Exploring the textbook english for life in teaching english speaking to adult beginners = khai thác giáo trình english for life để dạy nói tiếng anh cho người lớn ở trình độ sơ cấp luận văn thạc sĩ giáo dục học

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGVINH UNIVERSITY  ---TRAN THI HUE EXPLORING THE TEXTBOOK “ENGLISH FOR LIFE” IN TEACHING ENGLISH SPEAKING TO ADULT BEGINNERS Khai thác giáo trình “E

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY



-TRAN THI HUE

EXPLORING THE TEXTBOOK “ENGLISH FOR LIFE”

IN TEACHING ENGLISH SPEAKING TO

ADULT BEGINNERS

( Khai thác giáo trình “English for Life” để dạy nói tiếng Anh

cho người lớn ở trình độ sơ cấp)

Master Thesis in TESOL

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY



-TRAN THI HUE

EXPLORING THE TEXTBOOK “ENGLISH FOR LIFE”

IN TEACHING ENGLISH SPEAKING TO

ADULT BEGINNERS

( Khai thác giáo trình “English for Life” để dạy nói tiếng Anh

cho người lớn ở trình độ sơ cấp)

Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching

Code: 60.14.10

Master Thesis in TESOL Supervisor: NGUYEN THI VAN LAM, M.A.

Vinh, 2011

Statement of Authorship

The thesis named “ Exploring the textbook “English for Life” in teaching Englishspeaking to adult beginners” above has been submitted for the degree of Master ofArts I, the undersigned, hereby declare that:

• I am the sole author of this thesis

• I have fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others, whetherpublished or unpublished, in my thesis

• I have prepared my thesis specifically for the degree of Master of Arts while undersupervision at Vinh University

• My thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or researchpaper previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any otheruniversity

Vinh, 2011

Tran Thi Hue

In particular, I wish to thank Mr Ngo Dinh Phuong and other staff members ofForeign Languages department of Vinh university for their continuous encouragementand support.

I also wish to thank all my friends, colleagues and classmates who have kindlygiven their advice and enthusiastically helped me with useful source materials for thecompletion of this thesis

Finally, I would also like to thank my parents for their support andencouragement during the process of writing this thesis

Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing alanguage These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, muchmore than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language They regardspeaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress interms of their accomplishments in spoken communication However, many Englishteachers still spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almostignoring speaking and listening skills It is the fact that teaching and learningconditions in our city have some certain limitations Students from high schools anduniversities are aware of the importance of communicating in English in their real lifebut they are only taught much more about reading and writing to pass the exams withhigh scores Therefore, these students come to some English centers to learn generalEnglish programme with the aims at developing the four skills and at the end of thecourse they can communicate successfully

First of all, besides the acknowledgements, the table of contents, theintroduction, in chapter one we give here some concepts concerned with theinvestigation In chapter two we deal with the theoretical background that we base on

to explore the textbook to teach English speaking to adult beginners The next chapterpresents research methodology with the research questions and the research procedure(including Planning for the intervention, Implementation, Evaluation and Datacollection) In chapter findings and discussion, we come up with an overview of thecentre and the syllabus, then the data analysis, findings and discussions, implications

conclusion for the whole study, its limitation and suggestions for further study Andthen some reference books are listed before appendix part.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Rationale 6

1.2 Aims of the study 7

1.3 Research questions 8

1.4 Scope of the study 8

1.5 The method of the study 8

1.6 Organization of the study 9

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 11

2.1 The framework of materials and methods 11

2.1.1 Contextual factors 11

2.1.1.1 Learners 12

2.1.1.2 Setting 13

2.1.2 The syllabus 14

2.2 Current approaches to materials design 15

2.2.1 The impact of the communicative approach 15

2.2.2 Current approach to materials design 16

2.2.2.1 Multi-syllabus 16

2.2.2.2 The lexical syllabus 17

2.2.2.3 The process syllabus 17

2.3 Evaluating a textbook 18

2.3.1 Reasons to evaluate materials 18

2.3.2 Criteria to evaluate materials 19

2.3.2.1 The external evaluation 20

2.3.2.2 The internal evaluation 21

2.3.2.3 The overall evaluation 22

2.4 Exploring a textbook 22

2.4.1 Reflective teaching 23

2.4.2 Reflection process 24

2.5 Teaching adults 27

2.5.1 Principles of adult learning 28

2.5.1.1 Motivation 29

2.5.1.2 Experience 29

2.5.1.3 Level of engagement 29

2.5.1.4 Applying the learning 30

2.5.2 Principles of teaching adults 30

2.5.2.1 Make sure adult students understand “Why” 31

2.5.2.2 Respect that students have different learning styles 31

2.5.2.3 Allow students to experience what they are learning 32

2.5.2.4 When the student is ready, the teacher appears 33

2.5.2.5 Encourage adult students 33

2.6 Types of classroom speaking performance 34

2.6.1 Imitative 34

2.6.2 Intensive 34

2.6.3 Responsive 35

2.6.4 Transactional (dialogue) 35

2.6.5 Interpersonal (dialogue) 35

2.6.6 Extensive (monologue) 36

2.7 Principles for designing speaking techniques 36

2.7.1 Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning and fluency 36

2.7.2 Provide intrinsically motivating techniques 36

2.7.3 Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts 37

2.7.4 Provide appropriate feedback and correction 37

2.7.5 Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening 37

2.7.6 Give learners opportunities to initiate oral communication 37

2.7.7 Encourage the development of speaking strategies 37

2.8 Retelling technique 38

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 40

3.1 Determining on research questions 40

3.2 Planning for the Intervention 41

3.3 Implementation 41

3.4 Evaluation 42

3.5 Data collection 43

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 44

4.1 An overview of the language centre and the syllabus 44

4.1.1 An overview of the Asem Link Languages centre, Vinh city, Nghe An province 44

4.1.2 The syllabus 44

4.1.3 Skills lesson 45

4.2 Data analysis 46 4.2.1 Results of survey questionnaire for evaluating the textbook and

skills lesson 46

4.2.1.1 Frequently used activities in skills lessons 47

4.2.1.2 Teachers and students’ interest in the activities in a skills lesson 48

4.2.1.3 The evaluation of the activities in the skills lesson 50

4.2.1.4 The effectiveness of the activities 51

4.2.1.5 Teachers and students’ evaluation about some other related points in the textbook 52

4.2.2 Results of survey questionnaire for students 53

4.2.2.1 Some of the problems that students cope with in learning English speaking skills in the classroom 53

4.2.2.2 Students’ attitudes toward retelling activity in skills lesson 55

4.2.2.3 Some benefits that students can achieve after learning with retelling activity 56

4.2.2.4 Students’ opinions about this teaching approach 58

4.3 Findings and discussions 59

4.3.1 Findings from survey questionnaire for evaluating the textbook and skills lesson 59

4.3.2 Findings from survey questionnaire for students after learning with retelling activity 60

4.3.2.1 Findings from Section A about some of the problems that students cope with in learning English speaking in skills lesson classroom 60

4.3.2.2 Findings from Section B about retelling activity in the skills lesson 61

4.3.2.3 Findings from Section C about some benefits from retelling activity 62

4.3.2.4 Findings from Section D about students’ opinions about this teaching approach 63

4.4 Implications 65

4.5 Sample lessons 67

4.5.1 The guided teaching and learning sequence 67

4.5.2 Retelling activity sequence in skills lesson with reading passage 68

4.5.3 Retelling activity sequence in skill lesson with listening passage 69

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 70

5.1 Summary 70

5.2 Limitation 72

5.3 Suggestions for further study 72

REFERENCES 74

APPENDIX 76

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Rationale

Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode It is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words Successful speaking

language teachers should try to design and administer such activities Nowadays, there

is a recent trend toward skills integration instead of separating the four skills of acurriculum Curriculum designers are taking more of a whole language approachwhereby each skill is treated as one of two or more interrelated skills A course thatdeals with speaking skills, then, will also deal with related listening, reading, andwriting skills This integrated speaking class models students the real-life integration oflanguage skills and they can acknowledge the link among several skills Students aregiven a chance to diversify their efforts in more meaningful tasks rather than beingforced to participate in a course that limits itself to one mode of performance

During the time of teaching English for beginners in Asem Link LanguageCentre, I have found some difficulties in the process of teaching speaking skills such asthey have nothing to say, they are under pressure or inhibited, mother tongue use, etc.These difficulties not only prevent students from achieving language skills but alsopose some problems for teachers in designing and motivating students in the speakingclass

In this study, we would like to evaluate the textbook “English for life” in itsrealistic teaching and learning situations, find out what is appropriate and inappropriatewhen using this textbook, and explore this textbook in teaching English speaking foradult beginners at Asem Link Languages Centre in Vinh city in order to help ourstudents develop their speaking skills to fulfill their needs for communication and fortheir jobs Moreover, through the techniques to develop speaking skills, we also wouldlike to provide some guidance to help teachers at the beginning level design and applyappropriate methods to improve students’ ability

Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measurement of knowing

a language These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, muchmore than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language They regardspeaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in

terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication However, many Englishteachers still spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almostignoring speaking and listening skills It is the fact that teaching and learningconditions in our city have some certain limitations Students from high schools anduniversities are aware of the importance of communicating in English in their real lifebut they are only taught much more about reading and writing to pass the exams withhigh scores Therefore, these students learn general English programme with the aims

at developing the four skills and at the end of the course they can communicatesuccessfully Facing with these problems, as an English teacher at Asem LinkLanguage Centre, I want to deal with how to develop speaking skills for beginnerstudents by exploring the skills lesson in the textbook “English for life” with retellingactivity Hopefully, this study will much help English teachers in my centre to bettertheir teaching, motivate my students in their learning, especially to improve theirspeaking

1.2 Aims of the study

This study aims to evaluate the textbook used at Asem Link Languages centrefor beginning level to find out what is appropriate and inappropriate when adapting thetextbook “English for life” to teach English speaking This study, to some extent,mentions ways to evaluate a textbook to teach other skills such as listening, reading orwriting because the four skills are integrated in one lesson in the textbook This studyalso aims to investigate how to explore the textbook, particularly the skills lesson in thetextbook to teach speaking successfully and students are able to speak after each topicpresented

This study also provides a useful part of basic knowledge on the framework ofmaterials and methods, criteria and techniques to evaluate a textbook, on current issues

in teaching speaking in general, particularly in this English centre We hope the results

speaking with the textbook and help students overcome difficulties in learningspeaking skills and be able to speak about certain topics at beginning level.

1.3 Research questions

This study aims to answer the following questions:

- What is appropriate and inappropriate in using the textbook “English for life” to teachEnglish speaking to beginners?

- What do students perceive of the benefits of retelling activity to their Englishlearning?

1.4 Scope of the study

In this study, we pay attention to evaluating the skills lesson in the textbook

“English for life” for beginning level and finding out how to explore this textbook inteaching speaking for beginners at Asem Link Language Centre It is limited to onlythe skills lesson in the textbook “English for life” at beginning levels and speakingskills in a small range of twenty topics Though the vocabulary, grammatical items,cultural features or techniques can be expanded, they all relate to the topics and theiraims are to enhance speaking skills about those topics We do not pay much attention

on evaluating, teaching and providing activities for the other skills

1.5 The method of the study

To do this study the author uses both qualitative and quantitative researchmethods

Qualitative research method has its roots in social science and is more concernwith understanding why people behave as they do: their knowledge, attitudes, beliefs,fears, etc Therefore, in order to get information about learners when they learn Englishspeaking skill with the textbook “English for Life”, the author has to observe theirstudying in the real classes I by myself observe students’ responses in my classes

Quantitative research method is concerned with counting and measuringthings, producing in particular estimates of averages and differences between groups

In this study, I utilize questionnaire for teachers and learners to get information aboutteaching and learning speaking skill in Asem Link center

After collecting information, all the data will be analyzed and drawn into theconclusion

1.6 Organization of the study

Besides the Introduction and Conclusion which begins and concludes the thesis,the thesis consists of three main chapters Each of it will serve a particular function.Chapter one – The introduction , it is designed so as to explain the reason why thetopic deserves to be studied It then provides clearly all the objectives that this researchaims at It is also in this section that we are concerned with the scope and theorganization of the study

Chapter two – The Literature review, this chapter is designed to review of previousstudies related to problem under investigation In this chapter, I’d like to begin bylooking briefly some previous studies related to the research that is carried out Basing

on those studies, I will start to develop my research about speaking skills in the way ofusing retelling activity in skills lesson

Chapter three - Research Methodology, Chapter three is where research methodspresented Five main key points of this chapter are (i) Determining on researchquestions, (ii) Planning the intervention, (iii) Implementation, (iv) Evaluation and (v)Data collection

Chapter four - Findings and Discussions In this chapter, we focus on presenting theresult of the research After providing the statistical results concerning about evaluationthe textbook and students’ opinions when learning with retelling activity, a discussionwill be provided which serves as the basis of the later findings Moreover, in this part,

we also answer the research questions that we make in the study before we make theresearch Later on, the implications and sample lessons are given after the finding

Chapter five - Conclusion The last part Conclusion will have a brief look about thestudy that is carried out above It, then also provides the limitation of the study andsome suggestions for further study.

Chapter 2 Theoretical background

This chapter will discuss several evaluation, communicative and exploringissues which serve as theoretical foundation for the study First a brief review on theframework of materials and methods, including theories about contextual factors andthe syllabus are provided Then the issues on evaluating a textbook: reasons andcriteria are given The overview of teaching adults with principles of adult learning and

principles of teaching adults are presented Besides, the theory about exploring atextbook and retelling activity are clarified as it is apparent that one cannot use anapproach in his work without understanding what it is and what concerns.

2.1 The framework of materials and methods

According to Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw (1993) in the book

“Materials and methods in ELT”, they explored general implications of context andsyllabus and tried to relate them to familiar and specific teaching situations

In simple terms, the overall goals of a language teaching programme usuallyderive from an analysis of the reasons why a group of learners in a particularenvironment needs to learn English: these goals may be stated in general, educational,

or very specific terms Besides, they may be set out in the large-scale categories of anational language policy with many associated implications for the development of thecurriculum The statement of goals, then related to the learners and conditioned by thesetting, leads to the selection of an appropriate types of syllabus content andspecification The broad syllabus outline will in turn have direct implications for themore detailed design and selection of materials and tests, the planning of individuallessons and the managements of the classroom itself

- Age: as with age, this may help in the specification of topics and learning activities

- Level of proficiency in English: teachers will wish to know learners’ level ofproficiency in English even their classes are based on a mixed proficiency principlerather than streamed according to level.

- Aptitude: This can most usefully be thought of as a specific talent as something thatlearners might show themselves to be “good at”

- Mother tongue: this may affect, for instance, the treatment of errors or the selection ofsyllabus items- areas of grammar or vocabulary and so on

- Academic and educational level: this helps to determine intellectual content, breadth

of topic choice, or depth to which material may be studied

- Attitudes to learning, to teachers, to the institution, to the target language itself and toits speakers

- Motivation: at least insofar as it can be anticipated Obviously a whole range offactors will affect this

- Reasons for learning: with many adult learners, it is often possible to carry out quite adetailed analysis of needs

- Preferred learning styles: which will help in the evaluation of the suitability ofdifferent method, for instance whether problem-solving activities could be used, orwhether pupils are more used to rote learning

- Personality: which can affect methodological choices such as a willing acceptance ofrole play and an interactive classroom environment, or a preference for studying alone,for example

the majority of circumstances, however, the setting is more likely to condition the way

in which goals are carried out, and indeed the extent to which they can be

The following factors, in some combination and with varying degrees ofsignificance, will influence course planning, syllabus design, the selection of materialsand resources, and the appropriateness of methods:

- The role of English in the country: the role of English in the country relates tolinguistic environment, and to whether English is spoken in the community outsideclass or alternatively never heard

- The role of English in the school and its place in the curriculum

- The teachers: their status, both at national and institutional levels, their training,mother tongue, attitudes to their job, experience, expectations

- Management and administration: who is responsible for what level of decision,particularly which are the control points for employment of staff, budgets, resourceallocation and so on Additionally, the position of teachers in the overall system needs

to be understood

- Resource available: books and paper, audio-visual materials, laboratories, computers,reprographic facilities and so on Design and choice of teaching materials will beparticularly affected by resource availability, as will the capacity to teach effectivelyacross a range of language skills

- Support personnel: administrators, secretaries and technicians , and their specificroles in relation to the teaching staff

- The number of pupils to be taught and the size of classes

- Time available for the programme, both over a working year, and in any one week orterm Many teachers would also consider that time of day is a significant factor

- Physical environment: the nature of the building, noise factors, flexibility of tablesand chairs, size of room in relation to size of class, heat and cold, and so on

- The socio-cultural environment: this can often determine the suitability of bothmaterials and methods

- The types of tests used, and ways in which students are evaluated They may also beexternal in the form of a public and national examination, or internal to the institutionand the course

- Procedures for monitoring and evaluating the language teaching programme itself

2.1.2 The syllabus

When the goals of an English teaching programme have been set out and thecontextual factors affecting its implementation have been established and understood.The next step in the task of planning is to select a type of syllabus which is relevant tothe learners for whom it is intended, appropriate to the situation, and which fulfills theaims as closely as possible

The syllabus can be seen as the overall organizing principle for what is to betaught and learned Richard and Rogers (1986) have proposed a useful framework forthe comparison of language teaching methods which illustrates the place of thesyllabus in the programme planning Their model has three distinct levels, which theyterm approach, design and procedure Approach is the most general level, and refers tothe views or beliefs, or theories of language and language learning on which planning

is based The next level, design, is where the principle of the first level are convertedinto the more practical aspects of syllabuses and instructional materials It is here thatdecisions are taken about the arrangement of content to be taught and learnt, the choice

of topics, language items to be included in the programme Finally, procedure refers totechniques and the management of the classroom itself The present book looselyfollows both this model and its philosophy, by focusing on material (design) andmethods (procedure), and trying to show how they all have an explicit basis in theory(approach)

There are five types of syllabus:

- Grammatical or structural: it is organized according to a list of grammaticalstructures, and is one that will readily be recognized by most English language teachers

- Functional- notional: it is based on the communicative and interpersonal uses towhich language is put and highlights what people do through language

- Situational: this presents a set of everyday situations or settings

- Skills based: this focuses on language skills, and is concerned with what learners do

as speakers, learners, readers and writers

- Topic based: this syllabus uses topics or themes as its starting point

Most syllabuses are based on a combination of two or more of the types of abovesyllabus

2.2 Current approaches to materials design

2.2.1 The impact of the communicative approach

According to Jo Cough and Christopher Shaw (1993), communicative approach

to syllabus and materials design has had the greatest significance world-wide for thecurrent practice of English language teaching Communicative design criteria permeateboth general coursebooks and materials covering specific language skills, as well asthe methodology of the classroom The publication of teaching materials is designedaccording to communicative principle The followings are claims for communicativematerials:

- “ for students interested in using language rather than learning more about structure…students learn to use the appropriate language they need for communicating in real life”

- “…is a dynamic, functionally-based course book It is an intensely practical book,giving the students opportunity for thorough and meaningful rehearsal of the Englishthey will need for effective communication”

- “…to use the language to communicate in real life”

- “…teaches students to communicate effectively by understanding and controlling the

- “…places emphasis on developing skills of discourse within a wide range ofcommunicative settings It actively trains the learner in important discoursefunctions…All the language practice is presented in real-life contexts and related to thelearners’ own experience.”

The certain terms recur: communication, real-life, use, functions, appropriate,meaningful, context, setting and discourse

2.2.2 Current approaches to materials design

“When deciding what to teach to a particular group of learners, we need to takeinto consideration several different meaning categories and several different formalcategories We must make sure that our students are taught to operate key functions…

to talk about basic notions…to communicate appropriately in specific situations…todiscuss the topics which correspond to their main interests and needs…At the sametime, we shall need to draw up a list of phonological problems… of high prioritystructures and of the vocabulary which our students will need to learn In addition, wewill need a syllabus of skills…”

This kind of multi-syllabus is looking straightforwardly in terms of merging oftwo broad approaches One of these is concerned with a view of language in use, andincludes categories of function, context and language skill The other is a version of amore formal linguistic syllabus, and is comprised of elements of grammar,pronunciation and vocabulary A multi-syllabus build on a range of communicative

criteria at the same time as acknowledge the need to provide systematic practice in theformal properties of language.

2.2.2.2 The lexical syllabus

Some course books have taken the whole spread of organizing principles, othershave chosen to give particular emphasis to specific areas One area that has recentlyreceived considerable attention is that of vocabulary or lexis It is typical of manycurrent course books that they are concerned to rationalize vocabulary as content and tobase teaching on an understanding of the psychological mechanisms whereby peoplelearn and remember lexical items The multi-syllabus concept means that vocabulary isselected according to the other dimensions on which the materials are built

We have discussed the principle of the multi-syllabus and have shown howsome course books have highlighted and developed one particular area of designvocabulary

2.2.2.3 The process syllabus

The most labels attached to this kind of syllabus design proposal are “process”,

“task-based” and “procedural” The essence is described by Breen (1987): “One of themajor sources of impetus for the recent interest in alternative methodologies has been

an intensified theoretical and research focus upon the language learning process and, inparticular, the contributions of the learners to that process” (1987:159) The focus here

is on “how” rather than “what” This contains the far-reaching implication thatsyllabuses cannot be fully worked out in advance but must evolve as learners’problems and developing competence gradually emerge

This approach to syllabus design has been worked out in detail by Prabhu(1987) with three categories of problem-solving task:

- Information-gap activities, for example, where each person in a pair has only part ofthe required information

- Reasoning -gap activities, for example making a decision or an interference based ongiven information.

- Opinion-gap activities, for example taking part in a discussion of an issue, orcompleting a story

Materials from this point of view then become sources for the development of tasksand are only loosely, not fully, pre-constructed

2.3 Evaluating a textbook

2.3.1 Reasons to evaluate materials

According to Cunningsworth (1984), very few teachers do not use publishedcourse materials at some stage in their teaching career Regularly, they think usingpublished textbook is that they do in their professional life However, in the open-market situations and in the situations that a Ministry of Education produces materialswhich are subsequently passed on to the teacher for classroom use, we will wish toclarify the distinction between them These scenarios lead to the difference in thenature of the evaluation process

In the first place, in the open-market situations, teachers have many chances toselect materials and to convince colleagues and a Director of Studies with respect tothis material They have a good deal of choice in the selection of appropriate materials

so the need being able to discriminate effectively between all the course booksavailable However, there are many situations in the world that teachers have limitedchoice and they are handed materials by a Ministry or a Director and they have to trybest to get benefits of the materials in their teaching In this situations, teachers arelikely to evaluate the textbook and find out how they can make effective use ofmaterials in the classroom

Another factor to consider is that the textbook may be used for years because ofconsiderable professional and financial pressure to select a course book for an ELTprogramme Moreover, in many contexts, materials are often seen as being the core of

a particular programme and often are the most visible presentation in the classroom,the book may be the only choice open to them The evaluation, therefore, is considered

as an appropriate choice which may waste funds and time and it may causedemotivation on students and other colleagues

In the open-market situation, some teachers can select a good textbook,particularly in contexts where the assimilation of stimulating, authentic materials can

be difficult to recognize For other teachers who have to work with materials given bythe Ministry of Education or some similar body, may find the materials very limitingand probably find the best way to adapt materials to meet the needs of their particularcontext

Moreover, Sheldon (1988:245) addresses a lack of cultural appropriacy of sometextbook, that is the thinking underlying the textbook writing may be different from or

in conflict with the assumptions held by the teachers It is clear that course bookassessment is fundamentally a subjective and rule-of-thumb activity, we need somemodel given that everyone in the field will need to evaluate materials at some time orother

2.3.2 Criteria to evaluate materials

According to Jo McDonough and Chrishtopher Shaw, criteria to evaluatematerial can be examined in two stages: an external evaluation and an internalevaluation An external evaluation offers a brief overview of the materials from theoutside (cover, introduction, table of content), which is then followed by a closer andmore detailed internal evaluation It is difficult to certain which criteria and constraintscan operate actually in ELT contexts worldwide and the criteria will be ascomprehensive as possible for the majority of ELT situations on a worldwide basis.2.3.2.1 The external evaluation

At this stage of evaluation, we include criteria which will provide acomprehensive, external overview of how materials have been organized We canexamine the organization of materials by looking at:

- The blurb, or the claims made on the cover of the teachers’/ students’ books

- The introduction and table of contents

By looking at these parts, it is useful to scan the table of contents page in that itoften represents a bridge between the external claim made for material and the inside

of materials At this stage we also have to investigate further to find out whether theobjectives have been clearly spelt out and met the needs in the existing market Fromthe blurb and the introduction, we can normally expect comments on some of thefollowing:

- The intended audience: We need to ascertain who is the target audience of materialsand whether the topics for that audience will be suitable or not

- The proficiency level: Most materials claim to aim at a particular level and this willrequire investigation as it could vary widely depending on the educational context

- The context in which materials are to be used: We need to establish whether thematerials are for teaching general learners or for teaching English for SpecificPurposes After establishing this, we will evaluate the textbook depending on thedegree of specialist subject knowledge assumed in the materials

- How the language has been presented and organized into teachable units/ lessons: Thematerials will contain a number of units/ lessons with their respective lengths needs to

be in mind when we appreciate how they fit into a given educational programme

- The author’s view on language and methodology and the relationship between thelanguage, the learning process and the learner

- At this external stage, it is necessary to take into accounts some other factors such as:whether the materials are to be used as a main core course or a supplementary one, therole and availability of teacher’s book, the inclusion of vocabulary list and index, the

use of visual material, the layout and presentation, the provision of audio/ videomaterial and the inclusion of test (diagnostic, progress, achievement).

2.3.2.2 The internal evaluation

The internal evaluation performs an in-depth investigation into the materials Atthis stage, we analyse whether the aforementioned factors in the external evaluationstage actually match up with the internal consistency and organization of the materials

as stated by the author In order to perform an effective internal inspection of thematerials, we need to examine at least two units of a book or set of materials toinvestigate the following factors:

- The presentation of the skills in the materials: We may want to investigate if all thelanguage skills are covered, in what proportion and if it is appropriate to the context inwhich we are working, how the skills are treated, discretely or in an integrated way.The author’s presentation and treatment of the skills may conflict with the way inwhich we need to teach

- Where reading/ discourse skills are involved: We sometimes find that materialsprovide too much emphasis on skills development and not enough opportunity forstudents to practise those skills on extended passages

- Where listening skills are involved: We have to examine whether the recordings areauthentic or artificial We need to ascertain whether or not dialogues have beenspecially written, thereby missing the essential features of spontaneous speech

- Speaking materials: We evaluate whether dialogues are real interactions or artificialones

- The relationship of tests and exercises to learner’s needs and what is taught by thecourse material

- Nowadays, learners learn independently and autonomically and many materials willclaim self study mode From the knowledge that we have from our learners, we need to

assess this particular claim whether the material is suitable for different learning styles

or not

- Teacher- learner balance in use of the materials: It is very useful to consider how thematerials may guide and frame teacher-learner interaction and the teacher- learnerrelationship

2.3.2.3 The overall evaluation

At the stage of making an overall assessment as to the suitability of thematerials, we consider the following parameters:

- The usability factor: How far the materials could be integrated into a particularsyllabus as core or supplementary

- The generalizability factor: To consider if there is a restricted use of core featureswhich make the materials more generally useful because of the fact that not all thematerials will be useful for a given individual or group but some parts might be

- The adaptability factor: We evaluate the parts’ suitability and the need to modifythose parts

- The flexibility factor: To check whether the materials can be entered at differentpoints or used in different ways

2.4 Exploring a textbook

Most teachers develop their classroom skills fairly early in their teachingcareers Teachers entering the profession may find their initial teaching effortsstressful, but with experience they acquire a repertoire of teaching strategies that theydraw on throughout their teaching The particular configuration of strategies a teacheruses constitutes his or her “teaching style” While a teacher’s style of teaching provides

a means of coping with many of the routine demands of teaching, there is also a dangerthat it can hinder a teacher’s professional growth How can teachers move beyond thelevel of automatic or routinised responses to classroom situations and achieve a higherlevel of awareness of how they teach, of the kinds of decisions they make as they

teach, and of the value and consequences of particular instructional decisions? Oneway of doing this is through observing and reflecting on one’s own teaching, and usingobservation and reflection as a way of bringing about change This approach toteaching can be described as “Reflective Teaching”.

2.4.1 Reflective teaching

Reflection or “critical reflection”, refers to an activity or process in which anexperience is recalled, considered, and evaluated, usually in relation to a broaderpurpose It is a response to past experience and involves conscious recall andexamination of the experience as a basis for evaluation and decision-making and as asource for planning and action Bartlett (1990) points out that becoming a reflectiveteacher involves moving beyond a primary concern with instructional techniques and

“how to” questions and asking “what” and “why” questions that regard instructions andmanagerial techniques not as ends in themselves, but as part of broader educationalpurposes

Asking “what and why” questions gives us a certain power over our teaching

We could claim that the degree of autonomy and responsibility we have in our work asteachers is determined by the level of control we can exercise over our actions Inreflecting on the above kind of questions, we begin to exercise control and open up thepossibility of transforming our everyday classroom life

Reflective teaching means looking at what we do in the classroom, thinkingabout why we do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation andself-evaluation By collecting information about what goes on in our classroom, and byanalysing and evaluating this information, we identify and explore our own practicesand underlying beliefs This may then lead to changes and improvements in ourteaching Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development whichbegins in our classroom

We may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular problem thathas arisen with one or our classes, or simply as a way of finding out more about ourteaching We may decide to focus on a particular class of students, or to look at afeature of our teaching - for example how we deal with incidents of misbehaviour orhow we can encourage our students to speak more English in class The first step is togather information about what happens in the class Here are some different ways ofdoing this.

- Teacher diary

This is the easiest way to begin a process of reflection since it is purelypersonal After each lesson we write in a notebook about what happened We may alsodescribe our own reactions and feelings and those we observed on the part of thestudents We are likely to begin to pose questions about what we have observed Diarywriting does require a certain discipline in taking the time to do it on a regular basis

- Peer observation

We invite a colleague to come into our class to collect information about ourlesson This may be with a simple observation task or through note taking This willrelate back to the area we have identified to reflect upon For example, we might askour colleague to focus on which students contribute most in the lesson, what differentpatterns of interaction occur or how we deal with errors

- Recording lessons

Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very useful information forreflection We may do things in class we are not aware of or there may be thingshappening in the class that as the teacher we do not normally see

 Audio recordings can be useful for considering aspects of teacher talk

o How much do we talk?

o What about?

o Are instructions and explanations clear?

o How much time do we allocate to student talk?

o How do we respond to student talk?

 Video recordings can be useful in showing aspects of our own behaviour

o Where do we stand?

o Who do we speak to?

o How do we come across to the students?

- Student feedback

We can also ask our students what they think about what goes on in theclassroom Their opinions and perceptions can add a different and valuable perspective.This can be done with simple questionnaires or learning diaries for example Once wehave some information recorded about what goes on in our classroom, the followingsteps will be continued:

- Think

We may have noticed patterns occurring in our teaching through our observation Wemay also have noticed things that we were previously unaware of We may have beensurprised by some of our students' feedback We may already have ideas for changes toimplement

o Using a list of statements about teaching beliefs (for example, pair work

is a valuable activity in the language class or lexis is more important than grammar) we

can discuss which ones we agree or disagree with, and which ones are reflected in ourown teaching giving evidence from our self-observation.

- Read

We may decide that you need to find out more about a certain area There are plenty ofwebsites for teachers of English now where we can find useful teaching ideas, or moreacademic articles There are also magazines for teachers where we can find articles on

a wide range of topics Or if we have access to a library or bookshop, there are plenty

of books for English language teachers

- Ask

Pose questions to websites or magazines to get ideas from other teachers Or if we have

a local teachers' association or other opportunities for in-service training, ask for asession on an area that we are interested

A reflective approach to teaching involves changes in the way we usuallyperceive teaching and our role in the process of teaching As the examples aboveillustrate, teachers who explore their own teaching through critical reflection developchanges in attitudes and awareness which they believe can benefit their professionalgrowth as teachers, as well as improve the kind of support they provide their students.Like other forms of self-inquiry, reflective teaching is not without its risks, sincejournal writing, self-reporting or making recordings of lessons can be time-consuming.However teachers engaged in reflective analysis of their own teaching report that it is avaluable tool for self-evaluation and professional growth Reflective teaching suggeststhat experience alone is insufficient for professional growth, but that experiencecoupled with reflection can be a powerful impetus for teacher development

In this study, I use reflective teaching to explore the textbook “English for life”with retelling activity after finding students’ difficulties in applying the textbook andskills lesson to improve speaking skills Reflective teaching is a cyclical process thenonce I start to implement changes with retelling activity, then the reflective and

evaluative cycle begins again As a result of our reflection, we may decide to dosomething in a different way or we may just decide that what we are doing is the bestway And that is what professional development and students’ skills development is allabout.

