Programming Linux Games phần 4 pdf

Computer sound processing is as much of a science as computer graphics, butthe basics of format conversion, mixing, and playback are fairly straightforward.This section discusses the bas

printf("Press ’Q’ to quit.\n");

/* Start the event loop Keep reading events until there

is an error, or the user presses a mouse button */

while (SDL_WaitEvent(&event) != 0) {

SDL_keysym keysym;

/* SDL_WaitEvent has filled in our event structure

with the next event We check its type field to find out what happened */

/* Report the left shift modifier */

if (event.key.keysym.mod & KMOD_LSHIFT) printf("Left Shift is down.\n");

else printf("Left Shift is up.\n");

/* Did the user press Q? */

if (keysym.sym == SDLK_q) { printf("’Q’ pressed, exiting.\n");

exit(0);

} break;

Function SDL EnableKeyRepeat(delay, rate)

Synopsis Enables key repeating This is usually disabled for

games, but it has its uses and is almost alwaysenabled for normal typing

Parameters delay—Milliseconds to wait after a key is initially

pressed before repeating its event A delay of 0disables key repeating A typical value is somewhere

keyboard’s state array, or the array’s data will not be valid

Function SDL GetKeyState(numkeys)

Synopsis Retrieves a snapshot of the entire keyboard as an

array Each entry in the array corresponds to one ofthe SDLK name constants, where 1 means that thecorresponding key is currently down and 0 means thatthe key is currently up This array pointer will neverchange during the course of a program; it’s one ofSDL’s internal data structures Be sure to callSDL PumpEvents periodically, or the keyboard statedata will never change

Returns Pointer to SDL’s keyboard state array Stores the size

of the array in numkeys

Parameters numkeys—Pointer to an integer to receive the size of

the key array Most programs don’t care about thisand just pass NULL

Processing Joystick Events

SDL provides a complete interface for joystick management A modern game can

no longer assume that the player will use a traditional two-button, two-axisjoystick; many joysticks are equipped with programmable buttons, hat switches,trackballs, and throttles In addition, some serious gamers like to use more thanone joystick at once Aside from physical limitations (such as the number of ports

on a computer or the availability of low-level support from the kernel), SDL canmanage any number of joysticks with any number of additional buttons, hats,and trackballs If the Linux kernel recognizes a device as a joystick, so will SDL.Joystick axes (directional controls) produce simple linear values indicating theirpositions SDL reports these on a scale from −32, 768 to 32, 767 For instance,the leftmost position of a joystick would produce a value of−32, 768 on axis 0,and the rightmost position would produce 32, 767 SDL provides the

SDL JOYAXISMOTION event type for joystick motion

Hat switches (small directional controls on top of a joystick) are sometimesrepresented as additional axes, but they are more frequently reported with aseparate SDL JOYHATMOTION event type Hat positions are reported with respect

to the four compass directions and the four diagonals These positions arenumbered clockwise, starting with 1 as North The center position is 0.3

WarningBefore you assume that your joystick code isn’t working, try running

the test programs included with the Linux kernel’s joystick driver If

the kernel doesn’t know how to deal with your joystick, SDL won’t

either, and your code will not work.

The SDL joystick event interface works as you might expect: it generates anevent each time the value of a joystick axis or button changes It also includesfunctions for polling the state of a joystick directly The SDL joystick interface isfairly simple, so we won’t spend much more time on it

Code Listing 4–10 (joystick-events-sdl.c)

/* Example of simple joystick input with SDL */

int num_js, i, quit_flag;

/* Initialize SDL’s joystick and video subsystems */

/* Print out information about each joystick */

for (i = 0; i < num_js; i++) {

/* Open the joystick */

SDL_JoystickClose(js);

}

}

/* We’ll use the first joystick for the demonstration */

quit_flag = 1;

} break;

/* This event is generated when an axis on an open joystick is moved Most joysticks have two axes,

X and Y (which will be reported as axes 0 and 1) */ case SDL_JOYAXISMOTION:

printf("Joystick %i, axis %i movement to %i\n",

event.jaxis.which, event.jaxis.axis, event.jaxis.value);

break;

/* The SDL_JOYBUTTONUP and SDL_JOYBUTTONDOWN events are generated when the state of a joystick button changes */

on multiprocessor systems, since each thread can run on a separate processor(this is up to the operating system, though).

