Marine Geology Phần 10 potx

landslide a rapid downhill movement of earth materials triggered by quakes and severe weatherearth-Langmuir circulation near-surface alternating vortices aligned wind, generated by the i

landslide a rapid downhill movement of earth materials triggered by quakes and severe weather

earth-Langmuir circulation near-surface alternating vortices aligned wind, generated by the interaction of waves and mean shear currents

down-Laurasia (lure-AY-zha) a northern supercontinent of Paleozoic time, sisting of North America, Europe, and Asia

con-Laurentia (lure-IN-tia) an ancient North American continent

lava molten magma that flows out onto the surface

limestone a sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate that issecreted from seawater by invertebrates and whose skeletons composethe bulk of deposits

lithosphere (LI-tha-sfir) the rocky outer layer of the mantle that includesthe terrestrial and oceanic crusts; the lithosphere circulates betweenEarth’s surface and mantle by convection currents

lithospheric plate a segment of the lithosphere, the upper-layer plate of themantle, involved in the interaction of other plates in tectonic activity

lysocline the ocean depth below which the rate of dissolution just exceedsthe rate of deposition of the dead shells of calcareous organisms

magma a molten rock material generated within Earth and that is the stituent of igneous rocks

con-magnetic field reversal a reversal of the north-south polarity of Earth’smagnetic poles

magnetometer a devise used to measure the intensity and direction of themagnetic field

manganese nodule a cobble-shaped ore on the deep-sea floor, which isrich in manganese and iron

mantle the part of a planet below the crust and above the core, composed

of dense rocks that might be in convective flow

massive sulfides sulfide metals deposited from hydrothermal solutions

megaplume a large volume of mineral-rich warm water above an oceanicrift

Mesozoic (MEH-zeh-ZOE-ik) literally the period of middle life, referring

to a period between 250 and 65 million years ago

metamorphism (me-teh-MORE-fi-zem) recrystallization of previousigneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks created under extremetemperatures and pressures without melting

meteorite a metallic or stony celestial body that enters Earth’s atmosphereand impacts onto the surface

microplate a small block of ocean crust surrounded by major plates

Mid-Atlantic Ridge the seafloor-spreading ridge that marks the sional edge of the North and South American plates to the west and theEurasian and African plates to the east

