c Advise the board of directors or management of the organisation in setting the financial goals of the business and in its financial policy development with particular reference to: i I
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Contents
Page Chapter 1 The role and responsibility of the financial
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Further reading
You can find further reading and technical articles under the student section of ACCA's website. Also, you may find it useful to read "Corporate Finance and Valuation" by Bob Ryan (the P4 examiner). Several theories and methods from this book appear in this Kaplan Text with the kind
permission of the author.
Trang 9of the financial manager
Chapter learning objectives
Study guide section A1: The role and responsibility of the senior financial executive / advisor
Study guide outcome
(a) Develop strategies for the achievement of the organisational goals in line with its agreed policy framework.
(b) Recommend strategies for the management of the financial resources of the organisation such that they are utilised in an efficient, effective and transparent way
(c) Advise the board of directors or management of the organisation in setting the financial goals of the business and in its financial policy development with particular reference to: (i) Investment selection and capital resource allocation (ii) Minimising the cost of capital (iii) Distribution and retention policy (iv) Communicating financial policy and corporate goals to internal and external stakeholders (v) Financial planning and control (vi) The management of risk
1
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Trang 10A3: Conflicting stakeholder interests (a) Assess the potential sources of the conflict within a given corporate
governance/
stakeholder framework informed by
an understanding of the alternative theories of
managerial behaviour. Relevant underpinning theory for this assessment would be: (i) The separation of ownership and control (ii) Transaction cost economics and comparative governance structures (iii) Agency Theory.
(b) Recommend, within specified problem domains, appropriate strategies for the resolution of stakeholder conflict and advise on alternative approaches that may be adopted
(c) Compare the different governance structures and policies (with particular emphasis upon the European stakeholder and the US/UK shareholder model) and with respect to the role of the financial manager
Trang 11financial management business issues and decisions and
advise on best practice in the financial management of the organisation
(b) Demonstrate an understanding of the interconnectedness of the ethics of good business practice between all
of the functional areas of the organisation
(c) Establish an ethical financial policy for the financial management of the organisation which is grounded in good governance, the highest standards of probity and is fully aligned with the ethical principles of the Association
(d) Recommend an ethical framework for the development of an
organisation’s financial policies and
a system for the assessment of its ethical impact upon the financial management of the organisation
(e) Explore the areas within the ethical framework of the organisation which may be undermined by agency effects and/or stakeholder conflicts and establish strategies for dealing with them
A5: Environmental issues
and integrated reporting (a) Assess the issues which may impact upon organisational objectives and
governance from: (i) Sustainability and environmental risk (ii) The carbontrading economy and emissions (iii) The role of the environment agency (iv) Environmental audits and the triple bottom line approach
(b) Assess and advise on the impact of investment and financing strategies and decisions on the organisations' stakeholders, from an integrated reporting and governance perspective
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Trang 12F1: The role of the treasury function in multinationals (a) Discuss the role of the treasury management function within: (i) The
short term management of the organisation’s financial resources (ii) The longer term maximisation of corporate value (iii) The
management of risk exposure
Trang 131 Key roles and responsibilities of the financial manager
Trang 14Investment selection and capital resource allocation
The primary goal of a company should be the maximisation of shareholder wealth, but any number of stakeholders may have views on the objectives a company should pursue.
Therefore, key policy decisions need to be made:
(1) closeness of match to objectives (2) degree to which all goals will be achieved.
be considered when evaluating a project?
• How to incorporate ethical issues, such as minimising potential pollution
or refusal to trade with unacceptable regimes, into the investment appraisal process?
• What method of investment appraisal should be used?
– NPV?
– IRR?
• In times of capital rationing, how are competing projects to be evaluated?
– use of theoretical methods– incorporation of nonfinancial factors such as:
• As markets are not truly efficient, and investors treat earnings and dividend announcements as new information, to what extent should the impact on, for example:
– ROCE– EPS– DPS
More on investment selection
Trang 15Raising finance and minimising the cost of capital
Trang 16Communication with stakeholders
A vital role for those running a company is to keep both external and internal stakeholders informed of all significant matters.
