Tài liệu Guide for writing technical reports pdf

• In a laboratory TP report you must show that you are able to put order and coherence in your measurement results, that you have insight in the accuracy and reliability of the measureme

Guide for writing technical reports

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne

EPFL-DMT-IMS, 2001

Report writing is one of the many things with which EPFL students are confronted You may have the feeling that this is a nuisance; however, reports are of great

importance for engineers

The purpose of this guide is to help you, the student, with writing good reports

While remaining compact, it combines basic advices and rules for lab experiment (TP), semester and diploma reports We emphasise that these are only guidelines As a

consequence these rules should be applied with intelligence

This is a modified copy of a manual that was made 20 years ago by teachers in Holland, with a few additions from other sources It has been adapted, we hope, to the tastes and opinions of the teachers here

Suggestions for improvements, from teachers and students, are welcome

Harald van Lintel

Raphael Holzer

Pierre-André Besse

Lausanne, March 2001

v.1.1, 7/03/01 HvL

Table of contents

1 The aims of a report

The purpose of a report is to transmit coherent information on a subject to the target

readers

Reports at the EPFL are usually technical and should be based on verifiable facts or experiments

You should write the report in such a way that it will be as easy as possible for the reader to understand, and eventually to apply the information in it It is not a history of your work

Obviously, the requirements of your readers (and tutors especially) must be taken into account: what information is requested, how much does the reader know already, what interests him/her?

Your report should be written in such a way that your fellow students will be able to understand it

• In a laboratory (TP) report you must show that you are able to put order and coherence in your measurement results, that you have insight in the accuracy and reliability of the measurements and that you are able to link the experiment

to the related theory

• Semester and diploma reports often are part of a project The success of the project may be influenced by the quality of the report A clear and critical problem description and a well-motivated solution form an important

contribution to the goal to be reached Often a report is the starting point for a next phase in the project Therefore, a thorough description of the experiments and results are important, as well as clearly formulated conclusions

The teacher or tutor who has to judge the report will certainly appreciate it when the contents are clearly the intellectual property of the writers Copying someone else’s work is not appreciated!

2 Structuring a report

2.1 Laboratory reports (TP)

In general, depending on the type of experiment, for your “Travaille Pratique” report

you may use something like this:

• Title

• Purpose of the experiment

• Theoretical background

• Description of the experiment

• Results of the experiment

• Calculations

• Discussion of results

• Literature

• (List of symbols)

• Appendices (may be put ahead of “Literature”)

Answers to questions in the TP instruction are to be integrated in the report in the appropriate places

Hereunder follow some clarifications and details in relation to the above example layout

2.1.1 Title

Every report must be clearly recognizable by its title The title is here a compact

description of the experiment

This title appears on a title or cover page, that also should contain the following

information:

• Names of the authors

• Class, affiliation

• Date

2.1.2 Purpose of the experiment

Describe in detail the purpose of the experiment and try to touch the heart of the matter

2.1.3 Theoretical background

Explain shortly the background, preferably using consulted literature You should include short derivations of non-standard formulas in the main text

2.1.4 Description of the experiment

Here the experiment or practical training is described You should include things as:

• Description of the measurement equipment

• The way the experiment is done

• Particularities of equipment or materials

It is in most cases not useful to go in great detail about the equipment; eventually you may refer to manuals and type numbers Don’t mention details that are useless Use appendices

2.1.5 Results of the experiment

Describe the results you obtained, your observations, and how you dealt with

unexpected problems

Often the results include sequences of numbers that can and should be shown in tables

or graphs Don’t forget to indicate measurement accuracies where useful

Also other types of information, such as oscilloscope images and photos are experiment results

2.1.6 Calculations

Here belong:

• Calculations, where needed incl accuracy calculations

• Extractions of measurement results from graphs

In case of a number of identical calculations you only need to show one calculation example Clearly indicate to which measurement it applies The results can be collected

in tables

2.1.7 Discussion of results

This may be the most important part of the report, as from this should become clear what meaning and relevance the results have and what conclusions can be drawn from these

Where possible, compare the results with theoretical predictions or literature sources