exten-midocean ridge a submarine ridge along a divergent plate boundary

where a new ocean floor is created by the upwelling of mantle material

Mohorovicic discontinuity/Moho (MOE-HOE) the boundary between

the crust and mantle discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic

mollusk (MAH-lusc) a large group of invertebrates, including snails, clams,

squids, and extinct ammonites, characterized by an internal and external

shell surrounding the body

natural selection the process by which evolution selects species for survival

or extinction depending on the environment

nontransform fault small offsets with overlapping ridge tips at faults that

offset the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

nuée ardente (NU-ay ARE-don) an avalanche of glowing clouds of ash

and pyroclastics

olivine (AH-leh-vene) a green, iron-magnesium silicate common in

intru-sive and volcanic rocks

ophiolite (oh-FI-ah-lite) oceanic crust thrust upon continents by plate

tec-tonics

ore body the accumulation of metal-bearing ores where the hot

hydrothermal water moving upward toward the surface mixes with cold

sea water penetrating downward

orogeny (oh-RAH-ja-nee) an episode of mountain building by tectonic

activity

outgassing the loss of gas from within a planet as opposed to degassing, the

loss of gas from meteorites

overthrust a thrust fault in which one segment of crust overrides another

segment for a great distance

oxidation the chemical combination of oxygen with other elements

pahoehoe (pah-HOE-ay-hoe-ay) a Hawaiian term for ropy basalt lava

paleomagnetism the study of Earth’s magnetic field, including the

posi-tion and polarity of the poles in the past

paleontology (pay-lee-on-TAH-logy) the study of ancient life-forms,

based on the fossil record of plants and animals

Paleozoic (PAY-lee-eh-ZOE-ic) the period of ancient life, between 540

and 250 million years ago

Pangaea (pan-GEE-a) a Paleozoic supercontinent that included all the

lands of the Earth

Panthalassa (pan-THE-lass-ah) the global ocean that surrounded Pangaea

peridotite the most common ultramafic rock type in Earth’s mantle

period a division of geologic time longer than an epoch and included in an

era

photosynthesis the process by which plants form carbohydrates from

car-bon dioxide, water, and sunlight

phytoplankton marine or freshwater microscopic, single-celled, freelydrifting plant life

pillow lava lava extruded on the ocean floor giving rise to tabular shapes

plate tectonics the theory that accounts for the major features of theEarth’s surface in terms of the interaction of lithospheric plates

polarity a condition in which a substance exhibits opposite properties such

as electric charges or magnetic fields

precipitation products of condensation that fall from clouds as rain, snow,hail, or drizzle; also the deposition of rocks from seawater

primary producer the lowest member of a food chain

radiogenic pertaining to something produced by radioactive decay, such asheat

radiolarian a microorganism with shells made of silica comprising a largecomponent of siliceous sediments

radiometric dating determining the age of an object by radiometricallyand chemically analyzing its stable and unstable radioactive elements

reef the biological community that lives at the edge of an island or nent; the shells from dead organisms form a limestone deposit

conti-regression a fall in sea level, exposing continental shelves to erosion

rhyolite (RYE-eh-lite) a potassium-feldspar–rich volcanic rock equivalent

Cam-seafloor spreading a theory that the ocean floor is created by the separation

of lithospheric plates along midocean ridges, with new oceanic crustformed from mantle material that rises from the mantle to fill the rift

seamount a submarine volcano that never reaches the surface of the sea

seawall a structure built to protect against shore erosion

seaward bulge the elevated seaward bulge produced by the bending of thesubducting plate

sedimentation the deposition of sediments

seiche the oscillation of water in a bay

seismic (SIZE-mik) pertaining to earthquake energy or other violentground vibrations

seismic sea wave an ocean wave generated by an undersea earthquake orvolcano; also called tsunami

shield areas of the exposed Precambrian nucleus of a continent

shield volcano a broad, low-lying volcanic cone built up by lava flows of

low viscosity

sonar an instrument for measuring the ocean floor with sound waves

sounding the measurement of water depth with weighted lines

spherules small, spherical, glassy grains found on certain types of

mete-orites, on lunar soils, and at large meteorite impact sites

storm surge an abnormal rise of the water level along a shore as a result of

wind flow in a storm

stratification a pattern of layering in sedimentary rocks, lava flows, water,

or materials of different composition or density

striae (STRY-aye) scratches on bedrock made by rocks embedded in a

moving glacier

stromatolite (stro-MAT-eh-lite) a calcareous structure built by successive

layers of bacteria or algae and that has existed for the past 3.5 billion years

subduction zone a region where an oceanic plate dives below a

conti-nental plate into the mantle; ocean trenches are the surface expression of

a subduction zone

submarine canyon a deep gorge residing underwater and formed by the

underwater extensions of rivers

subsidence the compaction of sediments due to the removal of fluids

surge glacier a continental glacier heading toward the sea at a high rate of

advance during certain times

symbiosis the union of two dissimilar organisms for mutual benefit

tectonic activity the formation of Earth’s crust by large-scale movements

throughout geologic time

tectonics (tek-TAH-niks) the history of Earth’s larger features (rock

for-mations and plates) and the forces and movements that produce them;