2.5 Teaching adults

Adult learners bring a very different set of skills, knowledge, and expectations

to the classroom than do children According to Joseph Levine (1991), through athorough understanding of the learners, it is possible to direct our teaching to thespecific needs and interests of the adults He presents some characteristics of adultlearners and implications for teaching The adult learner is primarily independent/ self-directed in what he learns In the process of teaching, teachers try not to treat the adultlike a child We should create group or pair works for discussion in an ample time.Teachers should provide handouts and materials during our teaching to help them learn

on their own after class The adult learner has considerable experience to draw upon.Teachers should provide opportunities for the adults to work together and share theirideas and experiences in small groups Moreover, the adult learner is most apt to beinterested in topics that relate to the development stage in their life This means thatteachers should not assume young adults and older adults are interested in the samethings In classroom organization, according to students’ stage of life, teachers getlearners in small groups and provide opportunities for them to talk about the topics Intheir discussion, teachers should also try to hear from all the adults in the group, notjust from a few of the more vocal ones

When discussing about relationships between teachers and adult students, Penny

Ur (1996) mentions that the teaching of foreign languages to adults is arguably lessimportant, world-wide than the teaching of children At school, most language teachingtakes place and most basic knowledge of and attitudes towards the foreign languages

stressful and better paid Teaching adults often directs towards specific purposes (forbusiness, for academic study, for further training and so on) This demands extra areas

on the part of the teachers The relationships between teacher and adult student might

be authority-subject to authority, transmitter-receivers, motivator-motivated orcounselor-clients In any cases, there is a certain difference on the part of the learners,the teacher is expected to give instructions , the learners are expected to respect andobey them Or transmitter-receivers relationship can occur in adult classroom Adultsare perhaps in a better position to assert their right to question, criticize and generallyparticipate actively On the other hand, they do tend to be more disciplined andconform more to teacher demands than younger learners The two factors probablyoffset one another and it is difficult to draw any firm conclusions about the typicaladult class in this respect The teacher and adults relationship can be counselor-clients.The role of teachers is to supply the expressed needs of the learners rather than toimpose a predetermined programme Teacher is viewed as an accepting supportiveprofession Here are some possible relationships between teacher and adult learners inlearning a foreign language It is still a question to conclude what is the mainrelationship because all the above relationships are right to some extent

2.5.1 Principles of adult learning

Malcolm Knowles (1970) was the first to theorize how adults learn A pioneer

in the field of adult learning, he described adult learning as a process of self-directedinquiry He advocated creating a climate of mutual trust and clarification of mutualexpectations with the learner In other words, a cooperative learning climate is fostered

The reasons most adults enter any learning experience is to create change Thiscould encompass a change in (a) their skills, (b) behavior, (c) knowledge level, or (d)even their attitudes about things (Adult Education Centre, 2005) Compared to school-age children, the major differences in adult learners are in the degree of motivation, theamount of previous experience, the level of engagement in the learning process, and

how the learning is applied Each adult brings to the learning experience preconceivedthoughts and feelings that will be influenced by each of these factors Assessing thelevel of these traits and the readiness to learn should be included each time a teachingexperience is being planned.

2.5.1.1 Motivation

Adults learn best when convinced of the need for knowing the information.Often a life experience or situation stimulates the motivation to learn (O'Brien, 2004).Meaningful learning can be intrinsically motivating The key to using adults' "natural"motivation to learn is tapping into their most teachable moments (Zemke & Zemke,1995) Motivated students, in teachers’ mind, are usually those who participate actively

in class, express interest in the subject matter, and study a great deal If we can makeour classrooms places where students enjoy coming because the content is interestingand relevant to their age and level of ability, where the learning goals are challengingyet manageable and clear, and where the atmosphere is supportive and non-threatening,

we can make a positive contribution to students’ motivation to learn

2.5.1.2 Experience

Adults have a greater depth, breadth, and variation in the quality of previous lifeexperiences than younger people (O'Brien, 2004) Past educational or work experiencesmay color or bias the patient's perceived ideas about how education will occur Formerexperiences can assist the adult to connect the current learning experience to somethinglearned in the past This may also facilitate in making the learning experience moremeaningful

2.5.1.3 Level of Engagement

In a classic study, Rogers (1969) illustrated that when an adult learner hascontrol over the nature, timing, and direction of the learning process, the entireexperience is facilitated Adults have a need to be self-directed, deciding for

mind and generally take a leadership role in their learning The challenge for teachers

is to be encouraging to the learner but also reinforce the process of learning Theendpoint of learning cannot always occur quickly or on a pre-set timeline According toRogers (1969), the adult-learning process is facilitated when:

- The learner participates completely in the learning process and has control over itsnature and direction

- It is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, or personalproblems

- Self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing the progress or success

2.5.1.4 Applying the Learning

As skills and knowledge are acquired, it is paramount to include returndemonstrations by the learner The primary purpose is to verify the ability of thestudents to perform the skill Return demonstrations enable the teacher to view, and thestudents to experience, the progress in their understanding and application of theeducation Seeing progress and realizing a tangible movement forward in the learningprocess may increase the students’ motivation to learn even more Information thatgoes into the learner's memory will likely be remembered if the teacher providesopportunities in the session for activities such as application exercises and discussions(Zemke & Zemke, 1995) For example, in the process of teaching, when teachers mightask about the frequency of the exercises, students can remember more about what theyhave been taught before

