The Water Encyclopedia: Hydrologic Data and Internet Resources - Chapter 4 potx

Table 4D.12 USGS Programs Managed by the Water Resources Discipline† Cooperative Water Program — The Cooperative Program, a partnership between the USGS and state and local agencies, pro

CHAPTER 4 Hydrologic Elements Brian Burke

CONTENTS

Section 4A Hydrologic Cycle 4-2 Section 4B Water Resources — United States 4-5 Section 4C World Water Balance 4-7 Section 4D Hydrologic Data 4-11 Section 4E Interception 4-24 Section 4F Infiltration 4-25 Section 4G Runoff 4-28 Section 4H Erosion and Sedimentation 4-39 Section 4I Transpiration 4-61 Section 4J Evaporation 4-63 Section 4K Consumptive Use 4-69 Section 4L Phreatophytes 4-95

4-1

SECTION 4A HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Water v apor

Ocean

Non-porous earth and confining rock

Waterwell

Surfacerunoff

Surfacerunoff

p

ratio

nom

Transpiration

fromt rees

PlantsCrops

Fresh groundwater zoneInfiltration/

percolation

Vaporsco

olto

rm

Clouds&

precipita

tionRain

HailSnow

Sun’s heatcauses evaporation

Evaporation fromp recip

itation

Evap

orationfromo

Salty/Brackish water zone

SepticsystemSoil/Porous earth

Figure 4A.1 The hydrologic cycle (Fromwww.dnr.ohio.gov.)

Table 4A.1 Hydrologic Effects of Urbanization

Transition from Pre-Urban to Early-Urban Stage:

Construction of scattered city-type houses and limited water

and sewage facilities

Increased sedimentation of streams

Construction of septic tanks and sanitary drains Some increase in soil moisture and perhaps a rise in water table

Perhaps some waterlogging of land and contamination of nearbywells or streams from overloaded sanitary drain systemTransition from Early-Urban to Middle-Urban State:

Bulldozing of land for mass housing, some topsoil removed,

farm ponds filled in

Accelerated land erosion and stream sedimentation and aggradation.Increased flood flows Elimination of smallest streams

Mass construction of houses, paving of streets, building of

culverts

Decreased infiltration, resulting in increased flood flows and loweredgroundwater levels Occasional flooding at channel constrictions(culverts) on remaining small streams Occasional overtopping orundermining of banks of artificial channels on small streamsDiscontinued use and abandonment of some shallow wells Rise in water table

Diversion of nearby streams for public water supply Decrease in runoff between points of diversion and disposalUntreated or inadequately treated sewage discharged into

streams or disposal wells

Pollution of stream or wells Death of fish and other aquatic life.Inferior quality of water available for supply and recreation atdownstream populated areas

Transition from Middle-Urban to Late-Urban Stage:

Urbanization of area completed by addition of more houses

and streets and of public, commercial, and industrial

buildings

Reduced infiltration and lowered water table Streets and gutters act

as storm drains, creating higher flood peaks and lower base flow oflocal streams

Larger quantities of untreated waste discharged into local

streams

Increased pollution of streams and concurrent increased loss ofaquatic life Additional degradation of water available todownstream users

Abandonment of remaining shallow wells because of

pollution

Rise in water table

Increase in population requires establishment of new

water-supply and distribution systems, construction of distant

reservoirs diverting water from upstream sources within or

outside basin

Increase in local streamflow if supply is from outside basin

Channels of streams restricted at least in part to artificial

channels and tunnels

Increased flood damage (higher stage for a given flow) Changes inchannel geometry and sediment load Aggradation

Construction of sanitary drainage system and treatment

plant for sewage

Removal of additional water from the area, further reducing infiltrationand recharge of aquifer

Improvement of storm drainage system A definite effect is alleviation or elimination of flooding of basements,

streets, and yards, with consequent reduction in damages,particularly with respect to frequency of flooding

Drilling of deeper, large-capacity industrial wells Lowered water-pressure surface of artesian aquifer; perhaps some

local overdrafts (withdrawal from storage) and land subsidence.Overdraft of aquifer may result in salt-water encroachment incoastal areas and in pollution or contamination by inferior orbrackish waters

Increased use of water for air conditioning Overloading of sewers and other drainage facilities Possibly some

recharge to water table, due to leakage of disposal lines

resources

Note: A selected sequence of changes in land and water use associated with urbanization

Source: U.S Geological Survey

Infiltration

Evaporation Increased pollution Evaporation

Precipitation

Decreased infiltration Water table

Solar energy

Solar energy Runoff

Water tab

le

Increas ed run off

Figure 4A.2 Water cycle before and after urbanization (Fromwww.unce.unr.edu.)

