Tài liệu Toefl CBT book part 11 docx

If the relative pronoun is missing, if a regular pronoun appears after the relative pronoun, or if a verb or subject is missing, the sentence will be incomplete.. The relative clauses mu

The relative clause that connect to the Internet is required If it were omitted, the

sentence would have a different meaning It would mean that all palm-sized com-puters are becoming popular, which is different from what the sentence says now

The clause is restrictive because it restricts the meaning of the noun phrase Palm-sized computers.

Nonrestrictive clause: Seabreeze High School, which is on the beachside, is

the rival of Mainland High School

In this case, you can omit the relative clause which is on the beachside, and the

sentence means the same thing: Seabreeze High School is the rival of Mainland High School The location of Seabreeze High School is provided as additional in-formation and doesn’t define the school, so it is nonrestrictive

Who, Whom, and Whose

Who and whom are also used in different ways, but either word can be used in

re-strictive and nonrere-strictive sentences The difference between these two relative pronouns is that one is used to replace the subject of a sentence, and one is used to replace the complement

Who is used to replace a noun phrase in the subject of the sentence Whom is

used to replace a noun phrase in the complement.

The TOEFL test probably won’t test the distinction between these two words be-cause even native English speakers often use them incorrectly

The athletes have scored the most points.

subject

The athletes will play on the all-star team.

The athletes who have scored the most points will play on the all-star team Professor Allen is the only instructor.

She has consulted Professor Allen about the project.

complement

Professor Allen is the only instructor whom she has consulted about the project.

Note: If the noun in question could be replaced by the pronoun him, her, or them,

then you need to use the relative pronoun whom.

Just as the complement form of a pronoun always appears after a preposition, so

does whom.

The officers are tired.

The woman is talking to the officers

object of preposition

Whose is the relative pronoun that indicates possession.

The team consisted of several players.

The players’ talent was incredible.

possessive

The team consisted of several players whose talent was incredible.

The TOEFL test generally contains more complicated sentences, in which you

may find it difficult to locate the relative clause This is one of the ways in which

the TOEFL tests your knowledge of sentence structure If the relative pronoun is

missing, if a regular pronoun appears after the relative pronoun, or if a verb or

subject is missing, the sentence will be incomplete The relative clauses must each

contain a subject and conjugated verb If you’re unsure, remove the relative

pro-noun and make sure that the two clauses can be complete sentences if they stand

alone

Samples

Q Instructors who teaching ability are prevalent at this university

because publishing is one of the major criteria for tenure

A lack

B. without

C do not

D no have

The answer is A, lack, because that choice is the only conjugated verb The main

sentence, Instructors are prevalent has a subject and verb, but the relative

clause does not have one, unless you add lack.

Clause 1: Instructors are prevalent at this university because publishing is

one of the major criteria for tenure

Clause 2: Instructors lack teaching ability.

Q Not all textbooks that have been written on this subject as

detailed as this one

A with

B. to

C be

D are

The answer is D, are The sentence contains a relative clause — that have been

written on this subject Thus, the independent clause is Not all textbooks

as detailed as this one The word detailed functions as an adjective, not a verb, in this sentence Therefore, a conjugated verb is missing, and are is the

only choice Choice A contains no verb, and choices B and C are not conjugated

verbs

Clause 1: Not all textbooks are as detailed as this one.

Clause 2: Textbooks have been written on this subject.

Q The oldest tree in this part of the world is the redwood,

thousands of years old

A which may be

B. its age

C and which

D it is

The answer is A, which may be The part of the sentence preceding the comma is

an independent clause The dependent clause following the comma must be

pre-ceded by a relative pronoun and verb to make sense Choices B and C are incor-rect because they lack a relative pronoun Choice D is incorincor-rect because it uses a

regular pronoun (it) instead of a relative pronoun.

Clause 1: The oldest tree in this part of the world is the redwood.

Clause 2: The redwood is thousands of years old.

Reduced Relative (Adjective) Clauses

A reduced relative clause is a restrictive relative (or adjective) clause with the rela-tive pronoun and the verb be omitted Even though these words are removed, the

re-duced clause has the same meaning as the restrictive relative clause it comes from

Before progressive (continuous) verb structures in active voice:

The nurse who is completing the charts is Donna Edwards.

relative clause

The nurse completing the charts is Donna Edwards.

reduced relative clause

Before passive voice:

The figure that was obtained from this formula is incorrect.

relative clause

The figure obtained from this formula is incorrect.

