Tài liệu Toefl CBT book part 7 ppt

To create a passive sentence from an active sentence, the order of the active sentence is reversed.. Conditional sentences each contain a clause beginning with the word if.. A conditiona

Woman: Betty took the wrong bus and missed the meeting.

Man: I know She showed up when it was over

Q Narrator: What do the speakers mean?

A Betty is coming to the meeting.

B. Betty did not go to the meeting

C Betty might not come to the meeting.

D Betty is on the bus.

The answer is B, “Betty did not go to the meeting.” The sentence is in the past

tense

Man: Did Chuck call before or after the class?

Woman: He called during the class

Q Narrator: What did the woman say?

A He did not call.

B. He called while the class was going on

C He called before the class.

D He called after the class.

The answer is B, “He called while the class was going on,” because while means

the same as during.

Passive Voice

A sentence can be constructed either in the active or passive voice In an active sentence, the subject performs the action In a passive sentence, the subject

re-ceives the action To create a passive sentence from an active sentence, the order

of the active sentence is reversed For the Listening section, you must be able to understand active versus passive voice so you can identify who performs the ac-tion and who receives the acac-tion

Woman: Where is David? I thought he was going to be here

Man: He was chosen to lead the committee, and it is meeting tonight

Q Narrator: What does the man mean about David?

A He will be here soon.

B. He chose the committee members

C He has been appointed as the leader of the committee.

D He chose not to serve on the committee.

The answer is C, “He has been appointed as the leader of the committee,” a

pas-sive sentence Answer choice B might be tempting, but it reverses the order of

who performed the action and who received the action

Man: What did Rafael tell the officer about the accident?

Woman: He said the car was struck by the truck

Q Narrator: What does the woman mean?

A The car avoided being hit.

B. The truck hit the car

C The car hit the truck.

D The truck took evasive action.

The answer is B, “The truck hit the car,” which means the same as “the car was

struck by the truck.”

Appositives

An appositive is a reduced relative clause, which leaves a noun phrase The noun

phrase provides additional information about the noun An appositive will often

appear at the beginning of a sentence

Gary Smith, who is an excellent photographer, will carry the weight.

relative clause

Gary Smith, an excellent photographer, will carry the weight.

reduced relative clause

An excellent photographer, Gary Smith will carry the weight.

appositive

Woman: Do you know anything about the three students who are making the video display?

Man: An excellent photographer, Gary Smith will carry the weight

Woman: You don’t know the others?

Q Narrator: What does the man imply about the video producers?

A One person will make it successful.

B. The group is made up of great photographers

C There is no hope for the video display.

D Gary will load the equipment.

The answer is A, “One person will make it successful,” because the appositive,

“an excellent photographer,” refers to Gary

Modals

Modal auxiliaries are generally used to indicate something that is potential or un-certain The modals are: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, and must.

Sample

Woman: Are you planning to go on the trip?

Man: I may be able to

Q Narrator: What does the man mean?

A He is not sure whether he will go on the trip.

B. He will definitely go on the trip

C He will definitely not go on the trip.

D He plans to go on the trip.

The answer is A, “He is not sure whether he will go on the trip,” because the word

may means the answer is unknown.

Conditional Sentences

A conditional sentence indicates that something will happen if another event

hap-pens first In other words, one circumstance will occur under the condition that

another circumstance occurs first A conditional sentence can be real or unreal If

it’s real, that means there is the potential for a result to occur in the future If it’s

unreal, that means a result would have occurred already if a certain event

hap-pened, but in reality, the event didn’t happen

Conditional sentences each contain a clause beginning with the word if This

clause can appear as either the first or second clause in the sentence A conditional

sentence with a verb that’s one step in the past means that it’s contrary to fact, or

unreal That is, the opposite result occurred Here is an example:

If the bus hadn’t already passed by, we would’ve been on time for our

meeting

OR

We would’ve been on time for our meeting if the bus hadn’t already

passed by

If the bus hadn’t already passed by means that the bus did pass by This is a

posi-tive result because the clause is negaposi-tive (the word not — contracted here as part

of hadn’t — makes it negative) Both of these sentences mean that the bus already

passed by

The other clause, we would’ve been on time, is also contrary to fact It’s a positive

clause, so the idea is negative It means we were not on time.

If the bus had already passed by, there would be no people waiting

OR

There would be no people waiting if the bus had already passed by

The clause If the bus had already passed by is a positive clause, so it means that

the bus did not pass by The clause there would be no people waiting is a negative

clause and, therefore, carries a positive meaning It means there are people waiting

If the man had called the ambulance, the boy would’ve survived

OR

The boy would’ve survived if the man had called the ambulance

This means the man did not call the ambulance and the boy did not survive.

Notice the difference, however, when the verb is in the same tense as the context

This is called a real condition because the clauses don’t have the opposite meaning.

If the bus arrives soon, we’ll be on time for our meeting.

The bus still might arrive soon, and if it does, we’ll be on time for our meeting

If the man calls the ambulance, the boy can survive

The man might call the ambulance, and the boy might survive

Wish

The verb wish can convey the same concept as an unreal condition It conveys a different concept from that of hope Just like in the unreal conditional sentences

you read above, the tense of the other verb in the sentence will be one step further

in the past.

We wish the bus had arrived on time.

This means the bus did not arrive on time

She wishes the man had called the ambulance.

This means the man did not call the ambulance

Comparisons and Comparatives

Comparisons indicate degrees of difference or similarity.

Equal Comparisons

An equal comparison indicates that the two nouns or noun phrases in a sentence

are (or are not) exactly the same

This car is as old as that one

This sentence means that the age of the two cars is equal

This car is not as old as that one

This sentence means that this car is newer than the other one

In a negative equal comparison, you can substitute the word so for as without

al-tering the meaning of the sentence

His job is not as difficult as mine.

His job is not so difficult as mine.

Unequal Comparisons

Unequal comparisons imply that two or more entities are comparable to a greater

or lesser degree Some comparatives are formed by adding the suffix -er to the

base adjective or adverb Other comparatives are formed by adding the words

more or less before the adjective or adverb In general, it’s more common to use

more to create a comparative form from an adverb.

John’s grades are higher than his sister’s.

adjective

He studies more frequently than she does.

adverb

This year’s exhibit is more impressive than last year’s.

adjective

You can further intensify unequal comparisons by adding much or far before the

comparative form For example:

This house is far more expensive than the others we’ve seen.

This book is much less interesting than the one I read last month.

Double Comparatives

Double comparative sentences involve a comparative construction at the

begin-ning of both clauses

The sooner we finish the project, the sooner we can start the next one.

This sentence means the same as, “As soon as we finish the project, we can start

the next one.”

The more he ate, the hungrier he became

This sentence means that as he ate more, he became more hungry

Superlatives

The superlative compares three or more items, one of which is superior or inferior

to the others To form a superlative, add -est to an adjective or place the words

most or least before an adjective or adverb.

This is the most powerful car of the three.

This house is the least expensive of all.

Superlatives that involve adverbs are generally formed by using most or least rather than -est.

That child behaves the most carelessly of all.

adverb

Negatives

In the Listening section, you must pay attention to whether a sentence is positive

or negative

The basic way to make a sentence negative is to add the word not to the phrase or to add the contraction n’t to the verb.

Trisha is not ready to leave yet.

Trisha isn’t ready to leave yet.

Other negative indicators include no, never, nobody, none, and nothing.

Limiting Words

Another way to create a negative sentence is to use limiting words and phrases

Commonly used limiting words and phrases include hardly, seldom, never, barely, scarcely, rarely, no sooner, nowhere, not once, not often, not only, not until, only, only by, only then, only with, and under no circumstances.

When these words or phrases appear at the beginning of a sentence, they signal that the normal order of a sentence will be reversed The normal sentence order is subject +verb In a sentence that is begun by a limiting word or phrase, an

auxil-iary verb (a form of have, be, or do) appears before the subject.

She had hardly finished when she collapsed with exhaustion.

Hardly had she finished the race when she collapsed with exhaustion.