(give the value and the source!) Discuss the differences Try to reach clear conclusions

2.1.8 Literature

Give here an overview of consulted literature

2.1.9 List of symbols

In case you make use of many symbols, it is good to add a list of symbols as well

2.1.10 Appendices

In the appendices you can put items that would interfere with the logic and readability

of the report, such as big tables (or too many), graphs or derivations, and items such as computer print-outs, program code, process lists, data sheets and detailed component descriptions Make sure that the reader will not have to jump much to-and-from the appendix

We also want you to add all your original notes of the main experiments here

2.2 Semester and diploma reports

Both types of report transmit relevant information, understanding and know-how that you developed during the project This should be exposed in a coherent, scientific way

In practice there is often not much difference between them, so the layout can be

similar:

• Title

• Table of Contents

• Summary

• Project description

• Introduction

• Body of the report

• Conclusions

• Literature list

• List of symbols

• Appendices (may be put ahead of “Literature”)

Some clarifications:

2.2.1 Title

The title should indicate in a few words the subject and the way it is approached

Example: a title like “Silicon microfluidics” is insufficient “Silicon microfluidic

sensors” is better but lacks information on what has been done

A better title is for example “Fabrication and test of silicon microfluidic sensors” However, a title like “Realisation and test of a novel microfluidic sensor” is more appealing

On the title page belong as well:

• Name of writer

• Time period or date

• Institute where the work was done

• Names of professor, assistants

2.2.2 Table of contents

The chapters and sections (and if you like, subsections) are mentioned with their page number

2.2.3 Summary

Mention for who the report is primarily made Inform the reader about the purpose, used methods and results; give the main conclusions and recommendations (about half a page) Stress the novelty and possible impact

2.2.4 Project description

The description as formulated at the start is to be given here

2.2.5 Introduction

Here you can indicate in more detail the purpose, background, starting points and limitations Explain briefly your approach and what is new In order to get the attention

of the reader, it is good to write „top down“, i.e mention the main achievement already

in the introduction

2.2.6 Body of the report

This will be split up in several chapters, depending on the work that has been done Nevertheless, the body should be logical and fluent Transmit your message in the form

of coherent information, not as a historical description

In accord with the point of depart as formulated in the introduction, you should build up the subject matter in a logical way All matter that you feel should be in the report but does not fit with that logic has to go to the appendix Where appropriate you can refer to that in the text

Examples of items that may be put in the body of the report:

• Theoretical background

• Reasons, motivations for design choices

• Key design or layout

• Key aspects of realisation

• Choice of measurement method or set-up

• Discussion of results

• Anything else that the project description requires

2.2.7 Conclusions

Give all relevant conclusions, even negative Stress novelty and scientific or industrial impact Also new insights, outlook and recommendations for improvement should be put here

However, do not introduce results or concepts that belong in the body of the report Bring structure in your conclusions

2.2.8 Symbol list

Every report with a large number of symbols benefits from a symbol list

You should have all used symbols in alphabetic sequence (small letters, capital letters,

Greek)

Indicate both meaning and units Try to adapt generally used symbols, and try to avoid the use of the same symbol for different meanings

Also non-standard abbreviations can be added here

2.2.9 Literature list

See section 3.6

2.2.10 Appendices

Hereunder fall things that would interrupt the fluidity of the body of the report, such as:

• Long derivations of formulas

• Calculations that would interrupt the body of the report (keep them compact)

• Large tables with measurements or calculated results

• Large drawings and schemes or layouts, series of pictures

• Part lists

• Computer simulation print-outs (listings, runs)

• Partial copies of articles

The report without the appendixes must be understandable and contain all important information

3 Layout of a report

3.1 Basic layout

Use A4 paper In long reports, start each chapter on a new page Use large margins (ca

3 cm left margin, top and bottom) Preferably put explaining text next or under pictures, especially in semester and diploma reports Group the information in paragraphs

On the cover, put title, names and date

3.2 Numbering

3.2.1 Chapters and sections

We advice the use of a decimal enumeration system, such as used in this manual

Thus:

1 Title of chapter

2 Title of chapter

2.1 Title of section

2.1.1 Title of sub section

2.1.2 Title of sub section

2.2 Title of section

Use the same code in the table of contents (can be done in an automatic way with

programs like Word)

Don’t include Summary, Appendices, Literature list or Symbol list in this numbering

3.2.2 Formulas

Essential formulas and formulas that are referred to in other places in the report must be numbered

For example:

m s

f = 0.5 / (1)

If you do not have many formulas (say less than 20), you can use this type of

numbering; otherwise you can use (3.1) etc., referring to the chapter the formula is in

3.2.3 Tables

Tables should be numbered, and indicated: Table 1, Table 2 (or Table 3.1, Table 3.2)

3.2.4 Figures

All graphics that are placed in-between the text, such as drawings, graphs, pictures are called “figure” You can number them Figure1, Figure 2 etc (or Fig.3.1, Fig.3.2)

Together with the numbering you give a short and clear description (figure caption) This should be self-explaining: all the relevant information has to be in the figure or in the figure caption State clearly what is shown: “Measured…”, ”Simulated…”,

”Theoretical…”, ”Comparison…”, …

The figures are placed close to the related text

3.2.5 Appendices

If you have only a few:

Appendix A Tables of expansion coefficients

Appendix B Specifications of current amplifier SRS 570

If you have many that can be grouped into types:

Graph A First DC current measurement

Graph B First AC current measurement

Mask 1 Back side

Mask 2 Front side

Mask 3 Metallisation

You indicate these in the Table of Contents as:

Graphs

Mask layouts

3.3 Tables

• Put above or under the table a description: Table 2, “short description”

• Better not to make horizontal tables: such save space but are difficult to read

Thus not:

But like the following (with the cause in the left, and the result in the right column!):

U [V] I [mA]

0 0.4

2.00 2.7

4.00 4.2

6.00 5.3

8.00 5.5

10.00 5.6

• Shift repetitive information from the columns to the heading In the heading above each column you mention:

o The contents, often using a symbol (e.g U)

o The unit between brackets (e.g [mV]); choose the unit to be convenient

in size, e.g 13.6 mV instead of 0.0136 V (only use brackets [] where needed!)

o The precision, if this is of importance and similar for all values

• Try to shift as much as possible information from the heading to the description

• Choose the sequence of columns in a logical way (put together what belongs together)

• Don’t put very long or wide tables in the text if not necessary It is better for the reader if you put them in an appendix or split them up in smaller tables Avoid that tables continue from one page to another

3.4 Graphs

3.4.1 Axes

a Horizontally (x) you put the independent variable (the cause) and vertically (y) the dependent variable (the result)!!

For example, if you measure the resistance as function of the temperature: then you put the resistance on the vertical axis But if you measure the temperature

as function of a heater resistance, you put the temperature on the vertical axis

b The divisions on the axis depend on the following:

o The space should be used efficiently

o Usually the axes go preferably through the origin (0,0)

o If you don’t start at 0, it’s good to show it (but cumbersome with Excel):

o Please divide the axes in multiples of 1, 2, 5, 10 (etc.) units (“ticks”), do not put them every 3 or 4 units! Add enough (not too many) values

o Consider the use of logarithmic divisions; realise what is useful and/or common

c Near the axes you indicate the variable (preferably a symbol) and the units: e.g

I [mA] or t [s] Near the vertical axis you put the comment horizontal or, if there is lack of space and you place it vertical, it should be readable from the right Don’t forget to describe what exactly is plotted as function of what

d Use exactly the same layout for two results that you want to compare (identical axes)

3.4.2 Measurement points

• Include all measurement points, also the ones that seem to be out of range Make them sufficiently large to see them after you draw a line through them

• Make sure when you do the measurements that the points will be well

distributed Where the graph behaves strangely (resonance peaks and so on) there should be more points (hopefully you realised that when doing the

measurement!)

• Often it is useful to indicate an estimation of the inaccuracy using error bars (especially when large)

3.4.3 Lines

• Ideally you draw a smooth line without trying to exactly force them through all points, in accord with theory (expectation) and common sense (error bars are