The contractor has completed construction on a home that is equipped with a

The contractor has completed construction on a home equipped with a safe

Before prepositional phrases:

The car that is in the garage has a flat tire.

relative clause

The car in the garage has a flat tire.

reduced relative clause

Before noun phrases with nonrestrictive clauses:

Tracy Stafford, who is a paralegal, is considering enrolling in law school.

relative clause

Tracy Stafford, a paralegal, is considering enrolling in law school.

reduced relative clause

Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is another type of subordinate clause, which is identified by

cer-tain connector words that vary depending on the function of the clause Just like

adjective clauses, adverb clauses connect two independent clauses into a more

complex sentence

Adverb connectors used to indicate concession include although, even

though, even if, though, whereas, and while Concession means that

some-thing is true (or false) in spite of the fact that another some-thing is true (or false).

For example, consider the following two sentences:

She studied every day

She didn’t grasp the concepts presented

These two sentences can be combined by using one of the connector words listed

above to create an adverb clause

Though she studied every day, she didn’t grasp the concepts presented.

connector

She didn’t grasp the concepts presented though she studied every day.

connector

This means that it is true that she studied everyday, but even so she still did not

grasp the concepts

Adverb connectors that indicate time include after, before, once, while, since,

until, and when.

Consider the following example:

The students took the exam

The professor graded papers

If these two events are taking place at the same time, you can use an adverb clause to show the relationship between them

While the students took the exam, the professor graded papers

connector

The professor graded papers while the students took the exam.

connector

Keep in mind that the words listed in this section do not always signal the use of

an adverb clause These connectors can also be used with noun phrases

Since the accident, he hasn’t been himself.

In this sentence, Since is used with the noun phrase the accident rather than with

an adverb clause

Since he was in an accident, he hasn’t been himself.

This example indicates how Since can be used to create an adverb clause.

Adverb clause connectors that represent cause and effect are as, because, and since.

Because her children are ill, she had to miss work today.

She had to miss work today because her children are ill.

Reduced Adverb Clauses

Just as you can reduce an adjective clause, you can reduce an adverb clause by re-moving the auxiliary words If there isn’t an auxiliary, the verb must be converted

to a verb+ing form, and the subject of both clauses must be the same Following

are several examples

Active Verb

When they drive cars, teenagers need to remember their lack of experience When driving cars, teenagers need to remember their lack of experience.

While she was reviewing the materials, she was also trying to watch television.

While reviewing the materials, she was also trying to watch television.

Passive Verb

Although it had been completed, the report was not turned in on time.

Although completed, the report was not turned in on time.

Adjective

Although she was exhausted, she continued to work on the project.

Although exhausted, she continued to work on the project.

Structure Quiz 2

Directions: The first type of question consists of incomplete sentences, with a

blank line showing where information is to be filled in Choose the word or

phrase that most correctly completes the sentence The second type of question

consists of sentences with four underlined words or phrases Choose the one word

or phrase that is incorrect in standard written English Mark your answers on this

page or on a separate piece of paper

1. The oncologist studied the results of the biopsy and decided

additional tests

A should order

B. to order

C he should ordering

D ordering

2. That carcinogenic substances in many common household items

is well-known

A are contained

B. contained

C containing

D are containing

3. If the man had transported to the hospital sooner than he was, he could have survived the electrocution

4. Porpoises, which actually mammals because they breathe air through an orifice in their heads, are playful and intelligent

A is

B. be

C being

D are

5. Florida’s timberlands suffered considerable damage from the wildfires of

1998, resulted from insufficient rainfall

6. Whereas Internet proponents say that someday all computer programs and data will reside on an Internet server instead of individual computers, many individuals afraid to lose control over their own documents

A are

B. being

C also

D very much

7. After suspended for misbehavior, the student requested reconsideration

A having been

B. having

C have

D was

8. Why so many people die from this illness unknown, but researchers have learned much about the source of the problem

A is

B. are

C widely

D has

A

C B

D

D C

9. The doctors have not been able to determine when to lose her

mental capacity

A did the woman begin

B. the woman began

C began the woman

D the woman was begun

10. The results must have already be received by the examining committee

because the members seem to be continuing their determinations

11. Ms Henry insisted that the results of the research be presented to the panel

before

A was held the vote

B. was the vote

C voted

D the vote was held

12. Knowing how to repair and install computer networks Melissa a

great advantage in her job, because she is the only person in the company

with that knowledge

A have given

B. given

C giving

D has given

Answers and Explanations

for Structure Quiz 2

1. B: to order After the verb decide, when the complement is a verb, it must be the

infinitive The word should would have been correct if a choice had stated “that

he should order” or “he should order.”