see plate tectonics

tephra (TE-fra) solid material ejected into the air by a volcanic eruption

Tethys Sea (TEH-this) the hypothetical, midlatitude region of the oceans

separating the northern and southern continents of Laurasia and

Gond-wana several hundred million years ago

thermal the amount of heat conducted per unit of time through any cross

section of a substance, dependent on the temperature gradient at that

section and the area of the section

thermocline the boundary between cold and warm layers of the ocean

tidal friction the loss of energy through heating caused by the movements

associated with the tides

tide a bulge in the ocean produced by the Sun’s and Moon’s gravitational

forces on the Earth’s oceans; the rotation of the Earth beneath this bulge

causes the rising and lowering of the sea level

transform fault a fracture in Earth’s crust along which lateral movementoccurs; a common feature of the midocean ridges created in the line ofseafloor spreading

transgression a rise in sea level that causes flooding of the shallow edges ofcontinental margins

traps a series of massive lava flows that resembles a staircase

trench a depression on the ocean floor caused by plate subduction

tsunami (sue-NAH-me) a seismic sea wave produce by an undersea ornearshore earthquake or volcanic eruption

tubeworm a retractable wormlike animal living within a long stalk nearhydrothermal vents

turbidite a slurry of mud that periodically slides down often gentle slopestoward the deep-sea floor

typhoon a severe tropical storm in the Western Pacific similar to a cane

hurri-upwelling the upward convection of water currents

volcanism any type of volcanic activity

volcano a fissure or vent in the crust through which molten rock rises tothe surface to form a mountain

white smoker a hydrothermal vent on the deep-sea floor similar to a blacksmoker but that produces a white effluent

THE BLUE PLANET

Allegre, Claud J and Stephen H Snider.“The Evolution of the Earth.”

Scien-tific American 271 (October 1994): 66–75.

Dalziel, Ian W D “Earth Before Pangaea.” Scientific American 272 ( January

Knauth, Paul “Ancient Sea Water.” Nature 362 (March 25, 1993) 290–291.

Knoll, Andrew H “End of the Proterozoic Eon.” Scientific American 265

(October 1991): 64–73

Moores, Eldridge “The Story of Earth.” Earth 6 (December 1996): 30–33.

Motani, Ryosuke “Rulers of the Jurassic Seas.” Scientific American 283

Weiss, Peter “Land Before Time.” Earth 8 (February 1998): 29–33.

York, Derek “The Earliest History of the Earth.” Scientific American 268 (

Jan-uary 1993): 90–96

Zimmer, Carl “Ancient Continent Opens Window on the Early Earth.”

Sci-ence 286 (December 17, 1999): 2254–256.

MARINE EXPLORATION

Broad, William J “Life Springs Up in Ocean’s Volcanic Vents, Deep Divers

Find.” The New York Times (October 19, 1993): C4.

DiChristina, Mariette “Science at Sea.” Popular Science 251 (August 1997):

82–83

Hoffman, Kenneth A “Ancient Magnetic Reversals: Clues to the

Geody-namo.” Scientific American 258 (May 1988): 76–83.

Kerr, Richard A “Coming up Short in Crustal Quest.” Science 254

tific American 276 ( June 1997): 82–87.

Weisburd, Stefi “Sea-Surface Shape by Satellite.” Science News 129 ( January

THE DYNAMIC SEAFLOOR

Berner, Robert A and Antonio, C Lasaga “Modeling the Geochemical

Car-bon Cycle.” Scientific American 260 (March 1989): 74–81.

Cann, Joe and Cherry Walker “Breaking New Ground on the Ocean Floor.”

New Scientist 139 (October 30, 1993): 24–29.

Cathles, Flanagan, Ruth “Sea Change.” Earth 8 (February 1998): 42–47.

Gordon, Richard G and Seth Stein “Global Tectonics and Space Geodesy.”

Science 256 (April 17, 1992): 333–341.

Green, D H., S M Eggins, and G.Yaxley “The Other Carbon Cycle.” Nature

RIDGES AND TRENCHES

Appenzeller, Tim “How Vanished Oceans Drop an Anchor.” Science 270

Sullivan,Walter “Earth’s Crust Sinks Deep, Only to Rise in Plumes of Lava.”

The New York Times ( June 15, 1993): C1 & C8.

Wickelgren, Ingrid “Simmering Planet.” Discover 11 ( July 1990): 73–75.

Zimmer, Carl “The Ocean Within.” Discover 15 (October 1994): 20–21.

Dvorak, John J., Carl Johnson, and Robert I Tilling “Dynamics of Kilauea

Volcano.” Scientific American 267 (August 1992): 46–53.

Kerr, Richard A.“Did Pinatubo Send Climate-Warming Gases into a Dither?”

Science 263 (March 18, 1994): 1562.

Lewis, G Brad “Island of Fire.” Earth 4 (October 1995): 32–33.

Monastersky, Richard “Garden of Volcanoes in the Pacific.” Science News 143

( June 5, 1993): 367

Oliwenstein, Lori “Lava and Ice” Discover 13 (October 1992): 18.

Rank, David “Seeing Spots.” Earth 7 (February 1998): 18–19.

Richardson, Randall M “Bermuda Stretches a Point.” Nature 350 (April 25,

1991): 655

Vink, Gregory E., W Jason Morgan, and Peter R Vogt “The Earth’s Hot

Spots.” Scientific American 252 (April 1985): 50–57.

White, Robert S and Dan P McKenzie “Volcanism at Rifts.” Scientific

Folger,Tim “Waves of Destruction.” Discover 15 (May 1994): 68–73.

Garrett, Chris “A Stirring Tale of Mixing.” Nature 364 (August 19, 1993):

670–671

Gonzalez, Frank I “Tsunami!” Scientific American 280 (May 1999): 56–65.

Kerr, Richard A “Big El Niños Ride the Back of Slower Climate Change.”

Lockridge, Patricia A “Volcanoes and Tsunamis.” Earth Science 42 (Spring

1989): 24–25

Monastersky, Richard.“Getting the Drift of Ocean Circulation.” Science News

144 (August 21, 1993): 117

Pendick, Daniel “Waves of Destruction.” Earth 6 (February 1997): 27–29.

Zimmer, Carl “The North Atlantic Cycle.” Discover 16 ( January 1995): 77.

COASTAL GEOLOGY

Friedman, Gerald M.“Slides and Slumps.” Earth Science 41 (Fall 1988): 21–23.

Holloway, Marguerite.“Soiled Shores.” Scientific American 265 (October 1991):

103–116

Horgan, John “The Big Thaw.” Scientific American 274 (November 1995):

18–20

——— “Antarctic Meltdown.” Scientific American 268 (March 1993): 19–28.

Maslin, Mark “Waiting for the Polar Meltdown.” New Scientist 139

(Septem-ber 4, 1993): 36–41

Monastersky, Richard.“Against the Tide.” Science News 156 ( July 24, 1999): 63.

Noris, Robert M “Sea Cliff Erosion: A Major Dilemma.” Geotimes 35

(November 1990): 16–17

Parfit, Michael “Polar Meltdown.” Discover 10 (September 1989): 39–47.

Peltier, W R “Global Sea Level and Earth Rotation.” Science 240 (May 13,

Davis, Ged R “Energy for Planet Earth.” Scientific American 263 (September

1990): 55–62

Fulkerson,William, Roddie R Judkins, and Manoj K Sanghvi “Energy from

Fossil Fuels.” Scientific American 263 (September 1990): 129–135 Hapgood, Fred “The Quest for Oil.” National Geographic 176 (August 1989):

RARE SEAFLOOR FORMATIONS

Alvarez,Walter and Frank Asaro “An Extraterrestrial Impact.” Scientific

Ameri-can 263 (October 1990): 78–84.

Broad, William J “A Voyage Into the Abyss: Gloom, Gold, and Godzilla.” The

New York Times (November 2, 1993): C1 & C12.

Fischman, Josh “In Search of the Elusive Megaplume.” Discover 20 (March