SUBJECTS DEFINITIVE ELEMENTS SENTENCE IS ABOUT NOUNS - PROPER NOUNS NaillI' a ~pecitic persoll, place, or object.. Collective nouns with idcntified parts require a plural verb.. The ver
Trang 1SUBJECTS
DEFINITIVE ELEMENTS SENTENCE IS ABOUT
NOUNS
- PROPER NOUNS
NaillI' a ~pecitic persoll, place, or object They
begill with till IIpper case letter
1 John
2 Mercury
3 California
-COMMON NOUNS
NaillI' a lIoll-~pecitic perSOIl, place, 01' object; tltey
do IIOt begill with all IIpper case letter
l boy
2 pland
3 state
PRONOUNS
Take the positioll tllldfilllctioll (ll/WIIIIS, bllt do IIOt
specifically lIallle
I He fed the cat
2 She fed the ~at
3 It got extremcly fat
4 They wish they had fed it less
NOMINATIVE ELEMENTS
-VERBAL
1 GERUNDS (-ing ti.mll ofthc verb)
a Rea t/illg travel books is my hobby
b Travelillg by train is part of my daily routine
2 INFINITIVES (to, plus the verb)
a To read a travel book brings me pleasure
b To trtll'el by traill can be fun
-NOUN CLAUSES
That 0111' lIeetls a clear goal is strcssed in college
preparatory classes
GENERAL RULES
I All inflected forms must be in subjective case
2 Gender is important with subject pronouns
• Johll is proud of the school he attended
3 Number is important for agreement of subject and
verb
a The wOlI/all was tall
b The WOlllell were tall
c The IIIUlI IIlId the WOlllall were tall
SPECIFIC RULES
I Some pronouns always take singular vcrbs
- each, someone, either, neither, somebody, nobody,
everybody, anyone, nothing
2 Some pronollns always take plural verbs
• both, few, several, many
3 Collective nouns thought of as a single unit are sin
gular Collective nouns with idcntified parts require
a plural verb
a The grall/l is going to the show
b Th e lIIell are going to the show
4 Generally, subjects appear before the verb and may
be separated by modifiers or prepositional phrases
To determine a subject, answer who or what about
the construction being analyzed
a Johll walks
b The traill runs
c Johll, who is late for the train, runs
VERBS (PREDICATES)
WHAT A SUBJECT IS DOING; WHAT IS
BEING DONE TO IT; A STATE OF BEING
THE FIVE PROPERTIES OF VERBS
-PERSON
A verb is in the same person as its subject
I First person: 1aln hopillgj!,r rain
2 Sccond person: You are /wpillg/!}/' rain
He is /wpillgji,,' rain
A plural verb requires a plural
a When two singular subjects are joined by alld, the verb is plural Exception - when two singular sub
jects are connected by and present a single idea, the verb may be singular
b When two singular subjects are connected by or, either or, or IIeither llor, the verb is singular
c When two plural subjects are connected by or, either or, or lIeither //or, the verb is plural
d The verb agrees with the nearer subjecl of a com
pound sentence which has both a singular and a plu
ral word joined by or or IIor
e When the subject and the subjective complement (predicate adjectives, predicate nominatives that fol
low linking verbs and refer to the subject) are differ
ent in number, the verb agrees with the subject
- The books Ihal I received were the most appreciated
2 Every or mallY beforc a word or series of words is fol
lowed by a singular verb
- Every lIIan, WO/lwn, and child was asked to donate
3 When the subject comes after the verb, as in sentences
beginning with here is, there is, and where is, make
sure that the verb agrees with the subject
- There tire three cour.,es olactioll we call lake
-VOICE
I ACTIVE VOICE: Subjcct is acting
- Liffhtnill!: struck the bam
2 PASSIVE VOICE: Subject is acted upon
a The barn wus struck by lightning
b.The passive form always consists of some form of the vcrb be plus the past participle
-MOOD
I Indicative: makes a statement or asks a question
• It is 40 miles to Gaillesville, but we'll get there ill time
2.lmperative: expresses
- Stop! Please sigll the jimll before retllmillg it
3 Subjunctive: equals the past tense in structure and is used after if' and wi.5h when the statement is contrary
to reality
a I wish I were a rich H'oman
h III kllew her nllIllIJeI; I would call hel:
-TENSE
1 Made from the principal parts of verbs
2 Three forms are:
a Present tense or present infinitive: do, give, ring, Ihrow
b Past tense: did, gave rang, Ihrew
c Past participle: done, given, rung thrown
CLASSES & TYPES OF VERBS
I A transitive verb takes an object
- Pu"h this hulloll ilvou wallt a l.ig}11
2 An intransitive verb does not take an object
- The sun shOllI' brightlli
3 A verb can be transitive or intransitive in different sen
tences
4 An auxiliary verb is used before main verbs to form the passive voice, produce certain tenses, ask ques
tions,make negative statements, and express shades of meanll1g
a They have beell studyillg diligent~v
b I do /lIJllike Ihe course
5 A phrasal verb is more than one word long and com
bines one or more auxiliary verbs with a main verb
- 7hell were givell lIIallY opportunities
6 Linking or inactive verbs link the subject with a predicate noun, predicate pronoun, or a predicate adjective and are always intransitive: He looked sad
A linking verb states that one thing is equal to anoth
er and thus requires that the subjective case be used:
This is &
ADJECTIVES & ADJECTIVAL ELEMENTS
USED TO MODIFY NOUNS OR PRONOUNS
1 Prepositional phrases verbal phrases, and adjec tive dependent clauses changc the image made by the noun or nominative element by itself
2 Proper adjectives arc formed from a proper noun
- Frellch, Democrat, etc
3 Demonstrative adjectives answcr the question which one?
-thi.~, tlrat, tlre.,e, those (also called pr(}/wlI/ls)
4 Descriptive adjectives answer the qucstion what kind'!
- big, small, red, etc
5 Quantitative adjectives answer the question how many?
-Oll/!, three, ,ome,jew, several (also called pronouns)
6 Qualitative adjectives answ",r the question how much"
- little, much, cOllsiderable
7 In comparing the quality of nouns, adjectives change
by degrees
a The positive degree covers one itcm: big, good
b Comparative degree cowrs two items: bigger, better
c Superlative degree covers three or more: bigge.~t, hest
8 A predicate adjective follows any linking or state
of being verb: The 111('11 were sick FUIII elltillg the ral-\' (~vsfers
ADVERBS OR ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS
USED TO MODIFY VERBS, ADJECTIVES, OR
OTHER ADVERBS
I Prepositional phrases, verbal phrases, or adver bial dependent clauses add descriptive elements
to a sentence
2 Adverbs answer one or more of these qucstions:
a How'! (by what manner'!) quickly, SIOH'(I',j'ast
b When? (at what time?) IIOW, theil, lIever
c Where" (at what location'!) here, there, dOH'II, lip
d To what extent docs a thing havc some qualit~'"
e To what extent docs the adverb express quantity')
3 Adverbs follow the verb
a John walked slowly
b John walked jaster thall Peter
4 Adverbs modifying adjectives and adverbs precede the word being modified
- John ",alk"d surprisingly slm\'~\'.Ii!/' SOIllI'On/! so loll
5 One-syllabic adverbs arc compared by adding -er or -est
a John wlIlkeel slower Ihall I did
b John wlllkeel slowest o(al/
6 Adverbs of two or more syllables add more or most
a John walks more slowly th<ln I
b I alii most to kilO\\, thaI
-DIRECT OBJECT Noun, pronoun, or nominative clement which rceeil cs
the action cxrressed in the verb
• I haw relit the book
-INDIRECT OBJECT Noun, pronoun, or nominative clement for or to whom or to what the action in the verb was done
• 1 read the c1as,5 th" entire book
-OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION Answers the question whom or what a/i,., the prepo
sition
- John traveled fQ the COUlltry in his ('ar
-OBJECT OF A VERBAL (GERUND, PARTICIPLE, INFINITIVE)
Is a noun, pronoun, or nominative clement
- Knowing nolhillg ahout //laking n(Jodl s, I bOllght some
-PRO,,"OUN AS OBJECTS
l All personal pronouns used as objects must be in the objective case; The call/hI' him and me ("(/1/11' lit 1100/1
2 Who is the subject form; Who S('II/ the/ilx:)
Whom is the object form; 7i, whmn should 1 lend the/ax!