SECTION 4B WATER RESOURCES — UNITED STATES

Table 4B.2 Distribution of Water in the Continental United States

Circulation(!109m3/yr)

ReplacementPeriod(yr)

Liquid water

Groundwater

Source: From Ad Hoc Panel on Hydrology, Scientific Hydrology, Washington, DC: Federal Council for Science and

Technology, 1962

Atmospheric moisture 40,000 bgd

Precipitation 4,200 bgd Evaporation and transpiration from

surface-water bodies, land surface and vegetation 2,800 bgd

Ocean

bgd = billion gallons per day

Evaporation from oceans

Consumptive use

100 bgd

Interface

Water table

Figure 4B.3 Hydrologic cycle showing the gross water budget of the conterminous United States (From U.S Geological Survey, National

Water Summary 1983 — Hydrologic Events and Issues, Water-Supply Paper 2250, 1984.)

Table 4B.3 Some Purposes of Water-Resources Development

Flood control Flood-damage abatement or reduction, protection of

economic development, conservation storage,river regulation, recharging of groundwater, watersupply, development of power, protection of life

Dams, storage reservoirs, levees, floodwalls,channel improvement, floodways, pumpingstations, floodplain zoning, flood forecasting

plants, weed-control and desilting works,distribution systems, drainage facilities,farmland grading

Hydroelectricity Provision of power for economic development and

improved living standards

Dams, reservoirs, penstocks, power plants,transmission lines

improvements, harbor improvementsDomestic and industrial

Watershed management Conservation and improvement of the soil, sediment

abatement, runoff retardation, forests andgrassland improvement, and protection ofwater supply

Soil-conservation practices, forest and rangemanagement practices, headwater-controlstructures, debris-detention dams, smallreservoirs, and farm ponds

Recreational

use of water

Increased well-being and health of the people Reservoirs, facilities for recreational use, works for

pollution control, preservation of scenic andwilderness areas

Fish and wildlife Improvement of habitat for fish and wildlife, reduction

or prevention of fish or wildlife losses associatedwith man’s works, enhancement of sportsopportunities, provision for expansion ofcommercial fishing

Wildlife refuges, fish hatcheries, fish ladders andscreens, reservoir storage, regulation ofstreamflows, stocking of streams and reservoirswith fish, pollution control, and land management

Pollution abatement Protection or improvement of water supplies for

municipal, domestic, industrial and agriculturaluses and for aquatic life and recreation

Treatment facilities, reservoir storage foraugmenting low flows, sewage-collectionsystems, legal control measuresInsect control Public health, protection of recreational values,

protection of forests and crops

Proper design and operation of reservoirs andassociated works, drainage, and exterminationmeasures

protection of public health

Ditches, tile drains, levees, pumping stations, soiltreatment

Sediment control Reduction or control of slit load in streams and

protection of reservoirs

Soil conservation, sound forest practices, properhighway and railroad construction, desiltingworks, channel and revetment works, bankstabilization, special dam construction andreservoir operations

Salinity control Abatement or prevention of salt-water contamination

of agricultural, industrial, and municipalwater supplies

Reservoirs for augmenting low stream-flow, barriers,groundwater recharge, coastal jetties

Source: From Chow, V.T., Water as a World Resource, Water International, 4, 6, 1979 With permission

SECTION 4C WORLD WATER BALANCE

(108 cm or 1.08 m)

or 1.5%

lakes, rivers and streams

Note: figures in brackets indicate the height that the relevant quantites of water would reach if they were placed on the whole non-frozen land area of the

Figure 4C.4 Water availability on earth (From Doxiadis, C.A., Water and Environment International Conference on Water for Peace,

Washington, DC, 1967.)

Table 4C.4 Estimated Global Water Cycle

Source: From National Weather Service Northwest River Forecast Center,www.nwrfc.noaa.gov

Table 4C.5 World Water Balance, by Continent

Excluding Greenland, Canadian archipelago and Antarctica

Source: From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973 With permission Copyright by American Geophysical Union

Table 4C.6 World Water Resources by Region

Region

Total Area

(FAOSTATE,1999) (1)

TotalPopulation(FAOSTAT,2000) (2)

AveragePrecipitation1961–1990

(IPCC) (3)

InternalResources:

(4)

ExternalResources:

Natural

ExternalResources:

Actual

TotalResources:

Natural

TotalResources:

Natural

% of WorldResources

IRWR/inhab

TRWR(actual)/inhab

Table 4C.7 Water Poor Countries

AveragePrecipitation1961–1990(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesSurface(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesGroundwater(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesOverlap(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesTotal (km3/yr)

ExternalResourcesNatural(km3/yr)

ExternalResourcesActual(km3/yr)

TotalResourcesNatural(km3/yr)

TotalResourcesActual(km3/yr)

Source: From Review of World Water Resources by Country,www.fao.org/documents

AveragePrecipitation1961–1990(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesSurface(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesGroundwater(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesOverlap(km3/yr)

InternalResourcesTotal(km3/yr)

ExternalResourcesNatural(km3/yr)

ExternalResourcesActual(km3/yr)

TotalResourcesNatural(km3/yr)

TotalResourcesActual(km3/yr)

IRWR/inhab.(m3/yr)

SECTION 4D HYDROLOGIC DATA

Figure 4D.5 Locations of NASQAN and national hydrologic bench-mark stations in the United States (Fromhttp://water.usgs.gov.)

