Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of global resources / Craig W.. 747 Mineral resource ownership.. 747 Mineral resource use, early history of.. 802 Natural
Trang 2Global Resources
Volume 3
Mineral Leasing Act - South Africa
Editor
Craig W Allin
Cornell College
Salem Press
Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey
Trang 3Editor in Chief: Dawn P Dawson Editorial Director: Christina J Moose
Manuscript Editor: Christopher Rager Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Photo Editor: Cynthia Breslin Beres
Production Editor: Andrea E Miller Page Design and Layout: James Hutson Additional Layout: Mary Overell and
William Zimmerman
Editorial Assistant: Brett Weisberg
Cover photo: ©Paulo Resende/Dreamstime.com
Copyright © 1998, 2010, by Salem Press All rights in this book are reserved No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain For information address the publisher, Salem Press, at csr@salempress.com
∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of global resources / Craig W Allin, editor
p cm
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 644-6 (set : alk paper) — ISBN 645-3 (vol 1 : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-646-0 (vol 2 : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-647-7 (vol 3 : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-648-4 (vol 4 : alk paper) 1 Natural resources I Allin, Craig W
HC85.E49 2010
333.703—dc22
2010001984
printed in the united states of america
Trang 4Common Units of Measure lix
Complete List of Contents lxv
Mineral Leasing Act 747
Mineral resource ownership 747
Mineral resource use, early history of 752
Minerals, structure and physical properties of 756
Minerals Management Service 762
Mining safety and health issues 763
Mining wastes and mine reclamation 767
Mittal, Lakshmi 770
Mohs hardness scale 771
Molybdenum 772
Monoculture agriculture 775
Monsoons 777
Montreal Protocol 780
Muir, John 783
Multiple-use approach 785
National Audubon Society 788
National Biological Service 788
National Environmental Policy Act 790
National Mining Association 791
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 791
National Park Service 793
National Parks Act, Canadian 795
National parks and nature reserves 796
National Wildlife Federation 801
Native elements 801
Natural capital 802
Natural Resources Canada 803
Natural Resources Conservation Service 804
Natural Resources Defense Council 806
Nature Conservancy 806
The Netherlands 807
Nickel 813
Niobium 816
Nitrogen and ammonia 818
Nitrogen cycle 821
Nobel, Alfred 823
Norris, George W 825
Norway 826
Nuclear energy 830
Nuclear Energy Institute 836
Nuclear Regulatory Commission 837
Nuclear waste and its disposal 838
Ocean current energy 843
Ocean thermal energy conversion 844
Ocean wave energy 846
Oceanography 848
Oceans 849
Oil and natural gas chemistry 856
Oil and natural gas distribution 858
Oil and natural gas drilling and wells 861
Oil and natural gas exploration 864
Oil and natural gas formation 867
Oil and natural gas reservoirs 869
Oil embargo and energy crises of 1973 and 1979 872
Oil industry 875
Oil shale and tar sands 879
Oil spills 881
Olivine 883
Open-pit mining 884
Ophiolites 887
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 888
Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries 890
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 890
Orthosilicate minerals 893
Overgrazing 894
Oxides 897
Oxygen 898
Ozone layer and ozone hole debate 900
Paper 904
Paper, alternative sources of 909
Peak oil 911
Peat 913
Pegmatites 916
Perlite 917
Peru 918
Pesticides and pest control 923
Petrochemical products 925
Petroleum refining and processing 928
Phosphate 931
Phosphorus cycle 932
Photovoltaic cells 934