Trang 22 To read Ihese papers wil/take a long tillle
• The infinitive to read is the subject of the sentence
3 She \\"(//Ited to read the huok
- The infinitive to read is the uirect object of the verb
4 She had lIIune),' to \pend
-The infinitive to \pelld modifies 1II0I1e.1'
5 10111 r e mlv to write the papt!!" now
- The infinitive to write I110difies the adjective ,",-,ad\,
6 The infinitive may have its own subject and object
7 The infinitive to be has special rules
a The subject of an infinitive is in the objective casco
b Becausc the linking verb requires the same case
both before and atter it, the noun or pronoun used as
a complement must be in the objective case
-GERUND PHRASE
I The gerund (-ing form of the verb) is used as a noun
2 Walking is a healthy exercise
- The gerund walking is the subject of the verb is
3 Pmper shocs art' nt'ed,," jiJr eomliJrtahle walking
- The gerund walking is the object of the preposition
jiJr
-PARTICIPAL PHRASE
I The participle (present, past, or perfect participle
of the verb) is used as an adjective
2 The girl talking on the phone is MalT
-The participle talking modifies girl
3 The letter signed hI' John was readvliJr thl' l11ail
• The participle siglled modifies the noun letter
4 The report, accllrately written, was approved hI' him
- The participle writtell, plus accurately, describes the
CONNECTORS ,JOINING ELEMENTS -CONJ UNCTIONS
Joining words that link parts ofsentellces,
I Coordinating conjunctions join like parts of words, phrases, and clauses
a Joe alld MWT lI'entlo tl1<' show
b You \\'i!ljiu{(iI in the cupboard or lInder Ihe cOluller
e Jil11 shut the dool; but he did nol lock il
2 Correlative conjunctions join like parts and come in pairs,
a Not TOI/1 bllt his hrother won Ihe tournament
b Neither M"':F nor Jane was impressed hy this
3 Subordinate conjunctions are used to introduce adverbial clauses and link them to the main clause
- Not onlv Tom hilt his hroth", 1I'0n Ihe to/lrnament
because they practicI'd hord
- CONJlJNCTlVE ADVERBS
Used to join maill dallses,
I Conjunctive adverbs arc always preceded by a semi
colon 1;1 and arc always followed by a comma 1,1
2 Examples: Accordingly, consequently, further
more, however, nevertheless, etc,
a She knew her!ad o(studFing would be u detrimel1l:
nevertheless, she took the tesl
b She lI'as siek and tired oj" 01/ this nagging "bolll studring: Iwwe)'('/' sh" didfind this chartuselit!
CoMaills two or II/ore illdepelldellf c1allses IlIId call express more thall olle complete thought,
I Compound sentences arc joined hy coordinating conjunctions (and, 01; nl)l; liJl: '0 l"Ie l hilI) or a semi
colon I ; I when no coordinating conjunction is pres ent
a Sohhie likes l\'(1tching TV hilI she "rel"r, going 10
the 11100'ies
b Bohhie' likes lH1lching n: she <'niol·.1 e.H'n ' ising 011
the tr('(ulmil/ (/l1d she "dorn the sl11el! of" !'II!'!'.\" brallh
2 Note: Using only a comma [,1 betwecn the two or more independent clauses of a compound sentence will result in a comma splice error
Error - Bohhie likes John, she lon's I'i/c({/iOI1.1
Placing no punctuation between independent clauses which do not have a cooruinating conjunction \\ ill result in an error called ~~run-on" or ~~fused.~'
Error SohNe lik e s II1IJ1'ies Johl1 likes l ' ilealiol1.1
-COMPLEX SENTENCE:
Contains {III independent IlIId {I dependellt c1{1l1se
- Adverbial clauses appearing at the beginning of
a complex sentence arc set olT by a comma
{fvoll are goillg to walk be sllre to stay Oil the path,
-COMPOUND/COMPLEX SENTENCE:
Contaills at least two indepelldent c1allses alld at least one dependent c1allse,
• If' you an! going to walk, he sure to stay Oil the! path, won ge{ losl
-BACKGROUND
I Words are composed of sounds or phonemes to
which meaning is attachcd
2 The range of human sounds is codified in the
International Phonetic Alphabet
a Some symbols arc similar to the alphabet: some
appear to be strange squiggles
b One can learn the symbols and approximate a given
sound but variances in stress and pause will not
yield a fluent rendering of a language
3 Sounds in predictable patterns become words
Meaning is attached by users and listencrs of a par
ticular language
-SUFFIX AI\D PREFIX
I Combinations of sounds which appear at the begin
ning and/or end of words to alter mcanings indicate
functions, and to signal particular usc in a construc
tion
2 SulTix -s or -cs are plural when attached to a noun
and singular when attached to a verb
3 -Iy signals an adverb or modifier
4 -er signals comparative degree of adjective
S -cst signals supcrlative degree of adjective
6 -ed frequently signals past tensc of a verb
-MARKER WORDS (ARTICLES)
I A, an, or the are noun markers that precede the noun
2 Auxiliary verbs can, may, he, do, plus a verb will
always mark a verb
conjunctions after, although, as,
3 Subordinate
hecause, if mark a dcpendcnt clause
PHRASES
GROUP OF RELATED WORDS
- PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
I Made up of a preposition plus its object and any mod
ificrs
2 Used as modificrs (adjectives or adverbs)
3 Common Prepositions -abollt, above, according to,
across, after, uxain.\'t, along, UnlOl1g, around, at,
bejiJre, behind, below, belleath, beside, between,
beyond, by, down, during, except, for from, ill, ill
place oj; illside, illto like, lIear, of, oj]; on, Ollt, Ollt
side, over, past, \'ince, through, to, toward, under,
IInti/, up, IIpon, with, within, withollt
Example: For the student tl,,: prepositional "hrase call
he cunli/sing ill a ,\entence
• The prepositional phrascjor the stlldent modifies the
sllhieel phmsl', and second prepositional phrase in a
sentence I110difies the verb
-VERBAL PHRASES
I Verb forI11s not used as verbs
2 Because they are verb forI11s, verbals retain many of
the properties of verbs by taking objects, by having
their own subjects and by being I110dified by adverbs
-INFINITIVE PHRASE
I Infinitive (to + verb), which can be used as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb
GROUP OF RELATED WORDS WHICH CONTAIN
A SUBJECT & A VERB -INDEPENDENT CLAUSES:
I Meet the above qualifications for clauses
2 May be regarded as sentenccs since they make sense
• Sire had not finished tire paper and was sure to gd a low grade
-DEPENDENT CLAUSES
\ Meet the above qualifications for clauses
2 Do not make sense and are regardcd as fragments
- Because she Iwd l10tjinished the popel:
TYPES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES -NOUN CLAUSES
Noun clauses are dependent clauses used like nouns:
1 That she had lIotfinislred tire paper was the ,",-'({son jhr her lOll' grade
(The noun clause thtlt she had 1I0t jinished tire paper
is used as the subject of the sentence.)
2 I knOll' wlrat { wiil do totlay
(The noun clause what { will do today is used as thc
direct object of the verb knolV.)
3 She l\"Ii!1dered alulIIl what she slrollid do lIext
(The noun clause what sire slrould do next is the object
of the preposition ahOIlI.) (Note: I f we were to take out the preposition, then the
sentence becomes: She wOlldered .hat she would do next, The nOUll clause thus becomes the object of the
verb lVlJlldered and the sentence takes on a more url!ent
-ADJECTIVE CLAlJSES Adjective clauses arc used to point out or dcscribc any noun or pronoun in the sentence
I A relative pronoun (who, WIrOIll, whose, "'hich, that)
always introduces an adjectivc clause
2 Adjective clauses may be restrictive or nonrestrictive
3 the car which is parked by the cllrb belongs 10 l11e
(Thc adjective clause, which is parked by the curb,
modifies car in a restrictive way.)
4 lhe em: which is parked by the cllrb beluugs 10 me
(Setting olfthe adjective clause with commas-I,I is non
restrictive and subtly changes the meaning of the sen
tence since, in the first sentence, we are saying that only the car which is parked hy the curh belongs to me In the sccond sentence, we are saying that the car belongs
to me, and, hy the way, it is parked at the curh.) -ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Adverbial clauses arc used as adverbs
I Adverhial clauses are introduced by subordinate con
junctions (after, although, as, as ij; becall.\·e, be/iJre, if;
sillce, so that, that, 1/IIle,~s, Ullfit, whell, where, while)
2 When the adverb clause begins a sentence, it is set off
by a coml11a
3 Because he WllS late, she was angry
(The adverbial clause becallse he was late modifies
the adjective (tUgIT.)
4 She wos IIngr\! because he was late
(This expresses the same idea without requiring thc
the subordinate conjunction docs not
of the sentence.)
Group of related words having a subject (present
or understood) and a verh which express a com
plete thought, KINDS OF SENTENCES -DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
I Makes a statement
2 Today is the day bejiJre the IOllg holiday,
-IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
I Gives a command
2 Please c/ose the door Oil rOllr war out,
-INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE·
I Asks a question
2 Who was that WOII/IIII?
-EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
I Expresses strong feeling
2 Ends with an exclamation point
3 What a be{llltijilimorning!
SENTENCE PATIERNS
- PATTERN I (S +V) Isuhjectl + Ivcrhl
I Thc subject may be conlpound
2 The verb may be compound
3 Johll rail, (Juhn is the subject and ran is the verb.)
4 101111 "/1(/ Peter rail "nd jeil dowlI
- PATTERN 2 (S + V + D,O,) Isubject + verb + direct objectl
I Any of the clements may be compound
2.The verb represents direct or indirect action, active or passive voice
3 101m rail the race, (,fohn is thL' SUbjL'd, Ill/I is the
verb, and rael' is the direct object.)
4 The race 1\'(/.1' rllll h.1" ,/ohll
- PATTERN 3 (S + V + 1,0 + D.O,) Isubject + verh + indirect object + direct ohjectl
I Any of the clements Illay be compound
2 Dad paid the clerk the sales tax, (f)"d is thc subject
I'aid is the verb, clerk is the indirect object and s<lle s
tax is the direct object.)
- PATTERN 4 (S + V + S,C) Isubject + verh + suhjective complementl
I Any of the clements may bc compound
2 The verb must be linkinl! haY\: no adion
3.Jane is my attorney, (Jane is the subject, is
[linking verb1 is the verb, and ({/lomlT is a predicate nominative.)
4 The water is bille, (Willer is the subject is [linking
vcrb] is thc verb, and hi1/(' is a predicate adjective.) SENTENCE FORMS
-SIMPLE SENTENCE (an independent clause): Contains a subject and a verh and expresses only one complete thought,
Either the subject or the vcrb lllay bc compound
I John slept
2 John (/l1d Bohhil' slel'l
-COMPOUND SENTENCE:
Trang 3SEPARATE & ENCLOSE PHRASES
& CLAUSES
WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
AND, BUT, OR, NOR, FOR, SO, YET
-SEPARATE MAIN CLAUSES WITHIN A
SENTENCE
I Mary counsels students, and she volunteers at
the local hospital
2 Iohn planned to invest his tax return, hut he
bought a computer instead
3 Doug will play the game, or he will mow the
lawn
smoke
5 Sandra won't be going with us, for she returned
her application too late
6 The bank lowered its interest rates, so we decid
ed to refinance our mortgage
7 I haven't seen the new house, yet I know how to
get there
-DO NOT USE COMMAS BEFORE CON
.JUNCTIONS THAT LINK PHRASES
OTHER THAN COMPLETE SENTENCES
\ Mary counsels students and del ivers meals to
shut-ins
2 Two inches of snow and a glazing of ice covered
the streets
WITH INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS
-COMMAS SEPARATE ELEMENTS THAT
INTRODUCE AND MODIFY SEN
TENCES
- After looking at several cars, Michael decid
ed on a sporty model
-COMMAS CAN BE OMITTED AFTER
SHORT INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS IF
THERE IS NO RISK OF MISREADING
- After I moved I lost contact with my high school
pals
WITH OTHER ELEMENTS
-DATES
bombed Pearl Harbor
bombed Pearl Harbor
(Notice tlUlt lIIilit{lry d{ltillg does 1I0t require
COIIIIIUlS.)
ebrate my 30th birthday
-ADDRESSES AND PLACE NAMES
- The President of the United States lives at 1600
-NUMBERS
I The city marina cost $8,479,000
2.Jill's dress has over 2,500
(With four-digit IIl1mbers, COIllIll{lS (Ire option
(II.)
3 Martin planted 1500 marigold plants
QUOTATIONS
Commas ordinarily separate a quotation from its
I John F Kennedy said, "Ask not what your
country can do for you; ask what you can do
for your country."
-PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS
John's new car, in my opinion is a lemon
-NOUNS OF DIRECT ADDRESS
- Adam, do you want to plant the palms this afternoon')
- INTERJECTIONS
- Well, that about docs it for today
-DO NOT USEA COMMA WITH IDENTIFYING WORDS THAT INTERRUPT MAIN CLAUSES
IN A QUOTATION
• "Don't speak to me," she sighed "Your words arc 1l1caninglcss."