2. A: are contained The sentence is in the passive voice so the verb structure is a

form of be+verb in past participle It’s also a that clause structure, so there must

be a subject and a verb in the that clause.

3. A: had transported The sentence is obviously a passive voice concept The man

didn’t transport somebody else to the hospital; somebody transported him.

Therefore, the structure must be had been transported The sentence is also

con-ditional, so the conjugated verb appears in the if clause and the modal structure

D C

B A

4. D: are The relative clause has the same understood subject as the base sentence,

porpoises Therefore, the verb must be a plural conjugated verb.

5. C: resulted The first part of the sentence is an independent clause It has a

sub-ject, timberlands, and a conjugated verb, suffered, so the second clause must have

a relative clause, a conjunction, or a reduced relative clause The conjugated verb

resulted makes no sense by itself It would be correct, however, if it was which resulted, resulting, or having resulted.

6. A: are The first clause is dependent because it begins with whereas, so there

must be a regular conjugated verb in the second clause.

7. A: having been It would also be correct if it said “after she was.”

8. A: is The subject is a question word clause, so the verb must be singular, and it

must be a conjugated verb.

9. B: the woman began In an embedded question, the order is question word +

subject + verb.

10. A: be The correct form for a present perfect passive with a modal is: modal +

have been + verb in past participle.

11. D: the vote was held The word before must be followed by a noun phrase (the

vote), a subject +verb (they voted), or a verb+ing (voting) In this case, the verb

is in the passive voice but follows the order subject +verb Choices A and B are

out of order and have no subject, and choice C is missing a subject or is in the wrong form.

12. D: has given The subject is knowing, a gerund, so it determines the verb, and the

verb must be conjugated.

Reverse Order Constructions

Certain types of sentence constructions involve reversing the normal sentence or clause order

Reversed Conditional Construction

One type of reversed order construction is the past unreal conditional As

de-scribed earlier in this chapter, this is the sentence that contains the word if and a

tense that is one step in the past beyond the meaning

The typical sentence structure for a past unreal conditional sentence is as follows:

If+subject +had (not) +verb in past participle +subject +modal +verb

A reversed conditional sentence construction for a past condition looks like

the following: Had +subject +(not) +verb in past participle +subject +modal

+verb.

If the team had played more aggressively, it could have won the tournament.

(Past unreal conditional sentence)

Had the team played more aggressively, it could have won the tournament.

(Reversed conditional sentence)

If she had not lost the ticket, she would have gone to the concert.

Had she not lost the ticket, she would have gone to the concert.

This same concept also applies to the verb be in a present time concept It will be

one step in the past — in the simple past for a present time concept Remember

that in an unreal condition, the verb be will always be were and never was Also

remember that positive and negative always appear to be the opposite A negative

clause means a positive idea and a positive clause means a negative idea

The typical sentence construction for a present unreal condition is as follows: If+

subject +were (not) +verb in present participle +subject +modal +verb +

{noun/adjective}

The reversed sentence construction for a present unreal condition looks like

the following: Were + subject + (not) + verb in present participle + subject +

modal +verb +{noun/adjective}

If Rafael were studying, his television would not be so loud.

Were Rafael studying, his television would not be so loud.

This means that Rafael is not studying

If Brandon were not a point guard, he would be in the game now.

Were Brandon not a point guard, he would be in the game now.

This means that Brandon is a point guard

If Maria were tired, she would take a break.

Were Maria tired, she would take a break.

This means that Maria is not tired

Reversed Order Limiting Words

Some expressions can be reversed in order to show emphasis Most of the words

in the list below are negative concepts As always, if the normal construction does

not have an auxiliary, you must use a form of do Remember that auxiliaries are a

form of be, a form of have, or a form of do Be and have are part of the verb

struc-ture, like is going or has gone But in questions and negatives that do not have an

auxiliary as part of the verb structure, do is inserted: