point indicator in order to aid decision-making

are anxious with problems, among which uncertainty and the

dis-counting are perhaps the two most extremely challenging [1] The

formation of public perception is further complicated by the fact

that media and political campaigns often comment more rapidly

and decisively on contentious issues, thus reaching the public more

effectively than sources of less biased factual information For

example nuclear energy is often portrayed and hence perceived

as an invisible danger under the control of a few, and associated

with military use, suppression of information, and high accident

hydroelec-tric dams are associated with the forceful resettlement of large

numbers of people, and the destruction of archaeological heritage

and biodiversity [4] The concept of sustainable development is

evolved for a liveable future where human needs are met while

keeping the balance with nature Driving the global energy system

into a sustainable path has arisen as a major concern and policy

objective.

It is becoming gradually accepted that current energy systems,

networks encompassing everything from primary energy sources

to final energy services, are becoming unsustainable Driven

pri-marily by concerns over urban air quality, global warming caused

by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and dependence on

deplet-ing fossil fuel reserves, a transition to alternative energy systems is

receiving serious attention Such a tradition will certainly involve

meeting the growing energy demand of the future with greater

efficiency as well as using more renewable energy sources (such as

wind, solar, biomass, etc.) While many technical options exist for

developing a future sustainable and less environmentally damaging

energy supply, they are often treated separately driven by their own

technical communities and political groups Energy systems

engi-neering provides a methodological scientific framework to arrive

at realistic integrated solutions to complex energy problems, by

adopting a holistic, systems-based approach Superstructure based

modeling strategy, along with MILP and MINLP solution algorithms

are efficient and effective in solving energy systems engineer-ing problems, especially at decision making and planning stage Based on this, multi-objective optimization and optimization under uncertainty produces further in-depth analyses and allows a deci-sion maker to make the final decision from many aspects of view The aim of this study is to update existing status of optimization modeling role in world energy assessments with information pub-lished during the past decade, focusing on electricity-generating technologies and the distribution or supply systems and to envisage the importance of optimization techniques for future develop-ments in power sector.

2 Discussion

2.1 Current state of power generation technologies

A mix of options to lower the energy per unit of GDP and car-bon intensity of energy systems will be needed to achieve a truly sustainable energy future in a decarbonized world Energy related GHG emissions are a by-product of the conversion and delivery sec-tor which includes extraction/refining, electricity generation and direct transport of energy carriers in pipelines, wires, ships, etc., as well as the energy end-use sectors i.e transport, buildings, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste Fig 1 elaborates complex inter-actions between primary energy sources and energy carriers to meet societal needs for energy services as used by the transport, buildings, industry and primary industry sectors.

Electricity is one of the driving forces of the economic devel-opment of societies At the start of the 21st century, world faces significant energy challenges The concept of sustainable develop-ment is evolved for a liveable future where human needs are met while keeping the balance with nature Initially, DC power sys-tems were popular in the 1870s and 1880s Small systems were sold to factories around the world, both in urban areas, and remote undeveloped areas for industrial/mining use Thomas Edison, and Werner von Siemens lead the largest efforts to electrify the world.

DC systems powered factories and small downtown areas, but did not reach 95% of residents It became clear that to make real the dream of to supplying whole cities with electric power you would need to generate the power in one place (like a large river with great hydro-power potential) and transmit it to the city This was done by several major advancements [6] :

Alternating current: Developed first in Italy and Germany, it quickly proved to be the best method for harnessing electric power American engineers like Elihu Thomson at GE and others at Westinghouse developed more advanced AC generators as they engaged in fierce competition.

Three phase power: Three phase AC power was first devel-oped in Germany by August Haselwander in 1887 and made its major world debut in 1891 at the Lauffen-Frankfurt demon-stration [International Electro-Technical Exhibition] (built by Dolivo-Dobrowolsky and Oskar von Miller) Mill Creek 1 in Cal-ifornia proved to be the first commercial use of three phase power [2]

Transformers: Transformers control voltage and are a very impor-tant part of the system Rudimentary transformers were first developed in Austro-Hungary and England, with the first fully developed design coming from William Stanley in Massachusetts.

Fig 1.Complexinteractionsbetweenprimaryenergysourcesandenergycarrierstomeetsocietalneedsforenergyservices[5].

Electricity was originally generated at remote hydroelectric

dams or by burning fossil fuels in the city centers, delivering

elec-tricity to nearby buildings and recycling the waste heat to make

steam to heat the same buildings, while rural houses had no access

to power Over time, coal plants grew in size, facing pressure to

locate far from population because of their pollution Transmission

wires carried the electricity many miles to users with a 10–15%

loss [7] Because it is not practical to transmit waste heat over long

distances, the heat was vented There was no good technology

avail-able for clean, local generation, so the wasted heat was a trade-off

for cleaner air in the cities Eventually a huge grid was developed

and the power industry built all new generation in remote areas, far

from users All plants were specially designed and built on site,

cre-ating economies of scale It cost less per unit of generation to build

large plants than to build smaller plants These conditions prevailed

from 1910 through 1960, and everyone in the power industry and

government came to assume that remote, central generation was

optimal, that it would deliver power at the lowest cost versus other

alternatives.

Lenzen [8] reviewed eight power sector related technologies as

described in subsequent text Seven of these are generating

tech-nologies: hydro-, nuclear, wind, photovoltaic, concentrating solar,

geothermal and biomass power The remaining technology is

car-bon capture and storage This selection is fairly representative for technologies that are important in terms of their potential capac- ity to contribute to a low-carbon world economy Currently, only nuclear and hydropower generate significant low-carbon portions

of global electricity Table 1 shows a comparison among these nologies in terms of annual generation, CO2emission, generation cost and major barriers in deployment.

tech-Carbon capture and storage is seen as a potentially significant CO2mitigation route because it would allow retaining major parts of current electricity generation infrastructure and build on existing knowledge and practices Capture technologies are well under- stood but remain to be demonstrated at a large commercial scale, which is not expected before 2020 [8]

Nuclear power is seen as a mature technology, with many years of experience, and modern reactors exhibiting a high degree

reactor-of safety Nuclear power currently contributes 14% of global tricity generation The majority of nuclear reactors are thermal reactors, and this is expected to remain the case in the mid to long term Current average capacity factors of 86% are among the high- est of all technologies and levelised costs are competitive between

elec-4 and 7 US¢/kWh Future Generation-IV reactor designs such as fast reactors and compact liquid metal or salt reactors, as well as