Both of these sentences mean that she collapsed as soon as she finished the race

Never before have so many people been employed as they are now.

This sentence means that more people are employed now than have been in the past

Under no circumstances will the judge reconsider her decision.

This means that the judge won’t reconsider the decision under any circumstances

No sooner had she completed the work than she went to sleep.

This sentence means that she went to sleep as soon as she completed the work

Only with great care can the surgeon reconstruct the infant’s heart.

This sentence means that the surgeon can reconstruct the infant’s heart only if he

or she uses great care

Not often does a hurricane of this magnitude approach the coast.

This means that a hurricane of this magnitude doesn’t approach the coast often

Already and Yet

The word already indicates that a sentence has a positive meaning The word yet

is used to create a negative meaning

Positive: Sandy has already finished work on her degree.

Negative: Sandy hasn’t finished working on her degree yet.

Another way to use yet is to place it after the have and place the rest of the verb in

the infinitive

Sandy has yet to finish working on her degree.

Affirmative Agreement

To describe how two subjects perform or receive the same action, use affirmative

agreement, in which the conjunction and is followed by a simple statement that

includes either the word so or the word too The word order of the second

(sim-ple) statement differs depending on whether you use so or too.

Pat is a professor, and Lynn is too.

Pat is a professor, and so is Lynn.

Both sentences mean that Pat and Lynn are professors

She will work for me tonight, and he will too.

She will work for me tonight, and so will he.

These sentences mean that both people will work for the speaker tonight

Susan drives a Lexus, and my sister does too.

Susan drives a Lexus, and so does my sister.

Negative Agreement

Sentences that contain negative agreement work much the same way as sentences that contain positive agreement However, in order to indicate that the two

sub-jects mentioned in this type of sentence have not done something, the words ei-ther and neiei-ther are used instead of the words so and too.

I didn’t see Michelle this morning, and Joe didn’t either.

I didn’t see Michelle this morning, and neither did Joe.

These two sentences mean that both the speaker and Joe did not see Michelle this

morning

She won’t be going to the meeting, and her colleagues won’t either.

She won’t be going to the meeting, and neither will her colleagues.

These sentences mean that both she and her colleagues will not attend the meeting.

Tag Questions

In a tag question, the speaker makes a statement but adds a brief question at the

end that requests the listener to verify that the statement is true The form is created

by using the auxiliary from the main sentence (a form of be or form of have) or a form of do as the opening word of the tag question, and then repeating the noun or,

more likely, replacing it with a pronoun The auxiliary in the tag will be positive if the main sentence is negative and negative if the main sentence is positive

Bob is a good student, isn’t he?

The verb comes from the is in the sentence, and the pronoun comes from the

noun

Bob and Mary are good students, aren’t they?

The verb comes from the are in the sentence and the pronoun comes from the

nouns

There are only 28 days in February, aren’t there?

Notice in a sentence beginning with there, the pseudo noun there also appears in

the tag

You and I talked with the professor yesterday, didn’t we?

You won’t be leaving for another hour, will you?

Cause and Effect

There are several ways to show cause and effect that you need to be able to

recog-nize to score successfully on the Listening section

Because and Because Of

The word because and the phrase because of show cause and effect The cause is

shown immediately after the word because or the phrase because of.

Jill quit her job because she was admitted to the university.

Jill quit her job because of her admission to the university.

Both sentences show that Jill was admitted to the university, and the result was

that she quit her job You can also reverse the word order of either sentence:

Because she was admitted to the university, Jill quit her job.

Because of her admission to the university, Jill quit her job.

So

So means the same as because except that the result, not the cause, appears

imme-diately after the word or phrase For example:

Jill was admitted to the university so she quit her job.

So is sometimes followed by that in a slightly different cause and effect sentence.

In the following sentence, the word that is optional.

Jill quit her job so that she could attend college.

Jill quit her job so she could attend college.

The Reason That

The phrase the reason that also indicates cause and effect The phrase the

rea-son is used as the subject of the sentence, as shown in the following example.

The reason she quit her job was that she was admitted to the university.