Several different thread programming libraries exist for the mainstream

operating systems Windows and Linux use completely different threadinginterfaces, and Solaris (Sun Microsystems’ flavor of UNIX) supports both its ownthreading API and the one that Linux uses SDL solves this cross-platforminconsistency with its own set of portable threading functions

Threads are essentially asynchronous procedure calls that return immediatelybut continue running in the background An SDL thread entry point is simply apointer to a void function that takes a void pointer as a parameter Threadshave their own stacks, but they share the application’s global variables, heap,code, and file descriptors You can start new threads with the

SDL CreateThread function SDL CreateThread returns a pointer to a threadhandle (of type SDL Thread) that can be used to interact with the new thread.SDL provides functions for terminating threads (SDL KillThread) and forwaiting for them to finish executing (SDL WaitThread) Waiting for a thread tofinish is sometimes called joining the thread

Function SDL CreateThread(func, data)

Synopsis Starts func in a separate SDL thread, with data as an

argument Makes whatever low-level threading callsare appropriate for the given platform

(pthread create, in the case of Linux)

Returns Pointer to an SDL Thread structure that represents

the newly created process

Parameters func—Entry point for the new thread This function

should take one void * argument and return aninteger

data—void * to be passed verbatim to func This isfor your own use, and it’s perfectly safe to pass NULL

Function SDL KillThread(id)

Synopsis Terminates an SDL thread immediately If the thread

could possibly be doing anything important, it might

be a good idea to ask it to end itself rather than justterminating it

Parameters id—Pointer to the SDL Thread structure that

identifies the thread you wish to kill

Function SDL WaitThread(id)

Synopsis Waits for an SDL thread to terminate This is also

known as joining a thread

Parameters id—Pointer to the SDL Thread structure that

identifies the thread you wish to join

Multithreaded programming requires a bit of extra caution What happens iftwo threads attempt to modify the same global variable at the same time? Youhave no way of telling which thread will succeed, which can lead to strange andelusive bugs If there is any chance that two threads will attempt to modify animportant data structure simultaneously, it is a good idea to protect the

structure with a mutex (mutual exclusion flag) A mutex is simply a flag thatindicates whether a structure is currently in use Whenever a thread needs toaccess a mutex-protected structure, it should set (lock) the mutex first If

another thread needs to access the structure, it must wait until the mutex isunlocked This can prevent threads from colliding, but only if they respect themutex SDL’s mutexes are advisory in nature; they do not physically blockaccess

Function SDL CreateMutex

Synopsis Creates a mutex

Returns Pointer to the newly created mutex This mutex is

initially unlocked

Function SDL DestroyMutex

Synopsis Frees a mutex

Parameters mutex—Pointer to the mutex to destroy

Function SDL mutexP(mutex)

Synopsis Locks a mutex If the mutex is already locked, waits

until it is unlocked before locking it again If youdislike the traditional P/V naming, you can accessthis function with the SDL LockMutex macro

Parameters mutex—Pointer to the mutex to lock

Function SDL mutexV(mutex)

Synopsis Unlocks a mutex There should always be a

SDL mutexV call for every SDL mutexP call If youdislike the traditional P/V naming, you can accessthis function with the SDL UnlockMutex macro

Parameters mutex—Pointer to the mutex to unlock

The example that follows creates three threads that increment a global variableand print out its value A mutex is used to synchronize access to the variable, sothat multiple threads can modify the variable without conflicts

Code Listing 4–11 (sdl-threading.c)

/* Example of SDL’s portable threading API */

/* The three threads will run until this flag is set */

static int exit_flag = 0;

/* This function is a thread entry point */

int ThreadEntryPoint(void *data)

{

char *threadname;

/* Anything can be passed as thread data.

We will use it as a thread name */

threadname = (char *) data;

/* Loop until main() sets the exit flag */

while (exit_flag == 0) {

printf("This is %s! ", threadname);

/* Get a lock on the counter variable */

SDL_mutexP(counter_mutex);

/* We can now safely modify the counter */

printf("The counter is currently %i\n", counter);

SDL_Thread *thread1, *thread2, *thread3;

/* Create a mutex to protect the counter */

counter_mutex = SDL_CreateMutex();

printf("Press Ctrl-C to exit the program.\n");

/* Create three threads Give each thread a name

as its data */

thread1 = SDL_CreateThread(ThreadEntryPoint, "Thread 1");

thread2 = SDL_CreateThread(ThreadEntryPoint, "Thread 2");

thread3 = SDL_CreateThread(ThreadEntryPoint, "Thread 3");

/* Let the threads run until the counter reaches 20 */

while (counter < 20)

SDL_Delay(1000);

/* Signal the threads to exit */

exit_flag = 1;

printf("exit_flag has been set by main().\n");

/* Give them time to notice the flag and exit */

If you have used another thread-programming library (such as Win32’s threads

or the POSIX pthread library), you’ll notice that SDL’s threading API is

somewhat incomplete For instance, SDL does not allow a program to change athread’s scheduling priority or other low-level attributes These features arehighly dependent upon the operating system, and supporting them in a

consistent manner across platforms would be difficult If your game needs morecomplete threading abilities, you might consider using a platform-dependentthreading toolkit, but this will make your game more difficult to port to otherplatforms SDL’s threading API is sufficient for almost anything a game mightneed, though

SDL Audio Programming

An often-overlooked but essential area of game programming is sound

Computer sound processing is as much of a science as computer graphics, butthe basics of format conversion, mixing, and playback are fairly straightforward.This section discusses the basics of computer audio and investigates SDL’saudio-programming interface

Representing Sound with PCM

Computer sound is based on pulse-code modulation, or PCM As you know,pixels in a video surface encode the average color intensities of an optical image

at regular intervals, and more pixels allow for a closer representation of theoriginal image PCM data serves the same purpose, except that it represents theaverage intensities of sequential intervals in sound waves Each “pixel” of PCMdata is called a sample The rate at which these samples occur is the samplingrate or frequency of the sound data Sampling rates are expressed in the

standard SI frequency unit, hertz (Hz) A higher sampling rate allows for acloser representation of the original sound wave

Individual PCM samples are usually 8 or 16 bits (1 or 2 bytes) for each channel(one channel for mono, two channels for stereo), and game-quality sound is mostoften sampled at either 22,050 or 44,100 Hz Samples can be represented assigned or unsigned numbers A 16-bit sample can obviously express the intensity

of a sound with much greater precision than an 8-bit sample, but it involvestwice as much data At 44,100 Hz with 16-bit samples, one second of sound datawill consume nearly 90 kilobytes of storage, or twice that for stereo Game

programmers must decide on a trade-off between sound quality and the amount

of disk space a game will consume Fortunately, this trade-off has become less of

a problem in recent years, with the advent of inexpensive high-speed Internetconnections and the nearly universal availability of CD-ROM drives

Just as raw pixel data is often stored on disk in bmp files, raw PCM soundsamples are often stored on disk in wav files SDL can read these files with theSDL LoadWAV function There are several other PCM sound formats (such as auand snd), but we will confine our discussion to wav files for now (There iscurrently no audio file equivalent to the SDL image library—are you interested

in writing one for us?)

Function SDL LoadWAV(file, spec, buffer, length)

Synopsis Loads a RIFF wav audio file into memory

Returns Non-NULL on success, NULL on failure Fills the given

SDL AudioSpec structure with the relevantinformation, sets *buffer to a newly allocated buffer

of samples, and sets *length to the size of the sampledata, in bytes

Parameters file—Name of the file to load The more general

SDL LoadWAV RW function provides a way to load wavdata from nonfile sources (in fact, SDL LoadWAV is just

a wrapper around SDL LoadWAV RW)

spec—Pointer to the SDL AudioSpec structure thatshould receive the loaded sound’s sample rate andformat

buffer—Pointer to the Uint8 * that should receivethe newly allocated buffer of samples.

length—Pointer to the Uint32 that should receivethe length of the buffer (in bytes)

Function SDL FreeWAV(buffer)

Synopsis Frees memory allocated by a previous call to

SDL LoadWAV This is necessary because the datamight not have been allocated with malloc, or might

be subject to other considerations Use this functiononly for freeing sample data allocated by SDL; freeyour own sound buffers with free

Parameters buffer—Sample data to free

Structure SDL AudioSpec

Synopsis Contains information about a particular sound format:

rate, sample size, and so on Used by SDL OpenAudioand SDL LoadWAV, among other functions

Members freq—Frequency of the sound in samples per second

For stereo sound, this means one sample per channelper second (i.e., 44,100 Hz in stereo is actually 88,200samples per second)

format—Sample format Possible values areAUDIO S16 and AUDIO U8 (There are other formats,but they are uncommon and not fully supported—Ifound this out the hard way.)

silence—PCM sample value that corresponds tosilence This is usually either 0 (for 16-bit signedformats) or 128 (for 8-bit unsigned formats)

Calculated by SDL Read-only

channels—Number of interleaved channels This willnormally be either one (for mono) or two (for stereo)

samples—Number of samples in an audio transferbuffer A typical value is 4,096.

size—Size of the audio transfer buffer in bytes

progressively larger or smaller value To fade between two samples, simplyperform an average with changing weights Waves are additive; a program cancombine (mix ) sounds simply by adding (or averaging) the samples together.Remember that binary numbers have limits; multiplying a sample by a largeconstant or adding too many samples together is likely to cause an overflow,which will result in distorted sound

Feeding a Sound Card

A sound card is conceptually simple: it accepts a continuous stream of PCMsamples and recreates the original sound wave through a set of speakers orheadphones Your basic task, then, is to keep the sound card supplied with PCMsamples This is a bit of a trick If you want 44.1 kilohertz (kHz) sound (thequality of sound stored on audio CDs), you must supply the sound card with44,100 samples per second, per channel With 16-bit samples and two channels(stereo), this comes out to 176,400 bytes of sound data (see Table 4)! In addition,timing is critical Any lapse of data will result in a noticeable sound glitch

It would be both difficult and woefully inefficient to make a game stop 44,100times each second to feed more data to the sound card Fortunately, the

computer gives us a bit of help Most modern computer architectures include afeature called direct memory access, or DMA DMA provides support for

high-speed background memory transfers These transfers are used for a variety

of purposes, but their most common use is to shovel large amounts of data to

sound cards, hard drives, and video accelerators You can periodically give thecomputer’s DMA controller buffers of several thousand PCM samples to transfer

to the sound card, and the DMA controller can alert the program when thetransfer is complete so that it can send the next block of samples

The operating system’s drivers take care of DMA for you; you simply have tomake sure that you can produce audio data quickly enough This is sometimesdone with a callback function Whenever the computer’s sound hardware asksSDL for more sound data, SDL in turn calls your program’s audio callbackfunction The callback function must quickly copy more sound data into thegiven buffer This usually involves mixing several sounds together

This scheme has one small problem: since you send data to the sound card inchunks, there will always be a slight delay before any new sound can be played.For instance, suppose that our program needed to play a gunshot sound Itwould probably add the sound to an internal list of sounds to mix into theoutput stream However, the sound card might not be ready for more data, sothe mixed samples would have to wait This effect is called latency, and youshould minimize it whenever possible You can reduce latency by specifying asmaller sound buffer when you initialize the sound card, but you cannot

realistically eliminate it (this is usually not a problem in terms of realism; there

is latency in real life, because light travels much faster than sound)