Table 1

Currentstateofdevelopmentofelectricity-generatingtechnologies,adoptedfrom[8]

generation(TWhel/y)

Capacityfactorl(%)

MitigationPotential(GtCO2)

Energyrequirements(kWhth/kWhel)

CO2

emissions(g/kWhel)

Generatingcost(US¢/kWh)

Barriers

Carboncaptureandstorage – n.a 150–250 2–2.5+0.3–1 170–280 3–6+0–4 Energypenalty,large-scalestorage,

latedeploymentNuclearfission 2793 86k >180 0.12p 65 3–7 Wastedisposal,proliferation,public

acceptance

environmentalimpact

Solar-photovoltaic 12 15 25–200 0.4/1–0.8/1 40/150–100/200 10–20 Generatingcost

advanced fuel cycles promise advances in reactor fuel utilization,

enhanced proliferation resistance, reduction of nuclear waste

vol-umes, and passive safety, however no design satisfies all criteria,

and deployment is not expected to start before 2030 [8]

Hydropower deploys 870 GW and contributes more than 3 PWh

annually, or 17% of global electricity generation, and it therefore

dominates the renewable technology suite 90% of this electricity

is generated by large hydro dams, with the remainder generated

by small, mostly run-of-river plants The long-term resource of

large hydro is limited because most large rivers have already been

dammed [8]

Wind power is the second strongest growing of all technologies

examined in this report, with recent annual growth rates of about

34% The technology is mature and simple, and decades of

expe-rience exist in a few countries Due to strong economies of scale,

wind turbines have grown to several megawatts per device, and

wind farms have now been deployed off-shore The wind energy

industry is still small but competitive: 120 GW of installed wind

power contributes only about 1.5% or 260 TWh to global electricity

generation at average capacity factors of around 25%, and levelised

costs between 3 and 7 US¢/kWh, including variability cost [8]

Photovoltaic power is the strongest growing of all technologies

examined so far, with recent annual growth rates of around 40%.

One of the largest markets was remote power supplies, in

partic-ular for developing-country communities that are not connected

to electricity grids, but this has changed during recent years as

developed countries have embarked on rebated residential-roof

deployment programs Photovoltaic modules are deployed

dis-persed at small scale, which makes it difficult to ascertain globally

installed capacity, which is estimated at about 9 GW Assuming an

average capacity factor of 15%, global generation is 12 TWh [8]

Concentrating solar power sometimes also referred to as

solar–thermal power, was strongly pursued in the 1980s and

1990s, but renewed interest has emerged recently At present only

0.4 GW are operating at large-scale plant levels, generating some

1 TWh annually, using mostly parabolic troughs, but also tower,

dish and Fresnel designs Concentrating solar plants integrate well

with conventional thermal plants, for example as fuel savers The

average capacity factor is at least 20%, but can reach beyond 40%

when heat transfer fluids with high thermal capacity are used for

hourly storage Combined with storage, the capacity credit of

con-centrating solar power is higher than that of photovoltaic power,

with sunny locations and high summer peak loads achieving

cred-its of more than 80% [8]

Geothermal power has been utilized for power generation since

1920 Globally it only accounts for 10 GW deployed, but some

countries derive a major proportion of their electricity from

geothermal reservoirs Geothermal plant efficiency depends on

the quality of the resource Low-temperature resources require

one or two flashing processes in order to utilize steam

tur-bines Electricity generation has been growing slowly at about 4%

annually, and is currently about 60 TWh at 70% average capacity

factor, but capacity factors up to 90% are considered

possi-ble [8] Geothermal boasts the largest technical potential of all

technologies, however resource development can be slow due

to a combination of uncertain field capacity and high drilling

cost, requiring a step-wise development process, with results

obtained from a small number of wells before the field is further

expanded.

Biomass power is secondary to uses of biomass for liquid

trans-portation fuels, but it is currently used economically in dedicated

applications such as pulp and sugar industries The search for

alter-native sources of energy was largely dormant until the energy

crises of the 1970s and early 1980s sparked renewed interest in the

issue Among the alternative energy sources, vegetable oil-based

fuels were reconsidered, with biodiesel in form of esters of

sun-flower oil to be reported in 1980 [9] Biomass power is the area among these technologies which gained most encouraging atten- tion of researchers these days A lot of research work has been done

in last three decades on biomass utilization to yield transportation fuels Balat et al [10] reviewed the biological and thermochemical methods that could be used to produce bioethanol and carried out an analysis of its global production trends Demirbas [11]

briefly reviewed the modern biomass-based transportation fuels such as fuels from Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, bioethanol, fatty acid (m)ethylester, biomethanol, and biohydrogen Inayat et al.

produc-tion process via biomass steam gasification using framework consisting of kinetics models for char gasification, methanation, Boudouard, methane reforming, water gas shift and carbonation reactions to represent the gasification and CO2adsorption in the gasifier implemented in MATLAB to predict the producer gas com- position, Bio-hydrogen yield and thermodynamic efficiency of process, additionally, developed a model for flowsheet of hydro- gen production from empty fruit bunch from oil palm via steam gasification with in situ carbon dioxide capture, that incorporates the chemical reaction kinetics, mass and energy balances calcula- tions with parameter analysis on the influence of the temperature, steam/biomass and sorbent/biomass ratios On the other hand, due to the overwhelming scientific evidence is that the unfet- tered use of fossil fuels is causing the world’s climate to change; biomass power is gaining an increasing interest Global deploy- ment in biomass power is only around 50 GW generating 1.5%, or some 240 TWh [8] of electricity Currently, biomass plants com- bust agricultural and forestry residues, and waste The long-term potential of these types of feedstock is lower than that of dedicated energy crops, but the latter have preferential usage for biofuels Dedicated biomass plants are small in size because of locally lim- ited feedstock availability and transportation requirements, and hence suffer from dis-economies of scale Further technical chal- lenges are in developing gasifier, boiler and turbine designs that can handle variable- and low-quality biomass and deal with the resultant pollutant deposits and corrosion Co-firing is regarded as the preferred option, but at biomass shares above 10% it leads to efficiency losses and requires structural changes to plant compo- nents such as feeders Levelised costs are competitive at between 3 and 5 US¢/kWh Capacity factors are lower than those for coal-fired power plants, at around 60% [8]

Currently world’s energy requirements are mostly fulfilled by fossil fuels However, the overwhelming scientific evidence is that the unfettered use of fossil fuels is causing the world’s climate to change, with potential catastrophic effect Until 1960s everyone in the power industry and government came to assume that remote, central generation was optimal, that it would deliver power at the lowest cost versus other alternatives, and there was an assump- tion that remote, central generation was optimal, that it would deliver power at the lowest cost versus other alternatives Because

of their high level of integration, are susceptible to disturbances

in the supply chain In the case of electricity especially, this supply paradigm is losing some of its appeal Apart from vulnerability, cen- tralized energy supply systems are losing its attractiveness due to a number of further annoying factors including the depletion of fos- sil fuels and their climate change impact, the insecurities affecting energy transportation infrastructure, and the desire of investors to minimize risks through the deployment of smaller-scale, modular generation and transmission systems.