External stakeholders External stakeholders to be kept informed would include:
Internal stakeholders Corporate goals and financial policies must be communicated to all those involved within the organisation, whether at a senior level or in operational positions.
In addition to information about corporate goals, key matters of financial policy will also need to be communicated to stakeholders:
• Shareholders will need information about:
– dividend policy– expected returns on new investment projects– gearing levels
– risk profile
• Suppliers and customers will need information about:
Test your understanding 1
Trang 18Use of resources
It will be important to develop a framework to ensure all resources (inventory, labour and noncurrent assets as well as cash) are used to provide value for money. Spending must be:
Performance measures can be developed in each area to set targets and allow for regular monitoring.
opportunities and risks for entities. To survive in today's complex financial environment, entities need to be able to actively manage both their ability to undertake these opportunities, and their exposure to risks.
A separate treasury function is more likely to develop the appropriate skills, and it should also be easier to achieve economies of scale; for instance in achieving lower borrowing rates, or nettingoff balances.
Treasury and financial control
In a large entity the finance function may be split between treasury and financial control, with both functions reporting to the chief financial officer.
The financial control function will be concerned primarily with the allocation and effective use of resources, and will have responsibility for investment decisions.
Definitions of the 3 Es
Trang 19Compare and contrast the roles of the treasury and financial
control departments with respect to a proposed investment.
3 Incorporating the interests of other stakeholders
Treasury: cost centre or profit centre?
Test your understanding 2
The centralisation of treasury activities
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Trang 20Strategies for managing conflict between stakeholders – practical
Hierarchies of decision making (corporate governance codes)
In order to prevent abuse of decisionmaking power by the executive, control over decisions tends to be distributed between:
In addition, a company may elect to take some key decisions in consultation with the employees.
• the full board
• individual executive directors making operational decisions
• nonexecutive directors – audit committee– remuneration committee
• shareholders in general meeting
• specific classes of shareholders where particular rights are concerned
Performance monitoring and evaluation systems Managers are more likely to act in accordance with shareholders’ wishes when their performance is regularly monitored and appraised against
Agency theory
More on Corporate Governance
Transaction cost economics – introductionTransaction cost economics – link to corporate governanceExamples of stakeholder conflict
Trang 21Integrated reporting (<IR>) and performance appraisal
Example using Mendelow's matrix
Strategies for managing conflict – theoretical
More on Mendelow's matrix
Non financial information
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Trang 22Fit with environment
A knowledge of the main Political, Economic, Social and Technological factors which impact the business will help the financial manager to identify likely opportunities.
Use of resources The financial manager should identify new investment opportunities which make the best use of the firm's key resources. Knowledge of the firm's current strengths (core competencies) and weaknesses is critical in assessing which new projects are most likely to be successful.
Stakeholder reactions
As discussed above, it is critical that the views of all stakeholders are considered when financial management decisions are made. Theoretically, the directors have a primary objective to maximise shareholder wealth.
However, decisions which appear to satisfy this requirement by ignoring other stakeholders' views in the short term can damage the firm's prospects for longer term shareholder wealth maximisation.
Impact on risk
Investors will have been attracted to the firm because they deem its risk profile to be acceptable. Making decisions which change the overall risk of the firm may alienate shareholders and damage the firm's long term
prospects.
5 The financial impact of the financial manager's decisions
It is common to assess the financial impact of a financial manager's decision by focussing on the likely Net Present Value (NPV) of investment projects undertaken. After all, the primary aim of a company is to maximise the wealth of its shareholders, and NPV represents the increase in
shareholder wealth if a project is undertaken.
However, it is also important to consider the following issues:
Likely impact on share price
In a perfect capital market, the NPV of the project would immediately be
Trang 23Discuss the strategic and financial issues that this case presents.
Test your understanding 3
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Trang 246 The regulatory impact of the financial manager's decisions
The extent to which the financial manager's actions are scrutinised by regulators is determined by:
The UK City Code
The City Code applies to takeovers in the UK. It stresses the vital importance of absolute secrecy before any takeover announcement is made. Once an announcement is made, the Code stipulates that the announcement should be as clear as possible, so that all shareholders (and potential shareholders) have equal access to information.