An Example of SDL Audio Playback

We have discussed the nuts and bolts of sound programming for long enough; it

is time for an example This example is a bit lengthier than our previous

examples, but the code is fairly straightforward

Code Listing 4–12 (audio-sdl.c)

/* Example of audio mixing with SDL */

#include <SDL/SDL.h>

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <assert.h>

/* Structure for loaded sounds */

typedef struct sound_s {

Uint8 *samples; /* raw PCM sample data */

Uint32 length; /* size of sound data in bytes */

} sound_t, *sound_p;

/* Structure for a currently playing sound */

typedef struct playing_s {

int active; /* 1 if this sound should be played */

sound_p sound; /* sound data to play */

Uint32 position; /* current position in the sound buffer */ } playing_t, *playing_p;

/* Array for all active sound effects */

#define MAX_PLAYING_SOUNDS 10

playing_t playing[MAX_PLAYING_SOUNDS];

/* The higher this is, the louder each currently playing sound

will be However, high values may cause distortion if too

many sounds are playing Experiment with this */

#define VOLUME_PER_SOUND SDL_MIX_MAXVOLUME / 2

/* This function is called by SDL whenever the sound card

needs more samples to play It might be called from a

separate thread, so we should be careful what we touch */

void AudioCallback(void *user_data, Uint8 *audio, int length)

{

int i;

/* Clear the audio buffer so we can mix samples into it */

memset(audio, 0, length);

/* Mix in each sound */

for (i = 0; i < MAX_PLAYING_SOUNDS; i++) {

/* Determine the number of samples to mix */

if ((playing[i].position + length) >

playing[i].sound->length) { sound_len = playing[i].sound->length -

playing[i].position;

} else { sound_len = length;

} /* Mix this sound into the stream */

SDL_MixAudio(audio, sound_buf, sound_len,

} }

}

}

/* This function loads a sound with SDL_LoadWAV and converts

it to the specified sample format Returns 0 on success

and 1 on failure */

int LoadAndConvertSound(char *filename, SDL_AudioSpec *spec,

sound_p sound) {

SDL_AudioCVT cvt; /* format conversion structure */

SDL_AudioSpec loaded; /* format of the loaded data */

return 1;

}

/* Build a conversion structure for converting the samples.

This structure contains the data SDL needs to quickly

convert between sample formats */

if (SDL_BuildAudioCVT(&cvt, loaded.format,

loaded.channels, loaded.freq, spec->format, spec->channels, spec->freq) < 0) {

printf("Unable to convert sound: %s\n", SDL_GetError());

return 1;

}

/* Since converting PCM samples can result in more data

(for instance, converting 8-bit mono to 16-bit stereo),

we need to allocate a new buffer for the converted data.

Fortunately SDL_BuildAudioCVT supplied the necessary

/* Copy the sound samples into the new buffer */

memcpy(new_buf, sound->samples, sound->length);

/* Perform the conversion on the new buffer */

printf("’%s’ was loaded and converted successfully.\n",

/* Adds a sound to the list of currently playing sounds.

AudioCallback will start mixing this sound into the stream

the next time it is called (probably in a fraction

of a second) */

int PlaySound(sound_p sound)

{

int i;

/* Find an empty slot for this sound */

for (i = 0; i < MAX_PLAYING_SOUNDS; i++) {

/* The ’playing’ structures are accessed by the audio

callback, so we should obtain a lock before

SDL_AudioSpec desired, obtained;

/* Our loaded sounds and their formats */

sound_t cannon, explosion;

/* Initialize SDL’s video and audio subsystems.

Video is necessary to receive events */

/* We also need to call this before we exit SDL_Quit does

not properly close the audio device for us */

/* Open the audio device The sound driver will try to give

us the requested format, but it might not succeed.

The ’obtained’ structure will be filled in with the actual

format data */