2.2 Decentralized systems

Small-scale decentralized systems are emerging as a viable alternative as being less dependent upon centralized energy sup-

Table 2

Comparativedescriptionofdifferentdecentralizedtechnologies[16,17]

Co-generation Theaverageefficiencyofco-generationsystemsisestimatedtobe85%.Theimportantco-generation

technologiesarebagasseco-generation,steamturbinecombinedheat,gasturbinecombinedheat

BothGCandSABiomasspower Producergasistheconsequenceofmodernuseofbiomassanditsconversiontohigherformsofgaseousfuel

throughtheprocessofgasification.Forsmall-scaleapplications,biomassrequirementrangefromabout5kg/h

uptoabout500kg/h

BothGCandSA

Smallandmini-hydropower Thesmallandmini-hydropowergenerationsystemsareenvironmentallybenignasitisrunoftheriver

technologywheretheriverflowisnotimpeded;asaresulttheriverfloodingproblemiseliminated.Thesystemisclassifiedassmall-hydroifthesystemsizevariesbetween2.5and25MW,mini-hydrotypicallyfallsbelow2MW,micro-hydroschemesfallbelow500kWandpico-hydrobelow10kWcapacity

SA

SolarPVpower EfficiencyofcommerciallyavailablesolarPVvariesbetween7and17%.Becauseofitshighinitialinvestment,

costofgenerationperkWhbecomeshighmakingitunaffordable

SABiogas Thegasthatisproducedthroughanaerobicdigestionofbiomassandotherwasteslikevegetableresidues,

animaldung,etc.iscalledbiogas.Biogasgenerallyis60%methaneand40%carbondioxide

SAWindpower SimilartoPVsystemswindenergysystemsarealsositeandseasonspecific.Windenergysystemsmostly

operateingrid-connectedmode,butonlyinafewvillagesisolatedsystemsareoperatedtoprovideelectricityforwaterpumping

GC

ply, and can sometimes use multiple energy sources On the basis

of type of energy resources used, decentralized power is also

clas-sified as non-renewable and renewable These classifications along

with an overabundance of technological alternatives have made

the prioritization process of decentralized power quite

compli-cated for decision making Establishing local generation and a local

network may be cheaper, easier and faster than extending the

central-station network to remote areas of modest load The rural

areas of many developing and emerging countries are unlikely

ever to see the arrival of classical synchronized AC

transmis-sion lines Decentralized local systems, including those using local

resources of renewable energy such as wind, solar and biomass,

appear much more feasible [15] There is abundant literature, which

has discussed various approaches that have been used to support

decision making under such complex situations The

implemen-tation of decentralized energy systems depends upon the extent

of decentralization The extent of decentralization also determines

the condition for the system to be operated in either grid-connected

(GC) or stand-alone (SA) mode A number of articles have been

pre-sented for both success and failure narratives of implementation of

SA as well as GC systems But most of the articles were applied

to isolated cases A generalized approach to assess suitability of

SA and GC systems at a given location, based on techno-economic

financial-environmental feasibility does not find adequate

decentralized power generation applicable in mode(s) and their

features Only biomass based technologies (cogeneration and

gasi-fication) are found to be more versatile towards both GC and SA

modes and both can serve as combined heat and power (CHP)

system.

High fossil fuel prices recorded between 2003 and 2008,

com-bined with concerns about the environmental consequences of

GHG emissions, have renewed interest in the development of

alter-natives to fossil fuels—specifically, nuclear power and renewable

energy sources A lot of studies have been made in last two decades

to assess and implement decentralized power systems Recent

important and valued researches on different aspects of

decen-tralized power system are tabulated as Table 3 High fossil fuel

prices recorded between 2003 and 2008, combined with concerns

about the environmental consequences of greenhouse gas

emis-sions, have renewed interest in the development of alternatives

to fossil fuels—specifically, nuclear power and renewable energy

sources In the mainstream media, these systems are increasingly

associated with the benefits from virtually free, low-carbon and

locally available renewable energy resources such as wind and

solar power But in the specific context of the built environment,

the emphasis is on decentralized electricity generation associated

with heat production It is therefore important to realize the tial of biomass based technologies in GHG emission reduction in developed countries and their role in promoting sustainable rural development in developing countries.

poten-World net electricity generation increases by 87% in the ence case, from 18.8 trillion kWh in 2007 to 25.0 trillion kWh in

Refer-2020 and 35.2 trillion kWh in 2035 [100] Renewable energy is the fastest-growing source of electricity generation in the International Energy Outlook 2010 (IEO2010) Reference case Table 4 shows the world net renewable electricity generation by energy source, 2007–2035.The mix of primary fuels used to generate electricity has changed a great deal over the past four decades on a worldwide basis Coal continues to be the fuel most widely used for electric- ity generation, although generation from nuclear power increased rapidly from the 1970s through the 1980s, and natural-gas-fired generation grew rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s The use of oil for electricity generation has been declining since themid-1970s, when oil prices rose sharply Total generations from renewable resources increases by 3.0% annually, and the renewable share of world electricity generation grew from 18% in 2007 to 23% in 2035 Almost 80% of the increase is in hydroelectric power and wind power The contribution of wind energy, in particular, has grown swiftly over the past decade, from 18 GW of net installed capac- ity at the end of 2000 to 159 GW at the end of 2009—a trend that continues into the future Of the 4.5 trillion kWh of new renew- able generation added over the projection period, 2.4 trillion kWh (54%) is attributed to hydroelectric power and 1.2 trillion kWh (26%) to wind Electricity generation from nuclear power increases from about 2.6 trillion kWh in 2007 to 4.5 trillion kWh in 2035

Wind and solar are intermittent technologies that can be used only when resources are available Once built, the cost of operat- ing wind or solar technologies, when the resource is available, is generally much less than the cost of operating conventional renew- able generation Solar power, for instance, is currently a “niche” source of renewable energy but can be economical where electric- ity prices are especially high, where peak load pricing occurs, or where government incentives are available.

Abundant literature is available on issues, problems and progress in the power sector Most of the existing literature is concerned with implications of climate change mitigation policies

on energy technologies, prices, and emissions For instance, the world moves towards concerted action to stabilize concentrations

of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the earth’s atmosphere, the profile

of energy resources and technologies being used Table 5 rates the most recent potential researches (among this abundant literature) in energy and power sector (during last decade).

elabo-Table 3

Recentimportantandvaluedresearchesofdecentralizedelectricitysystems;extractedfrom[17]

M.A.Sheikh 2010 ReviewofREsupplyoptions;solarenergy,windenergy,microhydelpower,biogasandgeothermalenergyin

F.Chenetal 2010 Potentialtodevelopvariousrenewableenergies,suchassolarenergy,biomassenergy,windpower,

geothermalenergy,hydropowerinTaiwanandthereviewoftheachievements,policesandfutureplansinthisarea

[20]

A.Kumaretal 2010 Reviewoftheavailability,currentstatus,majorachievementsandfuturepotentialsofrenewableenergy

optionsincludingbiomass,hydropower,windenergy,solarenergyandgeothermalenergy.inIndia

[21]

M.A.EltawilandZ.Zhao 2010 Areviewstudytoinvestigateandemphasizetheimportanceofthegrid-connectedPVsystemregardingthe

intermittentnatureofrenewablegeneration,andthecharacterizationofPVgenerationwithregardtogridcodecompliancewithacriticallyreviewonexpectedpotentialproblemsassociatedwithhighpenetrationlevelsandislandingpreventionmethodsofgridtiedPV

[22]

SalasandOlías 2009 Extensiveanalysisofalltheelectricalparametersofgrid-connectedsolarinvertersforapplicationsbelow

10kW

[23]

CarlosandKhang 2009 Ageneralizedframeworktoassessthefactorsaffectingthesuccessfulcompletionofgrid-connectedbiomass

energyprojectsvalidatedwithrealworlddataofpowerplants(Thailand)

[24]

DoukasandKarakosta 2009 Theeconomic,environmentalandsustainablebenefitsaswellasremovalofbarriersforsatisfactory

disseminationofimportantREStechnologies

[25]

M.Asif 2009 Renewableenergy-basedelectricitysupplyoptionssuchasmacro/microhydro,Biomassintheformofcrop

residuesandanimalwasteandmunicipalsolidwaste,smallwindelectricgeneratorsandphotovoltaicsinPakistan

[26]

B.Ghobadianetal 2009 Potentialandfeasibilitytodevelopvariousrenewableenergies,suchassolarenergy,biomassandbiogas

energy,windpowerandgeothermalenergyinIran

[27]

L.Chenetal 2009 Feasibilityofdensifiedsolidbiofuelstechnologyforutilizingagro-residuesinChina [28]

Y.Himrietal 2009 AreviewoftheuseofrenewableenergysituationandfutureobjectivesinAlgeria [29]

J.Paskaetal 2009 Anoverviewonthepresentstateandperspectivesofusingrenewableenergysourcesincludinghydropower,

solarenergy,windenergybiomassandbiogasinPoland

inthepowerelectricgenerationsystem.usingtheIRPmodel,tomeetthechallengesofsoaringelectricitydemand,growingenvironmentalconcerns,energypricingclimax,andenergysecurityovertheperiod2010–2030

[31]

C.Gokcoletal 2009 AnoverviewontheimportanceandpotentialofbiomassanditsutilizationforbiomassenergyinTurkey [32]

A.Yilanci,I.Dincer,and

H.K.Ozturk

2009 Anoverviewofsolarhydrogenproductionmethods,theircurrentstatusuptothepresent2009,preliminaryenergyandexergyefficiencyanalysesforSolar-hydrogen/fuelcellhybridenergysystemsforstationary(casestudy,Denizli,Turkey)

[33]

Walker 2008 Assessmentofthelinkagebetweenstand-alonesystemsandfuelpoverty(casestudy,UK) [34]Purohit 2008 Adetailedestimationofsmallhydropower(SHP)potentialinIndiaunderCDM [35]Adhikarietal 2008 AnoverviewofCDMportfolioinThailandbycataloguingpotential,opportunitiesandbarriersforexecuting

decentralizedsustainablerenewableenergyprojectsinthecontextofCDM

[36]

Lybaek 2008 AssessmentofmarketopportunitiesinAsiancountriesforSAbiomassCHP(casestudy,Thailand) [37]U.K.Mirzaetal 2008 PotentialofbiomassforenergygenerationinPakistan [38]M.R.Nounietal 2008 Renewableenergy-baseddecentralizedelectricitysupplyoptionssuchasmicrohydro,dualfuelbiomass

gasifiersystems,smallwindelectricgeneratorsandphotovoltaicsinIndia

[39]

S.Bilgenetal 2008 RenewableenergypotentialandutilizationinTurkeyandGlobalwarmingissues [40]

I.Rofiquletal 2008 ReviewofREsupplyoptions;solarenergy,windenergy,hydropower,biogasandtidalenergyinBangladesh

withconcludingremarks“Thereisnowayotherthantakingbioandsolarenergyforreducingenvironmentaldegradation.”