• the type of industry – some industries (in particular the privatised utility industries in the UK) are subject to high levels of regulation
• whether the company is listed – listed companies are subject to high levels of scrutiny. The Regulator for Public Companies has the primary objective of ensuring clarity for all investors
7 The ethical impact of the financial manager's decisions
Ethics, and the company’s ethical framework, should provide a basis for all policy and decision making. The financial manager must consider whether
In addition to general rules of ethics and governance, members of the ACCA have additional guidance to support their decision making.
Trang 25• have to deal with a conflict between stakeholders
• face a conflict between their position as agent and the needs of the
shareholders for whom they act
Suggest ways in which ethical issues would influence the firm’s
financial policies in relation to the following:
Specific examples of environmental issues
Triple Bottom Line (TBL) reporting
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Test your understanding answers
Trang 28Evaluation
Implementation
Interaction
• Treasury will quantify the cost of capital to be used in assessing the investment
• The financial control department will estimate the project cash flows
• Treasury will establish corporate financial objectives, such as wanting
to restrict gearing to 40%, and will identify sources and types of finance
• Treasury will also deal with currency management – dealing in foreign currencies and hedging currency risks – and taxation
• The financial control department will be involved with the preparation
of budgets and budgetary control, the preparation of periodic financial statements and the management and administration of activities such as payroll and internal audit
• The Treasury Department has main responsibility for setting corporate objectives and policy and Financial Control has the responsibility for implementing policy and ensuring the achievement
of corporate objectives. This distinction is probably far too simplistic and, in reality, both departments will make contributions to both determination and achievement of objectives
• There is a circular relationship in that Treasurers quantify the cost of capital, which the Financial Controllers use as the criterion for the deployment of funds; Financial Controllers quantify projected cash flows which in turn trigger Treasurers’ decisions to employ capital
Test your understanding 2
Trang 30• paying fair prices
• attempting to settle invoices promptly
• cooperating with suppliers to maintain and improve the quality of inputs
• not using or accepting bribery or excess hospitality as a means of securing contracts with suppliers
• charging fair prices
• offering fair payment terms
• honouring quantity and settlement discounts
• ensuring sufficient quality control process are built in that goods are fit for purpose
• payment of fair wages
• upholding obligations to protect, preserve and improve the environment
• only trading (both purchases and sales) with countries and companies that themselves have appropriate ethical frameworks
• Developing a policy on donations to educational and charitable institutions
Test your understanding 4
Trang 31Chapter learning objectives
Study guide section C1: Discounted cash flow techniques and the use of free cash flows
Study guide outcome
(a) Evaluate the potential value added to
an organisation arising from a specified capital investment project
or portfolio using the net present value (NPV) model. Project modelling should include explicit treatment and discussion of: (i) Inflation and specific price variation (ii) Taxation including capital
allowances and tax exhaustion (iii) Single period and multiperiod capital rationing. Multiperiod capital rationing to include the formulation of programming methods and the interpretation of their output
(c) Establish the potential economic return (using internal rate of return (IRR) and modified internal rate of return) and advise on a project’s return margin. Discuss the relative merits of NPV and IRR
2
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Trang 321 Introduction – investment, financing and dividend decisions
Three of the key decisions facing the financial manager (identified in Chapter 1 above) are:
Investment – what projects should be undertaken by the organisation?
Finance – how should the necessary funds be raised?
Dividends – how much cash should be allocated each year to be paid
as a return to shareholders, and how much should be retained to meet the cash needs of the business?
This chapter and the next two chapters of this Text cover these three key decisions in detail.
However, as well as considering these three areas separately, it is vital that
we understand that the three decisions are very closely interlinked.
Examples of links between these three key decisions
Investment decisions cannot be taken without consideration of where and how the funds are to be raised to finance them. The type of finance available will, in turn, depend to some extent on the nature of the project – its size, duration, risk, capital asset backing, etc.
Dividends represent the payment of returns on the investment back to the shareholders, the level and risk of which will depend upon the project itself, and how it was financed.
Debt finance, for example, can be cheap (particularly where interest is tax deductible) but requires an interest payment to be made out of project earnings, which can increase the risk of the shareholders' dividends.
Throughout this chapter and the next two, it is critical that we continue to consider these interrelationships. Exam questions rarely focus on just a single area of the syllabus, so we must consider such links throughout in order to prepare fully for the exam.
Trang 34Uses of free cash flows
Free cash flows are used frequently in financial management:
• as a basis for evaluating potential investment projects – see below
• as an indicator of company performance – see Chapter 10: Corporate failure and reconstruction.
• to calculate the value of a firm and thus a potential share price – see Chapter 15: Business valuation
Calculating free cash flows for investment appraisal
Free cash flows can be calculated simply as:
Free cash flow = Revenue – Costs – Investments The free cash flows used to evaluate investment projects are therefore essentially the net relevant cash flows you will recall from your earlier studies.
Use of free cash flows in investment appraisal
This chapter covers the following investment appraisal methods, all of which incorporate the use of free cash flows:
As mentioned above the net relevant cash flows associated with the project are the free cash flows it generates. The discounted free cash flows are totalled to provide the NPV of the project.
Trang 35Calculating the free cash flows of a project under inflation
Trang 36• the real method can only be used if all cash flows are inflating at the general rate of inflation
• in questions involving specific inflation rates, taxation or working capital, the money/nominal method is usually more reliable
A company plans to invest $7m in a new product. Net contribution over the next five years is expected to be $4.2m pa in real terms.
Marketing expenditure of $1.4m pa will also be needed.
Expenditure of $1.3m pa will be required to replace existing assets which will now be used on the project but are getting to the end of their useful lives. This expenditure will be incurred at the start of each year.
Additional investment in working capital equivalent to 10% of contribution will need to be in place at the start of each year. Working capital will be released at the end of the project.
The following forecasts are made of the rates of inflation each year for the next five years:
The real cost of capital of the company is 6%.
All cash flows are in real terms. Ignore tax.
Required:
Forecast the free cash flows of the project and determine whether
it is worthwhile using the NPV method.
General prices 4.7%
Illustration: Inflation in investment appraisal
Test your understanding 1 – NPV with inflation revision
Trang 37The impact of taxation
(a) Calculate the writing down allowance and hence the tax
savings for each year if the proceeds on disposal of the asset are $2,500
(b) Identify the free cash flows for the project and calculate its net
present value (NPV)
Revision of Tax Allowable Depreciation
Test your understanding 2 – NPV with taxation revision
Revision of taxation on operating cashflows
Illustration: Taxation in investment appraisal
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Trang 385 The Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
As well as NPV, the other discounting technique used to appraise investment projects, which you should recall from earlier studies, is the calculation of the internal rate of return or the IRR.
• It represents the discount rate at which the NPV of an investment is zero
• It can be found by linear interpolation
• Standard projects (outflow followed by inflows) should be accepted if the IRR is greater than the firm’s cost of capital
(1) Calculate two NPVs for the project at two different costs of capital
(2) Use the following formula to find the IRR:
NLIRR = L + ———— × (H – L)
(NL– NH)
(3) Compare the IRR with the company’s cost of borrowing
Trang 39$500, $600, $600 and $440 at 12 months intervals. There is no scrap
value. Funds are available to finance the project at 12%.
Required:
Decide whether the project is worthwhile, using:
(a) net present value approach
(b) internal rate of return approach
Interpreting the IRR
6 The modified IRR (MIRR)
Problems with using IRR
Trang 40A more useful measure is the modified internal rate of return or MIRR.
This measure has been developed to counter the above problems since it:
It is therefore more popular with nonfinancially minded managers, as a simple rule can be applied:
The interpretation of MIRR
MIRR measures the economic yield of the investment under the assumption that any cash surpluses are reinvested at the firm’s current cost of capital.
Although MIRR, like IRR, cannot replace net present value as the principle evaluation technique it does give a measure of the maximum cost of finance that the firm could sustain and allow the project to remain worthwhile. For this reason it gives a useful insight into the margin of error, or room for negotiation, when considering the financing of particular investment projects.
MIRR = [PVR/PVI]1/n(1+re) –1
where PVR = the present value of the "return phase" of the project PVI = the present value of the "investment phase" of the project More on the problems with IRR