USGS OfficeSampling

Hydrologic

Mississippi River Basin

Greenup

Dam near

Greenup, KY

lower poolat Greenup locks, 1.1 mi upstreamfrom Grays Branch, 4.7 mi downstream fromLittle Sandy River, 5.0 mi north of Greenup and

at mile 341.5

62,000 sq mi.,approximately

Cannelton

Dam at

Cannelton, IN

Creek, 3.3 mi upstream from Lead Creek, and atmile 720.8 Water-quality samples are collected2.0 mi upstream from discharge station

97,000 sq mi,approximately

station Wabash river at MountCarmel, IL (03377500)

at Highway 60

near

Paducah, KY

Highway 60, 16.3 mi downstream from gaginstation, 2.4 mi east of Paducah, and at mile 5.3

40,330 sq mi.,40,200 sq mi

at gage

Records of daily discharge aretaken from gaging station nearPaducah (03609500) Flowcompletely regulated Barkley-Kentucky Cannal (03438190)diverts water from and to LakeBarkley in the CumberlandRiver Basin

Dam 53 near

Grand Chain,

IL

Gar Creek, 3.0 mi southwest of Grand Chain,18.1 mi downstream from gaging station atMetropolis, and at mile 962.2

203,100 sq mi,approximately

Water discharge obtained fromOhio River at Metropolis, IL(03611500) Flow regulated bymany dams and reservoirs

at Clinton, IA

repair dock, 10.3 miles upstream fromWapsipinicon River, 4.8 mi upstream fromCamanche gage, 5.9 mi downstream from Lockand Dam 13, and at mile 516.6 upstream fromOhio River Water-quality samples collected atFulton-Lyons Bridge, 6.4 mi upstream ofdischarge station

85,600 sq mi.,approximately,

at Fulton-LyonsBridge inClinton

below

Grafton, IL

the Illinois River, 15.3 mi above Lock and Dam

26, 23.0 mi above mouth of Missouri River and atmile 218.6 upstream of the mouth o the OhioRiver Water-quality samples collected 4 midownstream of discharge station

171,300 sq mi.,approximately

near

Culbertson,

MT

Highway 16, 2.5 mi southeast of Culbertson, 10

mi downstream from Big Muddy Creek and atriver mile 1,620.76

06329500 Yellowstone

River near

Sidney, MT

powerplant, 0.2 mi downstream from bridge onState Highway 23, 2.5 mi south of Sidney, 3.0 midownstream from Fox Creek, and at river mile29.2

69,103 sq mi;

Garrison

Dam, ND

Riverdale, 14 mi upstream from Knife River, and

at mile 1,389.9

181,400 sq mi.,approximately

Pierre SD

and Eastern Railroad bridge, 1.3 mi upstreamfrom Bad River, 5.8 mi downstream from OaheDam, and at mile 1066.5 Water-quality samplescollected 0.25 mile below Oahe Dam, about 5.55mile upstream from gaging station Inflowbetween these two locations generally arenegligible

243,500 sq mi.,approximately

Omaha, NE

foot of Douglas Street, 275 ft downstream ofInterstate 480 Highway bridge in Omaha and atmile 615.9 Water-quality samples are collected

at Interstate-80 bridge, 2.0 miles downstream ofgaging station

Flow regulated by upstreammainstem reservoirs US ArmyCorps of Engineers raingageand satellite data collectionplatform at station

Louisville, NE

Nebraska Highway 50, 1 mi north of Louisville,and at mile 16.5

85,370 sq mi.,appoximately,

of which about71,000 sq mi.,contributesdirectly tosurface runoff

Hermann,

MO

abutment of bridge on State Highway 19 atHermann, and at mile 97.9

524,200 sq mi.,approximately

at Thebes, IL

bridge at Thebes, 5.0 mi downstream fromHeadwater Diversion Channel and at mile 43.7above Ohio River

713,200 sq mi.,approximately

Lock and Dam 10.7 mi downstream from MainStreet bridge at Little Rock, and at mile 124.2

158,288 sq mi., ofwhich 22,241

sq mi isprobably non-contributing

Discharge is from station

southwest of St Francisville and at mile 266.0

1,125,300 sq mi

contributing

Discharge is from MississippiRiver at Tarbert Landing, MS,station 07295100

USGS OfficeSampling

Hydrologic

Rio Grande Basin

Paso, TX

Albuquerque,NM

Courchesne Bridge, 5.6 mi upstream from theSanta Fe Street-Juarez Avenue bridge betwen

El Paso, Tx, and Cd Juarez, Chihuahua at mile1,249 and 1.7 mi upstream from the AmericanDam

Terrell-Val Verde Country line, 16.9 mi from Langtry,and 597.2 midownstream from the AmericanDam at El Paso

upstream from confluence with Rio Grande

northwest of Del Rio

Railway Bridge near Laredo, and at mile 352.69(567.48 km)

International Boundary andWater Commission

at Harlingen,

TX map of

lower basin

U.S Highways 83&77, about 18 mi from point ofmain floodway that divides into North Floodwayand Arroyo Colorado

gaging station, 1000 ft downstream from ElJardin pumping plant, 6.8 mi below Internationalbridge between Brownsville and Matamoras,Tamps., Mex And 48.8 miles above the Gulf ofMexico

11 mi south of Cisco, 36 mi downstream fromColorado-Utah state line, 97 mi upstream fromGreen River and 235 mi upstream from San JuanRiver, at mile 1022.3 from Arizona-Sonora

24,100 sq mi.,approximately

09315000 Green River at

Green River,

UT

bridge, 0.9 mi southeast of town of Green River,22.7 mi upstream from San Rafael River, at mile117.6 upstream from mouth

44,850 sq mi ofwhich about4,260 sq mi

(including3,959 sq mi inGreat DivideBasin insouthernWyoming) inoncontributing

Flow regulated by Flaming gorgeReservoir (09234400)

near Bluff, UT

Creek, 1,800 ft upstream from highway bridge,

20 mi southwest of Bluff, at mile 113.5

23,000 sq mi.,approximately

No diversions between station andmouth of river Flow regulated

by Navajo Reservoir, NM(09355100)

at Lees Ferry,

AZ

Marble gorge at lees ferry, just upstream fromParia River, 16 mi downstream of Glen CanyonDam, 28 mi downstream from UT-AZ state line,and 61.5 mi upstream from Little Colorado River

111,800 sq mi.,approximately,including 3,959

sq mi in GreatDivide basin insouthernWyoming,which isnoontributing

Many diversions above LakePowell for irrigation, municipal,and industrial use No diversion

or inflow between Lake Powelland the gage

upstream from Diamond Creek, 138 midownstream from Phantom Ranch, 25 mi north

of Peach Springs, 242 mi downstream from GlenCanyon Dam, and 130 mi upstream from HooverDam

149,316 sq mi.,including 3,959

sq mi in GreatDivide Basin insouthernWyoming nand

697 sq mi onthe ColoradoPlateau

Several unregulated tributariesbelow Glen Canyon Dam

below Hoover

Dam, AZ-NV

Water-quality samples collected at gagingstation 0.3 mi downstream from Hoover Dam

171,700 sq mi.,approximately,included 3,959

sq mi in GreatDivide Basin insouthernWyoming,which is non-contributing

15 mi northeast of Yuma, 90 mi downstreamfrom Palo Verde Dam and 147 mi downstreamfrom Parker Dam Water-quality samplescollected below trash racks at All-AmericanCanal headworks at west end of Imperial Dam

188,500 sq mi.,approximately,including 3,959

sq mi in GreatDivide basin insouthernWyoming,which is non-contributing

Records show flow of ColoradoRiver reaching Imperial Damand are synthesized fromrecords of several otherstations

USGS OfficeSampling

mi east of Andrade 1.1 mi upstream fromMorelos Dam, 1.1 mi downstream fromRockwood Gate, and 6.4 mi downstream fromgaging station on Colorado River below YumaMain Canal wasteway

246,700 sq mi.,approximately,including allclosed basinsentirely withinthe drainageboundary, also3,959 sq mi inGreat dividebasin insouthernWyoming,which is non-contributingColumbia River Basin

at Northport,

WA

Northport, 10.3 mi downstream from gagingstation at boundary, and at mile 735.1

60,200 sq mi.,approximately

Discharge is routed from gagingstation at internationalboundary (12399500)

downstream from Priest Rapids Dam and at mile388.1

96,000 sq mi.,approximately

Discharge determined by routingflows from the gaging stationbelow Priest Rapids Dam(12472800) 6.4 mi upstream

Burbank, WA

Dam

from Ice Harbor Dam, 1.0 miupstream

at

Warrendale,

OR

1.0 mi west of Warrendale, 5.1 mi downstreamfrom Bonneville Dam, and at mile 141.0

240,000 sq mi.,approximately

Stream discharge taken fromColumbia River at the Dalles,

OR (14105700) at river mile188.9

at Portland,

OR

Morrison bridge in Portland, and at mile 12.8

11,100 sq mi.,approximately

Water discharge records obtained

by flow routing procedures usgsta records

3.0 mi northwest of Qunicy, and at mile 53.8

256,900 sq mi.,approximately

Source: Fromhttp://water.usgs.gov

NORTHPORT BEAVER

ARMY

TERMINAL

PORTLAND

VERNITA FERRY BURBANK WARRENDALE

Willamette R

HOOVER

DAM

DIAMOND CREEK

BLUFF

LEES FERRY

IMPERIAL DAM

EL PAGO

PRESIDIO

FALCON DAM

ARROYO COLORADO BROWNSVILLE LAREDO

FOSTER RANCH LANGTRY AMISTAD RES.

MELVILLE ST FRANCISVILLE

ALABAMA TOMBIGBEE

D TERRY DAM

HERMANN THEBES PADUCAH

CANNELTON DAM GREEN LIP DAM

SUSQUEHANNA

EXPLANATIONNASQAN stationNAWQA stationJoint NASQAN/NAWQA stationCooperative stationInactive station

SAINT LAWRENCE

NEW HARMONY LOUISVILLE GRARTON

OMAHA

JORDAN Minnesota

GREENR.

CISCO

CULBERTSON GARRISON DAM

N.I.B

Colum

nia.R

S na

G ra n de

R in

Figure 4D.6 NASQAN stations, 1996–2000 (Fromhttp://water.usgs.gov.)

Table 4D.10 Water Quality Characteristics Are Measured as NASQAN Stations

(Continued)

Table 4D.10 (Continued)

(Continued)

Table 4D.10 (Continued)

Note: ASCII text file containing parameter code definitions for constituents

Analyzed by the USGS National Stream Quality Accounting Network (1996–2000)

File is tab-delimited

The first header contains column names

The second header contains column formats

CodeZConstituent group, defined as follows:

MAJZinstantaneous Q, field parameters, major ions, nutrients, suspended sediment

Total stations 7,426

Other Federalagency programs1,868

Combinedsources779

Federalprogram557

cooperative program4,222Figure 4D.7 Sources of funds for operation of continuous surface-water discharge stations (From U.S Geological Survey Water Data

Program,http://water.usgs.gov.)

Table 4D.11 Hydrologic and Related Data Collection Networks in the United States

Automatic meterological observing stations (full parameter); temperature, dew point, wind, pressure,

National weather service synoptic and basic observation stations (high quality observations for basic

Cooperative station services (observations by lay persons):

River and/or rainfall reporting stations

Automated Hydrologic Observing System (AHOS) — river and rainfall data for flood forecasting

Cooperative station data published

a Data transmitted by telephone

b

Data transmitted by satellite

Source: From National Weather Service, Operations of the National Weather Service, 1985

Table 4D.12 USGS Programs Managed by the Water Resources Discipline

† Cooperative Water Program — The Cooperative Program, a partnership between the USGS and state and local agencies, providesinformation that forms the foundation for many of the Nation’s water resources management and planning activities

† National Streamflow Information Program (NSIP) — The National Streamflow Information Program (NSIP) is a conceptual plandeveloped by the USGS for a new approach to the acquisition and delivery of streamflow information

† National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) — Since 1991, USGS scientists with the NAWQA program have been collectingand analyzing data and information in more than 50 major river basins and aquifers across the Nation The goal is to develop long-termconsistent and comparable information on streams, groundwater, and aquatic ecosystems to support sound management and policydecisions The NAWQA program is designed to answer these questions:

1 What is the condition of our Nation’s streams and groundwater?

2 How are these conditions changing over time?

3 How do natural features and human activities affect these conditions?

† Toxic Substances Hydrology (Toxics) Program — provides unbiased earth science information on the behavior of toxic substances in theNation’s hydrologic environments The information is used to avoid human exposure, to develop effective cleanup strategies, and toprevent further contamination

† Groudwater Resources Program — The Groundwater Resources Program encompasses regional studies of groundwater systems,multidisciplinary studies of critical groundwater issues, access to groundwater data, and research and methods development Theprogram provides unbiased scientific information and many of the tools that are used by Federal, State, and local management andregulatory agencies to make important decisions about the Nation’s groundwater resources

† Hydrologic Research and Development — Hydrologic Research and Development focuses on long-term investigations that integratehydrological, geological, chemical, climatic, and biological information related to water resources issues The program provides theprimary support for the National Research Program (NRP) in the hydrologic sciences and for Water, Energy, and BiogeochemicalBudgets (WEBB) program

† State Water Resoruces Research Institute Program — A matching grant program to support water resources research, education, andinformation transfer at the 54 university based Water Resources Research Institutes This program includes the National Institutes forWater Resources USGS Student Internship Program

† National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) — Focus is on monitoring the water quality of four of the Nation’s largest riversystems — the Mississippi (including the Missouri and Ohio), the Columbia, the Colorado, and the Rio Grande

† Hydrologic Benchmark Network (HBN) — was established in 1963 to provide long-term measurements of streamflow and water quality inareas that are minimally affected by human activities These data were to be used to study time trends and to serve as controls forseparating natural from artificial changes in other streams The network has consisted of as many as 58 drainage basins in 39 State

† National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) — A nationwide network of precipitation monitoringsites The first sites in the network were established in 1978 The network currently consists of approximately 200 sites

† National Research Program (NRP) — conducts basic and problem-oriented hydrologic research in support of the mission of the U.S.Geological Survey (USGS)

† National Water Summary Program — a series of publications designed to increase public understanding of the nature, geographicdistribution, magnitude, and trends of the Nation’s water resources It is often referred to as the USGS “encyclopedia of water”

† National Water-Use Program — examines the withdrawal, use, and return flow of water on local, state, and national levels

† USGS Environmental Affairs Program — provides guidance and information on the National Environmental Policy Act and otherenvironmental issues

† Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) — understands the processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemicalfluxes over a range of temporal and spatial scales and to understand the interactions of these processes, including the effect ofatmospheric and climatic variables

† National Irrigation Water Quality Program — A Department of Interior program to identify and address irrigation-induced water quality andcontamination problems related to Department of Interior water projects in the west

International Programs:

† Cyprus Water Resources Database Development — This project met the USGS goal of supporting U.S foreign policy It was requested

by the U.S Ambassador to Cyprus and coordinated closely through the U.S Department of State It took 5 years of negotiations withsenior Cypriot officials, Embassy staff, U.S Department of State, and selected United Nations offices to design and implement thisproject This project enabled water managers on Cyprus to manage their limited water resources, which will directly contribute toenhancement and protection of the quality of life for Cypriot citizens

† Public Awareness and Water Conservation — The project, which began in 1996, is part of the Middle East Peace Process and is one ofseveral projects sponsored by the Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources The U.S Department of State requested the USGS

to undertake this activity and has provided political guidance throughout the project The project meets the USGS goal of supportingU.S foreign policy and fostering outreach and public awareness activities

(Continued)

Table 4D.12 (Continued)

† Regional Water Data Banks — The Executive Action Team Multilateral Working Group on Water Resoruces, Water Data Banks Projectconsists of a series of specific actions to be taken by the Israelis, Jordanians, and Palestinians that are designed to foster the adoption ofcommon, standardized data collection and storage techniques among the Parties, improve the quality of the water resources datacollected in the region, and to improve communication among the scientific community in the region

† Ukraine Streamflow Project — Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters in terms of human hardship andeconomic loss In Ukraine, two major floods (one in 1998 and one in 2001) have occurred in the Tisa River Basin in the last 5 years Bothfloods caused several fatalities, damaged or destroyed several thousand homes, destroyed bridges and roads, and created severepersonal and economic hardship for the residents of Zakarpattia Oblast in western Ukraine Near real-time streamflow data can be used

to forecast and manage floods and improve public safety

† Groundwater Research Program for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates — Since 1988 the USGS has been partnering withthe National Drilling Company (NDC) of the Abu Dhabi Emirate to collect information on the groundwater resources of the Emirate, toconduct research on the hydrology of the arid environment, to provide training in water resources investigations, and to document theresults of the cooperative work in scientific publications

† Geologic, Hydrologic, and Geochemical Characterization of the Deep Groundwater Aquifer System In the Bengal Delta of Bangladesh —The USGS is currently conducting research on the deeper aquifer system in Bangladesh in areas associated with high levels of arsenic inthe shallow groundwater This work is an integral step in the characterization of the hydrogeolocial framework needed to define thepotential for developing safe and sustainable groundwater sources

† Botswana–Village Flood Watch — The Village Flood Watch project, which was completed in 2002, was designed to help establish anearly-warning system for potential flooding events by adding or upgrading six gauging stations to near real-time capabilities and providingtraining on hydrologic runoff modeling

† Jordan Groundwater Management — The project objective is to enhance current Jordanian technical capacities for hydrogeologic dataand information development, management and analysis; development and use of groundwater management models; and joint designand conduct of outreach workshops and meetings to increase public understanding of the benefits of local efforts in groundwatermanagement and conservation

† Summary of Palestinian Hydrologic Data 2000 — The project provides a critical tool to the USAID Water Resources Program includingseveral investigative, development, and construction projects, in the West Bank and Gaza, designed to comprehensively develop,manage, and protect water resources This activity demonstrates the USGS leadership role in the natural sciences and confirms themission of providing scientific information to manage natural resources to enhance and protect the quality of life

Source: From Water Resources of the United States,http://water.usgs.gov

Table 4D.13 Number of USGS Data-Collection Stations Operated in 1994, by Source of Funds

Types of Stations

FederalProgram

Federal-StateCooperativeProgram

Other FederalAgency Program

Table 4D.14 Increasing Global Data Coverage

Source: From GEMS Water, State of the UNEP GEMS/Water Global Network and Annual Report, United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Monitoring System

(GEMS) Water Programme, 2004,www.gemswater.org

SECTION 4E INTERCEPTION

Table 4E.15 Interception by Trees

Western white pine —

western hemlock

Note: Interception includes stemflow and is expressed as a percentage of annual precipitation

Source: From Compilation of data from various references, Kittredge, Forest Influences, McGraw-Hill, Copyright 1948 With permission

Table 4E.16 Interception by Various Forest Types

Forest Type

Net SnowInterception(%)

With Leaves(%)

WithoutLeaves (%)

With Leaves(%)

WithoutLeaves (%)

With Leaves(%)

WithoutLeaves (%)

SECTION 4F INFILTRATION

Table 4E.17 Interception by Various Crops

During growing season:

Source: U.S Department of Agriculture

Figure 4F.8 Total annual infiltration and soil moisture in the world (in mm) (From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973, Copyright by American

Geophysical Union With permission.)

Table 4F.18 Seepage Rates for Canals

Note: Values are average maximum rates through the wetted area

Source: From Rohwer and Stout, Colo, Agric Exp Sta Bull., 1948 With permission

Table 4F.19 Infiltration Rate and Land Use

7 Small grains, good rotation

Notes: Rank of land uses in order of infiltration rate; first use listed has lowest ratea

One-fourth or less in hay or sod

b More than one-fourth of rotation in hay or sod

Source: U.S Soil Conservation Service

Table 4F.20 Infiltration Model Classification

Source: From USEPA Estimation of Infiltration Rate in the Vadose Zone: Application of Selected Mathematical Models — Volume II,

EPA/600/R-97/128b, 1998

Table 4F.21 Concentrations of Compounds in Highway Runoff Prior to and after Infiltration through the Second Batch of

Medium Formulation Number 9: 90-Percent Sand, 5-Percent Clay, and 5-Percent Mulch

Analyte

Effluent After Infiltration

Influent Prior toInfiltration

Percent change was calculated using the prior-to-infiltration and end-of-experiment values

Source: From Kenneth, C Ames, Emily L., Inkpen, Lonna M., Frans, William R., Bidlake, Technical Report WARD 5122, Wahington State

Department of Transportation

SECTION 4G RUNOFF

COLUMBIA NORTH PACIFIC

GREAT BASIN

LOWER COLORADO

UPPER COLORADO

MISSISSIPPI

GREAT LAKES

OHIO

NORTH ATLANTIC

SOUTH ATLANTIC-GULF TENNESSEE

PUERTO RICO

SOURIS-RED RAINY

ARKANSAS-WHITE-RED

TEXAS-GULF

HAWAII ALASKA

CALIFORNIA

RIO GRANDE

Figure 4G.9 Water resources regions of the United States (From U.S Water Resources Council, 1968.)

Table 4G.22 World-Wide Stable Runoff, by Continent

Stable Runoffa(km2)

Total RiverRunoffb

Total StableRunoff asPresent ofTotal RiverRunoff

OfUndergroundOrigin

Regulated byLakes

Regulated byWater

Excluding flood flows

b Including flood flow

c Including Tasmania, New Guinea, and New Zealand

Source: From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1, 1973

Figure 4G.10 Annual total river runoff in the world (includes groundwater discharge to rivers; in mm) (From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973 Copyright by American Geophysical Union With

Table 4G.23 Runoff in the United States

Flow exceeded in indicated percent of years

b Does not include runoff from Canada

c

Does not include net precipitation on the lakes

d Does not include runoff from upstream regions

e

Does not include runoff from Mexico

f Virgin flow Mean annual natural runoff estimated to be 13.7 bgd

g

Rounded

h Not available

Source: U.S Water Resources Council, 1968

Table 4G.24 Runoff Distribution in the United States

Range in Runoff (Inches per Year) Area (Square Miles) Percent of Total Area Percent of Total Runoff

Table 4G.25 Seasonal Variation of Natural Runoff by Regions of the United States

September

Source: U.S Water Resources Council, 1968

0 − 1

1 − 5

5 − 20

20 − 40 Over 40

Figure 4G.11 Average annual runoff in the United States (From U.S Water Resources Council 1968, The Nation’s Water Resources.)

Table 4G.26 Runoff for National Forest and Non-National Forest Areas in Selected Western Drainage Basins

Drainage Basin or Area

Area

Average Annual Water Production

Whole Area(Inches)

Northwest Washington (State less

Columbia)

Southern California Coast (Los

Angeles watershed to Mexican

border)

Source: U.S Geological Survey

Pacific

YUKON TERRITORY

BRITISH 1

2

5

6 7

10 8 ASK 11

12

13

14 15 16

17

21 22 23 24 25

25 18

N O R

THW

E S T

N

E W

F O NDL N D

Gulf of Mexico

Scale

200 0 200 kilometres INQUIRY ON FEDERAL WATER POLICY Prepared by Drafting Division, ECS

400 600

Ocean basin region

146 170 190 107 363 298 689 694 950 319 146 116 403 37 114 376

1 300

2 025 26

Area in 000s km 2

Population in 000s 1981

616

1 722 189 161 23 286

1 084

1 282

1 300 77 224 68 5 157 109

7 579

1 270

5 193 653 393

1 314 568

43 13 14

Figure 4G.12 Drainage regions of Canada (From Pearse, P.H., Currents of change, Final Report Inquiry on Federal Water Policy,

Ottawa, Canada, 1985.)

Combined sewer system

Sanitary wastewater

Separate sanitary sewer system

Separate storm sewer system

Sanitary wastewater

wastewater treatment plant

Fully treated effluent sewer overflowCombined

Nonpoint source pollution

Storm drain Snowmelt

Storm water Storm drain

Storm drain

point source

Storm water

Storm drain

Storm drain

Sanitary sewage/wastewater

Storm water runoff with potential contaminants

Figure 4G.13 Urban runoff flows in different types of sewer systems (From www.gao.gov GAO water quality — better data and

evaluation of urban runoff programs needed to assess effectiveness — report to Congressional requesters, U.S GeneralAccounting Office.)

Table 4G.27 Projections of Average Water Availability in the United Statesa

Note: Values in billion gallons per day; for regions, seeFigure 4G.9

a Nature runoff adjusted for imports and upstream runoff where appropriate, values rounded

b Includes net precipitation of U.S portion of Great Lakes

c

Includes import from Great Lakes Region

d Includes net upstream runoff and imports

e

Includes import from Missouri Region

f Includes imports from Upper Colorado Region

g

Includes import from Arkansas-White–Red Region

h Includes imports from Upper Colorado Region and Mexican Treaty deliveries

i

Virgin flow at Lee Ferry Compact point

j Includes net upstream runoff

k

Includes imports from Upper Colorado Region and nature runoff from California Region

l

Includes natural runoff from Canada

mIncludes imports from Lower Colorado Region

Source: U.S Water Resources Council, 1968

Table 4G.28 Values of Runoff Coefficient in the Rational Formula

Note: Formula is applicable to drainage areas less than about 5000 acres and has the form QZCiA where Q is peak discharge in cfs, C is

a dimensionless runoff coefficient, i is rainfall intensity for the time of concentration in inches per hour, and A is drainage area inacres

Source: Amer Soc Civil Engrs

Table 4G.29 Watershed Characteristics for Determining Runoff Coefficient in the Rational Formula

Designation of

Watershed

Characteristics

Runoff-Producing Characteristics

with average slopesgenerally above 30%

(30) Hilly, with averageslopes of 10–30%

(20) Rolling, with averageslopes of 5–10%

(10) Relatively flat land, withaverage slopes of 0–5%

Soil infiltration (20) No effective soil cover,

either rock or thin soilmantle of negligibleinfiltration capacity

(15) Slow to take up water;

clay or other soil of lowinfiltration capacity, such

as heavy gumbo

(10) Normal; deep loamwith infiltration aboutequal to that of typicalprairie soil

(5) High; deep sand or othersoil that takes up waterreadily and rapidly

Vegetal cover (20) No effective plant

cover; bare or verysparse cover

(15) Poor to fair; cultivated crops or poornatural cover; less than10% of drainage areaunder good cover

clean-(10) Fair to good; about50% of drainage area ingood grassland,woodland, or equivalentcover; not more than50% of area in clean-cultivated crops

(5) Good to excellent; about90% of drainage area ingood grassland,woodland, or equivalentcover

Surface storage (20) Negligible; surface

depressions few andshallow; drainage-wayssteep and small; noponds or marshes

(15) Low; well-definedsystem of smalldrainage-ways; no ponds

or marshes

(10) Normal; considerablesurface-depressionstorage; drainagesystem similar to that oftypical prairie lands;

lakes, ponds andmarshes less than 2% ofdrainage area

(5) High; pression storage high;drainage system notsharply defined; largeflood-plain storage or alarge number of lakes,ponds, or marshes

surface-de-Note: For each watershed characteristic in left column select appropriate descriptive box; add four numerical values given in parentheses

to obtain runoff coefficient as a percentage

Source: U.S Soil Conservation Service

Table 4G.30 Time of Concentration of a Watershed

Table 4G.31 Total Impervious Area for Specific Land-Use Categories

Land-Use Category

Typical Values of Total Impervious Area (Precent)

Single-family residential — Single-family dwellings predominate

b Multifamily residential — Multiple-family units predominate These include duplexes, apartment buildings, andcondominiums

c Commercial — Zone consisting of various types of business

d Industrial — Manufacturing complexes, railroad yards, and large utilities

e

Public facilities — School, hospitals, churches, airports, and other public buildings

f Parks and undeveloped land-parks, forests, and open undeveloped land

Source: From Conger, D.H., Estimating magnitude and frequency of floods for wisconsin urban streams, U.S Geological

Survey Water-Resources investigations Report 86-4005, 1986

SECTION 4H EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION

Table 4H.32 Drainage Area, Water and Suspended Sediment Discharges for Major Rivers of the World

River

Drainage Area(!106km2)

WaterDischarge(km3yr)

Sediment Discharge Millions of Tons per YearStrakhov (1961) and

Lisitzin (1972) Holeman (1968)

Milliman andMeade (1983)North America

Table 4H.32 (Continued)

River

Drainage Area(!106km2)

WaterDischarge(km3yr)

Sediment Discharge Millions of Tons per YearStrakhov (1961) and

Lisitzin (1972) Holeman (1968)

Milliman andMeade (1983)

Table 4H.33 Losses of Land by Riverbank Erosion in the United States

Note: Estimated average annual losses as of 1966; for regions seeFigure 4G.9

Source: U.S Water Resources Council, 1968