[41]

S.Sumathietal 2008 Potentialofoilpalmasbio-dieselcropandwastestreamasasourcetoproducevastamountsofbio-gasand

othervaluesaddedproducts

[42]

ZouliasandLymberopoulos 2007 Simulationandoptimizationofreplacementoptionofconventionaltechnologieswithhydrogentechnologies,

fuelcellsinanexistingPV-dieseloperatedinstand-alonemodebyusingHOMER)tool

X.Zengetal 2007 Anoverviewonthetechnologystatus,potentialandthefutureresearchanddevelopmentofstrawinthe

biomassenergyportfolioinChina

[48]

A.K.HossainandO.Badr 2007 Biomassenergypotentialfortheplanningsmall-tomedium-scalebiomass-to-electricityplantsinBangladesh [49]Hollandetal 2006 Assessmentofthecriticalfactorsforsuccessfuldiffusionofstandalonesystemsinruralregions [50]Gulli 2006 Social-costbenefitanalysisofstand-alonecombinedheatandpower(CHP)systemsbasedonbothinternal

andexternalsystemcosts

[51]

I.M.Bugaje 2006 ReviewofREscenarioinAfricausingSouthAfrica,Egypt,NigeriaandMaliascasestudieswithsolarenergy

andwoodbiomassasmajorrecourses

[52]

MahmoudandIbrik 2006 Computer-baseddynamiceconomicevaluationmodelwithkeyeconomicefficiencyindicatorstoassessthree

supplyoptionsnamelysolarPV,dieselgeneratorsinSAsystemandgridextension

[53]

Hiremathetal 2006 Reviewondecentralizedenergyplanningmodels [54]

Ravindranathetal 2006 Assessmentofcarbonabatementpotentialofbioenergytechnologies(BETs)bycomparisonwithfossilfuel

alternatives

[56]

Bernal-Agustinand 2006 Economicanalysisonthegrid-connectedSolarPVsystem(casestudy,Spain) [57]

Faulinetal 2006 PotentialofRETsingeneratinglocalemployment(casestudy,Spain) [58]Fernandez-Infantesetal 2006 Acomputer-baseddecisionsupportsystemtodesigntheGCPVsystembasedonelectrical,environmentaland

economicconsiderations

[59]

DosiekandPillay 2005 DesignofahorizontalaxiswindSAsystemsbysimulationusingMATLAB/SIMULINK [60]Rabah 2005 Practicalimplementationofastand-alonesolarPVtoimprovethequalityoflifeofpoor(casestudy,Kenya) [61]Nakataetal 2005 Systemconfigurationandoperationofhybridsystemsforthesupplyofheatandpowerbasedonanon-linear

programmingoptimizationmodelandMETANeteconomicmodelingsystem(Japan)

[62]

KhanandIqbal 2005 SAsystemshybridwithotherbothrenewableandnonrenewablesourcesofenergycarriersasapotential

solutiontotheproblemsofSAsystemslikelowcapacityfactors,excessbatterycostsandlimitedcapacitytostoreextraenergy.(usingHOMERsoftwaretooptimizeandarriveattherightcombinationofenergysystems)

[63]

Peletetal 2005 Multi-objectiveevolutionaryprogrammingtechniquetorationalizethedesignofenergysystemsforremote

locations

[64]

SantarelliandPellegrino 2005 Mathematicaloptimizationmodeltominimizethetotalinvestmentcostofhydrogenbasedstand-alone

systemtosupplyelectricitytoresidentialusers,integratedwithrenewableenergysystemslikesolarPVandmicro-hydro

[65]

KamelandDahl 2005 Economicassessmentofhybridsolar–windsystemsagainstthedieselusingNREL’srenewableenergy

simulationtoolcalledHOMER(hybridoptimizationmodelforelectricrenewables)

[66]

Jeongetal 2005 Afuzzylogicalgorithmasastrategyforeffectiveloadmanagementresultinganimprovedresilienceand

systemoperationefficiencyofahybridfuel-cellandbatterystand-alonesystem

[67]

Silveira 2005 ThepotentialofCDMinpromotingbio-energytechnologiestopromotesustainabledevelopmentin

developingcountries

[68]

Santarellietal 2004 Designmethodologyofastand-alonesystem,byintegratingrenewableenergysystems,basedonenergy

analysis,electricitymanagementandhydrogenmanagement(casestudy,Italy)

Kishoreetal 2004 Thepotentialroleofbiomassinglobalclimatechangemitigationandtheextentofcommercializationand

mainstreamingofbiomassenergytechnologieswithintheframeworkofcleandevelopmentmechanism(CDM).Acasestudy

[72]

BeckandMartinot 2004 PoliciesandkeybarriersfordiffusionofSAsystemsandGCsystemslikeunfavorablepricingrules,private

ownership,andlackoflocationalpricingleadingtoundervaluationofGCsystems

[73]

BakosandTsagas 2003 Techno-economicassessmentfortechnicalfeasibilityandeconomicviabilityofahybridsolar/wind

installationforresidentialelectrificationandheat(casestudy,Greece)

[74]

J.Chang,D.Y.C.Leungetal 2003 Anoverviewontheresearchanddevelopmentofrenewableenergy,suchassolar,biomass,geothermal,ocean

andwindenergyinChina

[75]

Kumaretal 2003 Powercostsandoptimumsizeofastand-alonebiomassenergyplantbasedonagriculturalresidues,whole

forestresidues,andresiduesoflumberactivities(casestudy,Canada)

Martinot 2002 Anextensivediscussiononthepolicies,strategiesandlessonslearntfromtheGEF(Globalenvironmental

Facility)projectonthestatusofgrid-basedrenewableenergysystemsindevelopingcountries

[83]

Manolakosetal 2001 SimulationbasedsoftwaretoolforoptimizingthedesignofahybridenergysystemconsistingofwindandPV

tosupplyelectricityandwaterforaremoteislandvillage

[84]

Stoneetal 2000 Investment,operationalcostsandimpactofruralelectrificationprojectinitiatives(casestudy,India) [86]BatesandWilshaw 1999 StatusofsolarPVpowersystems,governmentalpoliciestowardsrenewableandkeymarketbarriersforthe

successfulandquickdiffusionofsolarPVpowersystems

[87]

Ackermannetal 1999 Simulationbasedvalidatedeconomicoptimizationtooltoevaluatedifferentoptionsfordistributed

generation,andimprovepowerqualityofanembeddedwindgenerationsysteminweakgridconditions

[88]

Meureretal 1999 GenerationofmeasurementperformancedataofanautonomousSAhybridrenewableenergysystem(RES)to

optimizetheenergyoutputandoperationalreliabilitywiththeaidofsimulationprograms

[89]

VosenandKeller 1999 OptimizationandsimulationmodelforaSAsolarpoweredbattery-hydrogenhybridsystemforfluctuating

demandandsupplyscenariosusingtwostoragealgorithmsforwithorwithoutpriorknowledgeaboutthefuturedemand

GablerandLuther 1998 Developmentandvalidationofsimulationandoptimizationmodelforawind–solarhybridSAsystemto

optimizethedesignofconvertersandstoragedevicessoastominimizetheenergypaybacktime

[93]

RavindranathandHall 1995 Systemconfiguration,operationaldetails,andcostingofabiogasunit(casestudy,India) [94]Ravindranath 1993 BiomassGasificationasenvironmentallysoundtechnologyfordecentralizeselectricity [95]Ramakumaretal 1992 Aknowledgebasedapproachforthedesignofintegratedrenewableenergysystems(IRES) [96]Joshietal 1992 Developmentofalinearmathematicalmodeltooptimizetheenergymixofdifferentenergysource-end-use

conversiondevicestosupplyenergytovillages(casestudy,India)

Table 4

Worldnetrenewableelectricitygenerationbyenergysource,2007-2035(BillionkWh)[100]

2.3 Optimization modeling studies related to power generation

and supply techniques

Over the second half of the 20th century, optimization found

widespread applications in the study of physical and chemical

sys-tems, production planning and scheduling systems, location and

transportation problems, resource allocation in financial systems,

and engineering design A large number of problems in

produc-tion planning and scheduling, location, transportation, finance, and

engineering design require that decisions be made in the presence

of uncertainty The optimization under uncertainty includes the

classical recourse-based stochastic programming, robust

stochas-tic programming, probabilistic (chance-constraint) programming,

fuzzy programming, and stochastic dynamic programming These

optimization techniques are briefly reviewed by Sahinidis [145]

During the course of 21st century, energy systems will be

required to meet several important goals, including conformance

with the environmental, economic, and social goals of sustainable

development The existence of multiple goals, multiple

stockhold-ers, and numerous available technologies lend itself to the use of a

system approach to solving energy system problems.

Energy systems engineering provides a methodological

scien-tific framework to arrive at realistic integrated solutions to complex

energy problems, by adopting a holistic, system-based approach.

Such an integrated approach features:

A superstructure representation where alternatives in terms of

energy technologies, raw materials and possible routes towards

electricity and hydrogen, among others, are captured.

A mixed-integer optimization model which allows for the

devel-opment of a single mathematical model to represent all possible

energy system alternatives within the superstructure, along with

appropriate solution algorithms (MILP, MINLP, etc.).

A multi-objective optimization approach to simultaneously address

and quantify the trade-offs among competing objectives, such

as profitability, environmental impacts, energy consumption, and

system operability.

An optimization under uncertainty strategy to analyze the impact

of technological uncertainties over a long-term horizon on the

profit/energy consumption/environmental impacts of an energy

system.

Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques are applied for modeling,

iden-tification, optimization, prediction, forecasting and control of

complex systems like Adaptive Control, Robust Pattern Detection,

Optimization, Scheduling and Complex Mapping AI is commonly

defined as the science and engineering of making intelligent

machines, especially intelligent computer programs.

AI-based systems are being developed and deployed worldwide

in a wide variety of applications, mainly because of their symbolic

reasoning, flexibility and explanation capabilities AI has been used

in different sectors, such as engineering, economics, medicine,

mil-itary, marine, etc Mellita and Kalogirou [146] used AI techniques to

solve problems in photovoltaic systems application including

fore-casting and modeling of meteorological data-, sizing of photovoltaic systems and modeling-, simulation, and control of photovoltaic systems and highlighted the potential of AI as design tool in pho- tovoltaic systems Nowicka-Zagrajeka et al [147] addressed the issue of modeling and forecasting electricity loads applying a two- step procedure to a series of system-wide loads from the California power market using ANN approach Chaudry et al [148] developed

a multi-time period combined gas and electricity network mization model which takes into account the varying nature of gas flows, network support facilities such as gas storage and the power ramping characteristics of electricity generation units.

opti-2.3.1 Power supply and distribution During the last decade several new concepts of energy planning and management such as decentralized planning, energy conser- vation through improved technologies, waste recycling, integrated energy planning, introduction of renewable energy sources and energy forecasting have emerged Recent trends in electric util- ity restructuring have included increasing competition in an open electricity supply marketplace, which has sharpened attention to keeping operation and maintenance costs for infrastructure as low

as possible Some research literature suggests that one side-effect

of restructuring has been a reduced willingness on the part of some utilities to invest in environmental protection beyond what

is absolutely required by law and regulation [149] Within the electricity sector, network planning is closely related to genera- tion planning In recent context, where centralized energy supply systems are losing its attractiveness due to a number of further annoying factors including the depletion of fossil fuels and their climate change impact, the actual operation of the generating units

no longer depends on state-or utility-based centralized procedures, but rather on decentralized decisions of generation firms whose goals are to maximize their own profits All firms compete to pro- vide generation services at a price set by the market, as a result of the interaction of all of them and the demand As a result, electric- ity firms are exposed to significantly higher risks and their need for suitable decision-support models has greatly increased Hence,

a new area of highly interesting research for the electrical industry has opened up Numerous publications give evidence of extensive effort by the research community to develop electricity market models adapted to the new competitive context.

Ventosa [150] reviewed the electricity generation market eling focusing on a survey of the most relevant publications regarding electricity market modeling, identifying three major trends: optimization models, equilibrium models and simulation models and concluded That “the impressive advances registered in this research field underscore how much interest this matter has drawn during the last decade” Jebaraj and Iniyan [151] presented a review on different types of models such as energy planning mod- els, energy supply–demand models, forecasting models, renewable energy models, emission reduction models, optimization models and models based on neural network and fuzzy and suggested that the neural networks can be used in the energy forecasting and the

mod-Table 5

Potentialresearchesinenergyandpowersectorinlastdecade

N.Boccard 2010 Anoverviewoftheabilityofwindpoweroutputtoserveelectricitydemandallaroundthe

year,hourbyhour,focusingon“capacitycredit”,methodologytoassessthe“socialcost”ofwindpowerandcontribution(orlackthereof)ofwindpowergeneration(WPG)toadequacy,withspecialanalysisofthecostestimatesforthesixEuropeancountries(Germany,Denmark,Spain,France,PortugalandIreland)onthebasisofloadandWPGoutputdata

[102]

J.CliftonandB.J.Boruff 2010 Areviewofpoliciesdesignedtostimulatethecontributionofrenewablesourceshighlightsthe

continuedrelianceuponfossilfuelstosupplycurrentandfutureelectricityneedsinAustralia

PotentialCSPsitesaredefinedintheWheatbeltregionofWesternAustraliathroughoverlayingenvironmentalvariablesandelectricityinfrastructureonahighresolutiongridusingwidelyavailabledatasetsandstandardgeographicalinformationsystem(GIS)software

[103]

Cansino,J.M.,etal 2010 AcomprehensiveoverviewofthemaintaxincentivesusedintheEU-27memberStatesto

promotegreenelectricityfocusingontheEuropeanregulationoftaxincentivesforgreenelectricity,theactualshareofrenewableenergysourcesingrosselectricityconsumption,maintaxincentivesconsideredindirecttaxes,andpigouvianandothertaxes

[104]

I.PurohitandP.Purohit 2010 Atechnicalandeconomicassessmentofconcentratingsolarpower(CSP)technologiesinIndia

takingtwoprojectsnamelyPS-10(basedonpowertowertechnology)andANDASOL-1(based

onparabolictroughcollectortechnology)asreferencecases

[105]

J.BadcockandM.Lenzen 2010 Theestimationoftheextentofsubsidizationglobally,viaselectedmechanisms,foranumber

ofdifferentelectricity-generatingtechnologiescoveringcoal-fired,nuclear,wind,solarPV,concentratingsolar,geothermal,biomassandhydroelectricpower

[106]

L.Kosnik 2010 Anoverviewoncost-benefitperspective,topographicalfeaturesforsmallscalehydropower

sitesintheUSandtodeterminethecost-effectivenessofdevelopingthesesites.Concludingthatwhiletheaveragecostofdevelopingsmallscalehydropowerisrelativelyhigh,therestillremainhundredsofsitesonthelowendofthecostscalethatarecost-effectivetodeveloprightnow

[107]

U.Arenaetal 2010 Acomparisonbetweenthemostpromisingdesignconfigurationsfortheindustrialapplication

ofgasificationbased,biomass-to-energyco-generatorsinthe100–600kWerangeandthetechno-economicperformancesoftwoenergygenerationdevices,agasengineandanexternallyfiredgasturbine,havebeenestimatedonthebasisofthemanufacturer’sspecificationsdrawingconclusionthattheinternalcombustionenginelayoutisthesolutionthatcurrentlyoffersthehigherreliabilityandprovidesthehigherinternalrateofreturnfortheinvestigatedrangeofelectricalenergyproduction

[108]

Gomis-Bellmunt,O.,etal 2010 Theevaluationofpowergeneratedbyvariableandconstantfrequencyoffshorewindfarms

connectedtoasinglelargepowerconverter,theevaluationofthepowercaptureincreasewhenemployingavariablefrequencywindfarmconnectedtoaHVDCgridbymeansoflargepowerconverterprovingthegridfrequencyandvoltageforthewindfarm,focusingontheenergycaptureanalysis,otherextremelyimportantissuesrelatedtovariablefrequencywindfarmengineering

[109]

M.Thirugnanasambandametal 2010 Reviewonthecurrentstatusofthesolarthermaltechnologies,performanceanalysesof

existingdesigns(study),mathematicalsimulation(design)andfabricationofinnovativedesignswithsuggestedimprovementsanddevelopment

[110]

M.M.Abu-Khader 2009 Acomprehensivereviewonrecentadvancesinnuclearpowersector [111]

I.AltmanaandT.Johnson 2009 Areviewoforganizationalissues,thebroadindustrialstructureofthecurrentbio-power

industryandcurrentorganizationalmechanismsbasedondatafromtheU.S.EnergyInformationAdministration

[112]

M.BolingerandR.Wiser 2009 AnoverviewofwindpowersectorgrowthbothgloballyandspecificallyintheUS

demonstratingrecentincreasesinwindturbinepricing,installedprojectcosts,andwindpowerpricesandthefactorstomitigatetheimpactofrisingcostsonwindpowerpricesintheUnitedStatesinrecentyears

[113]

N.Caldésetal 2009 Thesocio-economicimpactsofincreasingtheinstalledsolarthermalenergypowercapacityin

Spain,usinganinput–outputanalysisundertwodifferentscenarios:(i)basedontwosolarthermalpowerplantscurrentlyinoperation(with50and17MWofinstalledcapacity);(ii)thecompliancetotheSpanishRenewableEnergyPlan(PER)2005–2010reaching500MWby2010

[114]

C.ChenandE.S.Rubin 2009 ThecomprehensiveoverviewtheplantconfigurationsofIGCCsystemswithandwithoutCO2

capture,analysisofseveralfactorsinfluencingtheperformanceandcostofIGCCsystemswithandwithoutCO2capture,includingcoalqualityandCO2removalefficiency,additionallyfactorsinaprobabilisticuncertaintyanalysisandthepotentialeffectsoftwoadvancedtechnologies—aniontransportmembrane(ITM)systemforoxygenproductionandanH-framegasturbine(GT)systemforpowergeneration—ontheperformanceandcostofIGCCsystemswithCCS

[115]

Othman,M.R.,etal 2009 Areviewsummarizingthecleandevelopmentmechanism(CDM)andadoptionofCMDfor

MalaysiaandIndonesia,acomparisonofenergypoliciesofbothcountrieswithadvancedindustrializedcountries,currentstatusofcarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)technologies,andchoiceofcoalfiredpowerplantsforMalaysiaandIndonesia

[116]

V.Fthenakisetal 2009 Astudytoforecastfutureenergydemandlevelsinthreedistinctstages(Presentto2020,

2020–2050,and2050–2100)inrealizingthedevelopmentoftheSWsolarpowerplantforthe

US,anditsextrapolationforthedeploymentlevelofexistingsolartechnologies,supplementedbyotherrenewableenergysources,toprovethefeasibilityforsolarenergytosupplythatenergyincluding(1)PV,(2)PVcombinedwithcompressedairenergystorage(CAES)powerplants,and(3)CSPplantswiththermalstoragesystemswithconcludingremarksthattheitisclearlyfeasibletoreplacethepresentfossilfuelenergyinfrastructureintheUSwithsolarpowerandotherrenewables,andreduceCO2emissionstoalevelcommensuratewiththemostaggressiveclimate-changegoals

[117]

J.Hanssonetal 2009 AreviewonTheEuropeancoal-firedpowerplantinfrastructure,technicalbiomassco-firing [118]

D.L.Gallup 2009 Areviewstudytohighlightsomeproductionengineeringadvancesingeothermaltechnology

thathavebeenmadeoveraboutthepasttwodecades

[119]

M.I.Soheletal 2009 AtheoreticalanalysisincludingmodelingandsimulationofatypicalplantusingNew

Zealand’slocalweatherdatatakingtheRotokawabinarycyclegeothermalplantisasatestcaseandcomparedagainstotherbaseloadoptions,comparisonofimprovedsummerhot-dayperformancetootherpeakloadoptionsaswellaspolicyimplications

[120]

A.Yilancietal 2009 Areviewonsolar-hydrogen/fuelcellhybridenergysystemsdescribingsolarhydrogen

productionmethods,andtheircurrentstatus,andpreliminaryenergyandexergyefficiencyanalysesforaphotovoltaic-hydrogen/fuelcellhybridenergysysteminDenizli,Turkeywiththreedifferentenergydemandpaths– fromphotovoltaicpanelstotheconsumer.Minimumandmaximumoverallenergyandexergyefficienciesofthesystemarecalculatedbasedonthesepaths

[121]

Neij,L 2008 Ananalyticalframeworkfortheanalysisoffuturecostdevelopmentofnewenergy

technologiesforelectricitygeneration;basedonanassessmentofavailableexperiencecurves,complementedwithbottom-upanalysisofsourcesofcostreductionsand,forsometechnologies,judgmentalexpertassessmentsoflong-termdevelopmentpaths

[122]

L.Kosnik 2008 AstudyofthepotentialforwaterpowerdevelopmentasonemethodtoreduceUSgreenhouse

gasemissionsfromnewsmall/microhydropowerdams,upratingfacilitiesatexistinglargehydropowerdams,newgeneratingfacilitiesatexistingnon-hydropowerdams,andhydrokineticsaswellasthecost-effectivenessofdevelopingthesesourcesofwater-basedenergy,concludingthatwhilewaterpowerwillneverbethecompleteanswertoemissions-freeenergyproduction,astrongcasecanbemadethatitcanbeausefulpartoftheanswer

[123]

D.Driver 2008 Areviewonmaterialsprioritiesforenergyandpowersectorandcurrentstatusincluding

materialsforenergyconservation,turbinetechnology,Waterpower,fuelcelltechnology,nuclearfissionandfusionmaterials,high-temperaturepowergenerationmaterials,solarenergy—photovoltaics(PVs),windpowerandfunctionalmaterialsforenergygenerationandconservation

[124]

T.Oliver 2008 Astudydiscussingthecurrentstatusofthescienceandtechnologiesforfossil-fuelledpower

generationandoutlineslikelyfuturetechnologies,developmenttargetsandtimescalesfollowedbyadescriptionofthescientificandtechnologicaldevelopmentsthatareneededtomeetthesechallenges

[125]

C.Yinetal 2008 Areviewonthestate-of-the-artknowledgeongrate-firedboilersburningbiomass:thekey

elementsinthefiringsystemandthedevelopment,theimportantcombustionmechanism,therecentbreakthroughinthetechnology,themostpressingissues,thecurrentresearchanddevelopmentactivities,andthecriticalfutureproblemstoberesolved

[126]

M.MuellerandR.Wallace 2008 Acomprehensiveoverviewonsomeofthekeychallengestobemetinthedevelopmentof

marinerenewableenergytechnology

[127]

S.Shanthakumaretal 2008 Acriticalreviewofvariousfluegasconditioningtechniquesemployedforcontrollingthe

suspendedparticulatematter(SPM)levelinthermalpowerstationsincludingthein-depthanalysisofdataobtainedfromdifferentthermalpowerstationsoftheworld

[128]

C.DiBlasi 2008 Areviewonchemicalkineticsofbiomass/charcombustionandgasification,critically

analyzingthestateoftheartofratelawsandkineticconstantsforthegasification,withcarbondioxideandsteam,andthecombustionofcharsproducedfromlignocellulosicfuels,includingabriefoutlineaboutyieldsandcompositionofpyrolysisproducts,andtheroleplayedbyvariousfactors,suchasheatingrate,temperatureandpressureofthepyrolysisstage,feedstockandcontent/compositionoftheinorganicmatter,oncharreactivity

[129]

Som,S.andA.Datta 2008 Acomprehensivereviewpertainingtofundamentalstudiesonthermodynamicirreversibility

andexergyanalysisintheprocessesofcombustionofgaseous,liquidandsolidfuels,concludingthattheimportantconsiderationoffueleconomyforacombustorofapower-producingunitpertainstothetrade-offbetweentheefficientconversionofenergyquantityandminimumdestructionofenergyquality(exergy)

[130]

E.S.Rubinetal 2007 AStudysummarizingandcomparingtheresultsofrecentstudiesofthecurrentcostoffossil

fuelpowersystemswithandwithoutCO2capture,includingpulverizedcoal(PC)combustionplants,coal-basedintegratedgasificationcombinedcycle(IGCC)plants,andnaturalgascombinedcycle(NGCC)plants;abroaderrangeofkeyassumptionsthatinfluencethesecostcomparisons;andquantifytheimplicationsofCCSenergyrequirementsonplant-levelresourcerequirementsandmulti-mediaemissions.Ageneralizedmodelingtoolisusedtoestimateandcomparetheemissions,efficiency,resourcerequirementsandcurrentcostsoffossilfuelpowerplantswithCCSonasystematicbasis

[131]

K.Damenetal 2007 Acomparativestudyanalyzingthepromisingelectricityandhydrogenproductionchainswith

CO2capture,transportandstorageandenergycarriertransmission,distributionandend-use

toassess(avoided)CO2emissions,energyproductioncostsandCO2mitigationcosts

[132]

J.Koornneef,M.Junginger,andA.Faaij 2007 Anoverviewanalyzingthedevelopmentandeconomicalperformanceoffluidizedbed

combustion(FBC)anditsderivativescirculatingfluidizedbed(CFB)andbubblingfluidizedbed(BFB)withadescriptiveoverviewgivenofthetechnologyandthemarketpenetrationbaseon

adatabasecomprisestechnologicalandeconomicaldataon491FBCprojects

[133]

J.Beer 2007 Areviewofelectricpowergenerationsystemdevelopmentwithspecialattentiontoplant

efficiency

[134]

J.DecarolisandD.Keith 2006 Aneconomiccharacterizationofawindsysteminwhichlong-distanceelectricity

transmission,storage,andgasturbinesareusedtosupplementvariablewindpoweroutputtomeetatime-varyingload

[135]

R.B.Duffey 2005 Rolefornuclearpowerinthefuturehydrogeneconomyandsynergyofnuclearwithwind

powerforhydrogengeneration

[136]