2.5.2 Principles of teaching adults

The teacher of adults has a different job from the one who teaches children.When teaching adult students, it is important to understand the five principles ofteaching adults It is important to know how adults learn

Malcolm Knowles, a pioneer in the study of adult learning, observed that adults learn best when:

- They understand why something is important to know or do

- They have the freedom to learn in their own way

- Learning is experiential

- The time is right for them to learn

- The process is positive and encouraging

2.5.2.1 Make sure adult students understand “Why”

Most adult students are in the classroom because they want to be Some of themare there because they have Continuing Education requirements to keep a certificatecurrent, but most are there because they have chosen to learn something new

This principle is not about why students are in the classroom, but about whyeach thing teachers teach them is an important part of the learning When teachersprovide one grammar point or a speaking activity, they should make sure that thestudents know the use of that grammar point to express which meaning and thespeaking activity might be the model or the chance for them to practice one languageitem, for example

2.5.2.2 Respect that students have different learning styles

There are three general learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic

Visual learners rely on pictures They love graphs, diagrams, and illustrations

“Show me,” is their motto They often sit in the front of the classroom to avoid visualobstructions and to watch the teacher They want to know what the subject looks like.The teacher can best communicate with them by providing handouts, writing on thewhite board, and using phrases like, “Do you see how this works?”

Auditory learners listen carefully to all sounds associated with the learning

“Tell me,” is their motto They will pay close attention to the sound of teachers’ voiceand all of its subtle messages, and they will actively participate in discussions.Teachers can best communicate with them by speaking clearly, asking questions, and

Kinesthetic learners need to physically do something to understand it Theirmotto is “Let me do it.” They trust their feelings and emotions about what they arelearning and how teachers are teaching it They want to actually touch what they arelearning They are the ones who will get up and help you with role playing Theteachers can best communicate with them by involving volunteers, allowing them topractice what they are learning, and using phrases like, “How do you feel about that?”

Most people use all three styles while they’re learning, and of course, this islogical since we all have five senses, barring any disabilities, but one style almostalways is preferred

2.5.2.3 Allow students to experience what they are learning

Experience can take many forms Any activity that gets students involved makesthe learning experiential This includes small group discussions, experiments, roleplaying, skits, building something at their table or desk, writing or drawing somethingspecific – activity of any kind Activities also keep people energized, especiallyactivities that involve getting up and moving about

The other aspect of this principle is honoring the life experiences students bring

to the classroom Teachers should be sure to tap into that wealth of wisdom whenever

it is appropriate Teachers will have to be a good timekeeper because people can talkfor hours when asked for personal experiences, but the extra facilitation needed will bewell worth the gems the students have to share Teachers should not interfere unlessstudents ask in the discussion task, give students the space and time to do and correctthemselves

2.5.2.4 When the student is ready, the teacher appears

“When the student is ready, the teacher appears” is a Buddhist proverb packedwith wisdom No matter how hard a teacher tries, if the student is not ready to learn,

chances are good, he or she will not What does this mean for a teacher of adults?Luckily, students are in the classroom because they want to be They have alreadydetermined that the time is right

It is the teachers’ job to listen carefully for teaching moments and takeadvantage of them When a student says or does something that triggers a topic on theagenda, the teachers should be flexible and teach it right then If that would wreakhavoc on your schedule, which is often the case, teach a bit about it rather than sayingflat out that they will have to wait until later in the program By then, the teachers mayhave lost their interest

2.5.2.5 Encourage adult students

For most adults, being out of the classroom for even a few years can make goingback to school intimidating If they have not taken a class in decades, it isunderstandable that they would have some degree of apprehension about what it will belike and how well they will do It can be tough to be a rookie when teachers have been

an expert in the field for many, many years Nobody enjoys feeling foolish

The job as a teacher of adult students includes being positive and encouraging.Teachers should give older students time to respond when asking a question They mayneed a few moments to consider their answer The teachers’ job is to recognize thecontributions they make, even when small, to give them words of encouragementwhenever the opportunity arises Most adults will rise to expectations if we are clearabout them

2.6 Types of classroom speaking performance

According to H Douglas Brown (2001) in “Teaching by Principles” book, hecategories six types of classroom speaking performance apply to the kinds of oralproduction that students are expected to carry out in the classroom.

2.6.1 Imitative

Imitation is a kind of classroom speaking performance in which a very limitedportion of speaking time may legitimately be spent generating “human tape recorder”.Imitation is carried out for focusing on some particular element of language form, notfor the purpose of meaningful interaction Drilling is a legitimate part of thecommunicative language classroom Drills offers students an opportunity to listen and

to orally repeat certain strings of language that may pose some linguistic difficulty,either phonological or grammatical They offer limited practice through repetition.They allow one to focus on one element of language in a controlled activity They canhelp to establish certain psychomotor patterns and to associate selected grammaticalforms with their appropriate context In order to have successful drills, they mustfollow some useful guidelines:

- Keep them short

- Keep them simple (preferably just one point at a time)

- Keep them snappy

- Make sure students know why they are doing the drills

- Limit them to phonology and grammar points

- Make sure they ultimately lead to communicative goals

- Don’t overuse them

2.6.2 Intensive

Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitation to include any speakingperformance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect oflanguage Intensive speaking can be self-initiated or it can even form part of some pairwork activities, where learners are going over certain forms of language