Building construction handbook

Preface viiPart One General Built environment 2 The structure 5 Primary and secondary elements 12 Component parts and functions 15 CPI System of Coding 59 CI/SfB system of coding 60 Part

BA (Hons) FCIOB FIPHE FRSA

AMSTERDAM  BOSTON  HEIDELBERG  LONDON  NEW YORK  OXFORDPARIS  SAN DIEGO  SAN FRANCISCO  SINGAPORE  SYDNEY  TOKYO

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternativelyyou can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier materialNotice

No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons orproperty as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use oroperation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Control Number: 2005938728ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-6822-4

ISBN-10: 0-7506-6822-9

Typeset by Keyword Typesetting Services Ltd

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Cornwall

06 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications

visit our web site at http://books.elsevier.com

Preface vii

Part One General

Built environment 2

The structure 5

Primary and secondary elements 12

Component parts and functions 15

CPI System of Coding 59

CI/SfB system of coding 60

Part Two Site Works

Site survey 63

Site investigations 64

Soil investigation 66

Soil assessment and testing 73

Site layout considerations 80

Site security 83

Site lighting and electrical supply 86

Site office accommodation 90

Levels and angles 111

Part Four Substructure

Foundations – function, materials and sizing 183 Foundation beds 192

Short bored pile foundations 198

Foundation types and selection 200

Ground water control 278

Soil stabilisation and improvement 286

Reclamation of waste land 291

Contaminated sub-soil treatment 292

Part Five Superstructure

Choice of materials 296

Brick and block walls 297

Damp-proof courses and membranes 317 Gas resistant membranes 324

Calculated brickwork 326

Windows, glass and glazing 339

Domestic and industrial doors 361

Crosswall construction 370

Timber frame construction 372

Steel frame construction 374

Reinforced concrete framed structures 386

Roofs – basic forms 434

Pitched and flat roofs 438

Plain tiling 445

Single lap tiling 451

Slating 453

Dormer windows 462

Dry and wet rot 471

Long span roofs 479

Shell roof construction 485

Access for the disabled 540

Part Six Internal Construction and Finishes

Internal elements 545

Internal walls 546

Construction joints 551

Partitions 552

Plasters and plastering 557

Dry lining techniques 559

Wall tiling 563

Domestic floors and finishes 565

Large cast insitu ground floors 571

Concrete floor screeds 573

Timber suspended floors 575

Lateral restraint 578

Timber beam design 581

Reinforced concrete suspended floors 583 Precast concrete floors 588

Raised access floors 591

Cold water installations 671

Hot water installations 673

Services–fire stops and seals 703

Open fireplaces and flues 704

Telephone installations 713

Electronic communications installations 714 Index 715

This book presents the basic concepts of techniques of building construction, mainly by means of drawings illustrating typical construction details, processes and concepts I have chosen this method because it reflects the primary means of communication on site between building designer and building contractor – the construction drawing or detail It must be stressed that the drawings used here represent typical details, chosen to illustrate particular points of building construction or technology; they do not constitute the alpha and omega of any buildings design, detail or process The principles they illustrate must therefore, in reality, be applied to the data of the particular problem or situation encountered This new edition has been revised by Roger Greeno, in line with current building regulations.

Readers who want to pursue to greater depth any of the topics treated here will find many useful sources of information in specialist textbooks, research reports, manufacturer’s literature, codes of practice and similar publications One such subject is building services, which are dealt with here only in so far as they are applicable to domestic dwellings A comparable but much wider treatment of services is given in Building Services Handbook by F Hall and R Greeno, also published by Butterworth-Heinemann.

In conclusion, I hope that this book will not only itself prove useful and helpful

to the reader, but will act as a stimulus to the observation of actual buildings and the study of works in progress In this way the understanding gained here will be continually broadened and deepened by experience.

R.C.

PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION

This new edition enlarges and updates the previous edition It includes numerous revisions, amendments and additions in line with ongoing practice and legislative changes Notwithstanding the progressive changes, traditional techniques are retained in support of established construction methods, as much of today’s construction is related to restoration and repair of our heritage.

Included are features of construction that are designed to economise and manage the use of fuel energy in buildings and limit the effect on atmospheric pollution This incorporates high efficiency heating equipment (see also the companion volume Building Services Handbook), thermal envelope, air-tightness

of structure and reference to carbon emissions Some coverage of human rights issues with regard to the less able is also included, with respect to access into buildings and the use of facilities therein.

Construction is a diverse industry, therefore the book’s content is by no means extensive nor is it intended to be prescriptive, as there are many practical solutions

to achieving design objectives By definition this publication is a Handbook, and as such it provides guidance through simple illustrations and comprehensive text Further reading is encouraged and, where appropriate, subjects are provided with supplementary reference sources.

R.G.

CPI SYSTEM OF CODING

CI/SFB SYSTEM OF CODING

1

Environment = surroundings which can be natural, man-made or a

combination of these

Built Environment = created by man with or without the aid of the

natural environment

Physical considerations

1 Natural contours of land

2 Natural vegetation and trees

3 Size of land and/or proposed building

4 Shape of land and/or proposed building

5 Approach and access roads and footpaths

6 Services available

7 Natural waterways, lakes and ponds

8 Restrictions such as rights of way; tree preservation andancient buildings

9 Climatic conditions created by surrounding properties, land oractivities

10 Proposed future developments

5

7

Shell Roofs ~ these are formed by a structural curved skincovering a given plan shape and area.

9

Substructure ~ can be defined as all structure below thesuperstructure which in general terms is considered to include allstructure below ground level but including the ground floor bed.

11

Superstructure ~ can be defined as all structure abovesubstructure both internally and externally.

Primary Elements ~ basically components of the building carcassabove the substructure excluding secondary elements, finishes, ser-vices and fittings

Secondary Elements ~ completion of the structure includingcompletion around and within openings in primary elements.

13

Finish ~ the final surface which can be self finished as with atrowelled concrete surface or an applied finish such as floor tiles.

15

External Envelope ~ consists of the materials and componentswhich form the external shell or enclosure of a building These may

be load bearing or non-load bearing according to the structuralform of the building

17

A Building or Construction Site can be considered as a temporaryfactory employing the necessary resources to successfully fulfil acontract.

19

Location Drawings ~Site Plans … used to locate site,buildings, define site levels, indicateservices to buildings, identify parts

of site such as roads, footpaths andboundaries and to give setting outdimensions for the site and buildings as

a whole Suitable scale not less than

1 : 2500Floor Plans … used to identify and setout parts of the building such as rooms,corridors, doors, windows, etc., Suitablescale not less than 1 : 100

Elevations … used to show externalappearance of all faces and to identifydoors and windows Suitable scale notless than 1 : 100

Sections … used to provide verticalviews through the building to showmethod of construction Suitable scalenot less than 1 : 50

Component Drawings ~used to identify and supply data forcomponents to be supplied by amanufacturer or for components notcompletely covered by assemblydrawings Suitable scale range 1 : 100

to 1 : 1Assembly Drawings ~used to show how items fit together orare assembled to form elements.Suitable scale range 1 : 20 to 1 : 5

All drawings should be fully annotated,fully dimensioned and cross referenced

Sketch ~ this can be defined as a draft or rough outline of an idea,

it can be a means of depicting a three-dimensional form in atwo-dimensional guise Sketches can be produced free-hand orusing rules and set squares to give basic guide lines

All sketches should be clear, show all the necessary detail andabove all be in the correct proportions

Sketches can be drawn by observing a solid object or they can beproduced from conventional orthographic views but in all casescan usually be successfully drawn by starting with an outline `box'format giving length, width and height proportions and thenbuilding up the sketch within the outline box

21

Isometric Projections ~ a pictorial projection of a solid object on

a plane surface drawn so that all vertical lines remain vertical and

of true scale length, all horizontal lines are drawn at an angle of30ƒ and are of true scale length therefore scale measurementscan be taken on the vertical and 30ƒ lines but cannot be taken onany other inclined line

A similar drawing can be produced using an angle of 45ƒ for allhorizontal lines and is called an Axonometric Projection

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION SHOWING SOUTH AND WEST

ELEVATIONS OF SMALL GARAGE AND WORKSHOP ILLUSTRATED

ON PAGE 22

23

25

BLOCK PLANMin 1:500

SITE PLAN

Min 1:2500

Construction Defects … correct application of materials produced

to the recommendations of British, European and InternationalStandards authorities, in accordance with local buildingregulations, by laws and the rules of building guarantee companies,i.e National House Building Council (NHBC) and Zurich Insurance,should ensure a sound and functional structure However, thesecontrols can be seriously undermined if the human factor of qual-ity workmanship is not fulfilled The following guidance is designed

to promote quality controls:

BS 8000: Workmanship on building sites

Building Regulations, Approved Document to support Regulation 7

… materials and workmanship

No matter how good the materials, the workmanship andsupervision, the unforeseen may still affect a building This maymaterialise several years after construction Some examples ofthese latent defects include: woodworm emerging from untreatedtimber, electrolytic decomposition of dissimilar metalsinadvertently in contact, and chemical decomposition of concrete.Generally, the older a building the more opportunity there is forits components and systems to have deteriorated andmalfunctioned Hence the need for regular inspection andmaintenance The profession of facilities management has evolvedfor this purpose and is represented by the British Institute ofFacilities Management (BIFM)

Property values, repairs and replacements are of sufficientmagnitude for potential purchasers to engage the professionalservices of a building surveyor Surveyors are usually members ofthe Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) The extent ofsurvey can vary, depending on a client's requirements This may be

no more than a market valuation to secure financial backing, to afull structural survey incorporating specialist reports on electricalinstallations, drains, heating systems, etc

Established Procedure … the interested purchaser engages abuilding surveyor.

UK Government Proposals … the seller to provide a propertyinformation pack which includes 'A survey report on the condition

of the property, including requirements for urgent or significantrepairs '

Survey document preliminaries:

* Title and address of property

* Client's name, address and contacts

* Survey date and time

* Property status … freehold, leasehold or commonhold

* Occupancy … occupied or vacant If vacant, source of keys

* Extent of survey, e.g full structural + services reports

* Specialists in attendance, e.g electrician, heating engineer, etc

* Age of property (approx if very dated or no records)

* Disposition of rooms, i.e number of bedrooms, etc

* Floor plans and elevations if available

* Elevation (flooding potential) and orientation (solar effect)

* Estate/garden area and disposition if appropriate

* Means of access … roads, pedestrian only, rights of way

Survey tools and equipment:

* Drawings + estate agent's particulars if available

* Notebook and pencil/pen

* Binoculars and a camera with flash facility

* Tape measure, spirit level and plumb line

* Other useful tools, to include small hammer, torch, screwdriverand manhole lifting irons

* Moisture meter

* Ladders … eaves access and loft access

Estate and garden:

* Location and establishment of boundaries

* Fences, gates and hedges … material, condition and suitability

* Trees … type and height, proximity to building

* Pathways and drives … material and condition

* Outbuildings … garages, sheds, greenhouses, barns, etc

* Proximity of water courses

Roof:

* Tile type, treatment at ridge, hips, verge and valleys

* Age of covering, repairs, replacements, renewals, generalcondition, defects and growths

* Eaves finish, type and condition

* Gutters … material, size, condition, evidence of leakage

* Rainwater downpipes as above

* Chimney … dpcs, flashings, flaunching, pointing, signs ofmovement

* Flat roofs … materials, repairs, abutments, flashings anddrainage

* Pointing of masonry, painting of rendering and cladding

* Air brick location, function and suitability

* Dpc, material and condition, position relative to ground level

* Windows and doors, material, signs of rot or damage, original orreplacement, frame seal

* Settlement … signs of cracking, distortion of window and doorframes … specialist report

Drainage:

A building surveyor may provide a general report on the condition

of the drainage and sanitation installation However, a full testfor leakage and determination of self-cleansing and flow conditions

to include fibre-optic scope examination is undertaken as aspecialist survey

29

Roof space:

* Access to all parts, construction type … traditional or trussed

* Evidence of moisture due to condensation … ventilation ateaves, ridge, etc

* Evidence of water penetration … chimney flashings, abutmentsand valleys

* Insulation … type and quantity

* Party wall in semi-detached and terraced dwellings … suitability

* Soffit, re fire protection (plasterboard?)

* Balustrading … suitability and stability

* Safety … adequate screening, balusters, handrail, pitch angle,open tread, tread wear

Finishes:

* General d
eecor, i.e paint and wallpaper condition … damaged,faded

* Woodwork/joinery … condition, defects, damage, paintwork

* Plaster … ceiling (plasterboard or lath and plaster?) … conditionand stability

* Plaster … walls … render and plaster or plasterboard, damageand quality of finish

* Staining … plumbing leaks (ceiling), moisture penetration (wallopenings), rising damp

* Fittings and ironmongery … adequacy and function, weatherexclusion and security

Supplementary enquiries should determine the extent of additionalbuilding work, particularly since the planning threshold of 1948.Check for planning approvals, permitted development and BuildingRegulation approvals, exemptions and completion certificates

31