WITH ADJ ECTIVES
-COORDINATE ADJECTIVES MODIFY NOUNS SEPARATELY
I We felt the salty, humid air near the beach
2 Martha created a thl'ee-tiered, white, flower-cov
ered wedding cake for Jason and Renee
-COORDINATE ADJECTIVES:
can be joined with ulld (salty and humid; three-tiered and white and flower-covered), and their positions can be changed without altering the meaning of the sentence
-CUMULATIVE ADJECTIVES DO NOT REQUIRE A COMMA
I Adam bought two tall palms
2.1 found a shard from an ancient Greek urn
3 Marissa planned an amazingly detailed, truly exotic Halloween costume
this selltellce that jimctioll separately to modify
"costllllle.'?
-ADDING COMMAS TO A STRING OF CUMU
LATIVE ADJECTIVES OR CHANGING THEIR ORDER RESULTS IN AN AWKWARD CON
STRUCTION
I Adam bought two, tall palms
2 Adam bought tall, two palms
APPOSITIVES
-NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS CAN BE OMITTED WITHOUT CHANGING MEANING
I Frank's new aquarium, a marine tank, hosts bril
liant coral and brightly colored fish
2 Awakened by a strange noise, Alan wondered if he remembered to lock the door when he went to bed
("'Marille fUllk" alld ''Awakelled by a "tru/lge /loise"
are 1I0t absoilltely lIecessary to tire meallillg ot the selltences.)
-DO NOT USE COMMAS TO SET OFF RESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS
I The first hOllse on the left is for sale
(The phrase "Oil the left" is essellti{llto the lIIe{lll
illg of the selltellce.)
2 Those people who have already purchased tickets may enter the theater now
("Who h{/l'e (llre{ldy pllrch{lsed tickets" is essell
tial to the me{llliug of the selltellce.)
APPOSITIVES
I The department store offered a suit, a shirt, and a tie for one low price
2 The kitten stalked the ball of yarn hehind the cur
tain, over the television, and under the tahle
3 Marie offered her students a treat if thev would complete their assignment, if they wou"ld clean their desks, and if they would stack their hooks
MIS READINGS & OMISSIONS
- USE COMMAS TO PREVENT MISREADINGS AND TO CLARIFY MEANING IN A SENTENCE
I To Susan, Jason's choice of costumc was unaccept able
2 As soon as we left, Marilvn closed the store
-COMMAS CAN INDlCA'rE AN OMISSION:
• Helcn bought a new television; Mark, a laser printer; and Sarah, a stereo system,
UNNECESSARY COMMAS
-UNNECESSARY COMMAS CAN BE AS CONFUSING AS LEAVING OUT REQUIRED COMMAS
(For illst{lllce, ifyou sepurate (I ,mb;"ct alld verb or all ad;ectil'e alld thl! word it II/odifies ",ith u cOlI/ma your re{lder will have to spelld till/I! fiKurillK 01lT .hich ideas go togetlrer.)
-DO NOT PLACE A COMMA BEFORE A COOR DINATING CONJUNCTION AND A PHRASE
(see "With Coordinate Conjunctions")
NOT A/i",
BUT A/i",
'\'(lrk alld lI'uleh TV liJl" 0 lell' /zolln,
OR Alia sc/zoill SWIIlIej lik",\ lo/illish his hOIll(, ,\'(),.k alld 111i!1I /z(' sp(,lIds {/ 1"11' /zlllln II"(I/ch
(Notice thutill the first eX{llI/ple, the COII/II/{I sep{lrate ' a cOlI/poulld verb rather thall tllY) illdepelldellt c/tlllse,'i.)
-JOIN RELATE)) MAIN CLAUSES WHEN A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION IS NOT
USED
I I will not paint the house; you can't make me
2 Sally built a tree house; she painted it hlue
(Maill dtll/Sf'S joilled with a comll/a cOllstitute a
COllll110 ,\plice V.';"e t1 ';"elllico/OIl or \'epUrtlte tire
clauses ill to two cOlllp/efe "'l'lItellet!s.)
-WORK WITH CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS TO JOIN MAIN CLAUSES
1.1 would like to go to the Illuseum with you; however,
I must visit my dentist instead
2 lim had given 1l1uch thought to his future; therefore,
3 The audience was sparse; in fact, there were only
five people
4.1 want to travel this summcr; accordingly, I will hmc
to save 1l1oney this wintcr
5, Six people saw the bandit Icavinu the store: more
-SEPARATE ITEMS IN SERIES THAT CONTAIN COMMAS
• I packed my suitcase with old, comfortable jeans; rugged, warm sweaters; and new, freshly starched shirts
-DO NOT USE SEMICOLONS TO SEI'ARATE UNPARALLEL ITEMS
))·illds/tield
windshield
This sentence is Illade up "f a dC/lelldelll cl,,"s(, and an independent clause; thereforc, the sentence Jocs not
comma will do
-SEPARATE COORDINATE CLAUSES WHEN THEY ARE JOINED BY TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PIIRASES, SUCH AS:
Trang 4OTHER PUNCTUATION COLONS
I Frank
NOT
oBASIC EXAMPLES
introduced four kinds of fish into his new
aquarium: three angels, six tetras, a pair of Bala
sharks, and a spotted catfish
2 After a few months, Frank encountered a problem
with his new aquarium set-up: Algae growth
3 Tamara suggested a solution: "I keep quite a few
snails in my aquarium They eat the excess algae."
oDO NOT FUNCTION INSIDE A MAIN CLAUSE:
Frallk \/i/\lorit e /ish is: th e allg e l/ish
BUT Frallk : ~favorite.fish is th e angel/i s h
oLINK INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WHEN THE
SECOND MODIFIES THE FIRST
Frank learned a serious lesson about aquarium
maintenance: Do not overfeed fish, as this causes
the water to cloud
(The reader Wllllt.l· all explallatioll of the "importallt
lessoll," which is provided ill the secolld clause.)
oOTHER USES
I Business letter salutation - Dear Mr Brown:
2 Title and subtitle - Dudes: My Story
3 Biblical citation - Genesis 1:1
4 Bibliographic entries - Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co
APOSTROPHES
SHOW POSSESSION
lar and plural nouns, and indefinite pronouns that
do not end in lsi or with an s or a z sound
I My mother's purse held many treasures
(the purse oWlled by my mother)
2 Can anyone's dog enter the Kennel show')
(dog is oWlled by allyolle)
3 The Women's League is very active
(the p,!ssessil'e form of womell, a plural, takes all's)
oADD '''S'' TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE of singu
lar nouns ending in lsi or with an ~ or z sound
I We listened to the stereo in Chris's new car
2 Liz's dress was the sensation of the party
(add only an apostrophe if the extra lsi creates an
awkward pronunciation)
3 The Bible speaks admiringly of Moses' wisdom
o ADD ONLY AN APOSTROPHE to form the pos
sessive of plural nouns ending in lsi or with an .1 ' or
z sound
I The cats' toys were spread around the room
2 The latest car designs were engineered for drivers'
comfort
oTO FORM THE POSSESSIVE OF COMPOUND
NOUNS, add I'sl to only the last word
I My mother-in-Iaw's furniture was imported from
Havana
2 Webster's brother-in-Iaw's office was vandalized
oMAKE ONLY THE LAST NOUN POSSESSIVE to
show joint possession
o James and Susan's dog chased our cat
(tlte dog belollgs to botlt James and Susall)
oMAKE BOTH NOU:'IIS POSSESSIVE to show indi
vidual ownership
oJames' and Susan's cars were both vandalized
°USE AN APOSTROPHE to form certain plurals:
I Phillip's report card had 3 A's and 2 Bs '
°USE AN APOSTROPHE to indicate contractions
oENCLOSE A DIRECT QUOTATION
I Martha whispered quietly, "I'm scared of the dark."
2 "When," she breathed "do we get out of here'?"
3 "What if we get stuck in this place?" she asked
4 "I knew I should have taken up spelunking."
°CAPITALIZE THE FIRST WORD OF A DIRECT QUOTATION
oDO NOT CAPITALIZE THE FIRST WORD in the
second part of an interrupted quotation unless the second part begins a new sentence
olNDIRECT QUOTATIONS DO NOT REQUIRE QUOTATION MARKS
Father said that we should be frugal with our money
ENCLOSE OTHER FORMS OF QUOTED MATERIAL
o The current edition of l i lllitv Fair contains an article
entitled, "Raider of the Los't Art."
(Do Iwt pl/t qllotatioll marks amI/lid titles of yOl/r OWII compositiolls.)
oCHAPTER TITLES
o Susan quoted II'om Chapter Three of Carole Jackson's
C%r Me B e autitill, "The Seasonal Palettes."
oSOi'liG TITLES
o The Commodores' "Three Times a Lady" was the number one hit when I graduated from high school
oMOST POEM TITLES
• T.S Eliot's "The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock"
remains a landmark poem of the 20th century
(Longer poems, sUi:h as Eliot's Waste Land, are underlined or italicized.)
°TELEVISION AND RADIO EPISODE TITLES
o More people saw "Going Home," thc final episode of M.A.s.H., than any other tclevision show 10 date
oSPECIAL PHRASES, WORDS, OR SENTENCES
I The phrase "rule of thumb" has a violent history
2 Marci pronounced "accept" as "except."
3 The inl~1I1l0US represents INDENTED QUOTES oDIRECT QUOTATIONS LONGER THAN FOUR TYPED LINES are set off as block quotations by indenting 10 spaces from the left margin and double
spacing
Example: There are many reasons why a pond
ceo-system fails For instance, indus
trial pollution might disrupt the "nat
ural bio-diversity of the system."
Another problem, due in part to indus
trial pollution, is acid rain, which acidifies the pond system
(llIdellted passages do not require quotatioll marks
1II1Ies ~ tltey appear witfrill tlte text.)
WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION oTHE PERIOD AND COMMA are always placed inside the ending quotation marks
o He said, "Let's go to the beach today."
oTHE QUESTION MARK AND EXCLAMATION POINT are placed within the quotation marks only • when they refer to the quoted material
o Frank asked, "When can I add fish to the tank?"
oBRACKETS: enclose editorial comments inserted within quoted material
• Machiavelli, the political pragmatist argucs that
"princes lor anyoIle in a position of powerl ha\ C accomplished most who paid little hecd to keeping their promises."
oPARENTHESES: enclose supplemental infor mation that is not necessary to the meaning
of the sentence
I There arc three sections to a thoughtfully composed essay: (I) the introduction, (2) the body, and (3) the conclusion
2 Hamid ({wI tlt e Lell\" II/D e sir e (19117) suggests that Shakespeare 's f~1I110US tragedy is about the traditional rite of passage all boys go through as they mature into men
oDASHES: (typed as two hyphens with no space before, between, or after) emphasize certain materi
al within a sentence
I I would suggest 01' should I say, argue that all aspects of the present economy must be changed
2 Three membcrs of the Board uf Rel!cnts eH'n the
education budget
3 Adam's mothcr- a woman of high energy, intelli gence, and wit always hosts the best parties oHYPHENS: join words together and indicate a line break
I The ill-fated ship sank quickly
2 The editor-in-chief checked the final drafi
3 The player-King delivered his lines cxpertly
(Lille-end fryplrellS break accordillg to 1J'lIable s )
oSLASHES: indicate options and unindented lines of poetry
I Please usc your book and/or a calculator
2 Good professors arc truc teacher/scholars
3Many childrcn recogni ze these famous lines:
'''Twas the night before Christmas whcn all through thc house/Not a creature was stirring not even a mouse "
oELLI PSIS points: indicate an omission from a direet quotation
o "Another problem is acid rain "
(Three .~pacedperiod., illdicate all Ollli ISioll with ill a quotatioll Four .~paC/!d periods illdicate all omi.' simI at tire end of a direct qllotatioll.)
papers, long plays, poems, etc
I My sister can recite passages frolll Willdell
2 Newsweek is Illy favorite ncws magazine
3 Daniel bought a copy of the L.A Times
4 Professor Briggs can read Paradise LO.I · t in Italian
(alternately, you can underline titles)
o Newsweek is Illy t~lvorit e news ma g z in~
Layout: Javier Salado
This Qu; clc s fu dy outline is an a n not ate d r eview of t he basic rul e s
of En glis h Gr a mmar & Punctuation U se it du ri n g, and well
I I'm ok'd to enter the restricted zone
2 The '92 hurricane left a wide swath of damage
through the Miami area
3 Strangely enough, we never had the opportunity to
try fish 'n' chips while we were in London
oDO NOT USE AN APOSTROPHE WITH POSSES
SIVE PRONOUNS
opERIODS END MOST SENTENCES IN ENGLISH
o Mary asked us about selling her housc
oPOLITE REQUESTS that do not require a "yes" or
"no" answer should use a period
o Would you please clean your room
°USE A PERIOD WITH MOST ABBREVIATIONS
oJan.=January (acronyms, such as IRS and CARE, do not require periods)
°QUESTION MARKS END DIRECT QUESTIONS
o Is Mary going to sell her house?
°EXCLAMATION POINTS END EMPHATIC STATEMENTS
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