Pinchot, Gifford 937
Placer deposits 938
Plant domestication and breeding 941
Plant fibers 943 lvii
Trang 5Plants as a medical resource 945
Plate tectonics 948
Platinum and the platinum group metals 951
Plutonic rocks and mineral deposits 954
Plutonium 956
Poland 958
Population growth 963
Portugal 965
Potash 969
Powell, John Wesley 971
Primary production 972
Primary sector 974
Propane 977
Public lands 978
Public trust doctrine 983
Pumice 984
Quarrying 986
Quartz 987
Radium 990
Rain forests 992
Ramsar Convention 996
Rangeland 997
Rare earth elements 999
Reclamation Act 1000
Recycling 1001
Reforestation 1005
Remote sensing 1007
Renewable and nonrenewable resources 1010
Reserve Mining controversy 1012
Residual mineral deposits 1013
Resource accounting 1015
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1017
Resource curse 1019
Resources as a medium of economic exchange 1020
Resources as a source of international conflict 1023
Resources for the Future 1027
Rhenium 1028
Rhodes, Cecil 1029
Rice 1030
Risk assessment 1031
Rockefeller, John D 1034
Roosevelt, Franklin D 1035
Roosevelt, Theodore 1036
Rubber, natural 1036
Rubber, synthetic 1041
Rubidium 1042
Russia 1043
Sagebrush Rebellion 1049
Salt 1049
Salt domes 1053
Sand and gravel 1054
Sandstone 1057
Saudi Arabia 1058
Scandium 1063
Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 1065
Seafloor spreading 1066
Secondary enrichment of mineral deposits 1067
Sedimentary processes, rocks, and mineral deposits 1068
Seed Savers Exchange 1072
Seismographic technology and resource exploitation 1073
Selenium 1076
Semiconductors 1079
Shale 1082
Siemens, William 1083
Sierra Club 1084
Silicates 1084
Silicon 1085
Silver 1088
Slash-and-burn agriculture 1092
Slate 1094
Smelting 1095
Soda ash 1096
Soil 1098
Soil degradation 1103
Soil management 1106
Soil testing and analysis 1107
Solar chimneys 1109
Solar energy 1112
Solid waste management 1119
South Africa 1121
lviii Global Resources
Trang 6Common Units of Measure
Common prefixes for metric units—which may apply in more cases than shown below—include giga- (1 billion times the unit), mega- (one million times), kilo- (1,000 times), hecto- (100 times), deka- (10 times), deci- (0.1 times,
or one tenth), centi- (0.01, or one hundredth), milli- (0.001, or one thousandth), and micro- (0.0001, or one
mil-lionth)
Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents
Acre Area ac 43,560 square feet
4,840 square yards 0.405 hectare Ampere Electric current A or amp 1.00016502722949 international
ampere
0.1 biot or abampere
Angstrom Length Å 0.1 nanometer
0.0000001 millimeter 0.000000004 inch Astronomical unit Length AU 92,955,807 miles
149,597,871 kilometers (mean Earth-Sun distance) Barn Area b 10–28meters squared
(approx cross-sectional area of
1 uranium nucleus) Barrel
(dry, for most produce)
Volume/capacity bbl 7,056 cubic inches; 105 dry quarts;
3.281 bushels, struck measure Barrel
(liquid)
Volume/capacity bbl 31 to 42 gallons British thermal unit Energy Btu 1055.05585262 joule
Bushel
(U.S., heaped)
Volume/capacity bsh or bu 2,747.715 cubic inches
1.278 bushels, struck measure Bushel
(U.S., struck measure)
Volume/capacity bsh or bu 2,150.42 cubic inches
35.238 liters Candela Luminous intensity cd 1.09 hefner candle
Celsius Temperature C 1° centigrade
Centigram Mass/weight cg 0.15 grain
Centimeter Length cm 0.3937 inch
Centimeter, cubic Volume/capacity cm3 0.061 cubic inch
Centimeter, square Area cm2 0.155 square inch
Coulomb Electric charge C 1 ampere second
lix
Trang 7Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents
Cup Volume/capacity C 250 milliliters
8 fluid ounces 0.5 liquid pint Deciliter Volume/capacity dl 0.21 pint
Decimeter Length dm 3.937 inches
Decimeter, cubic Volume/capacity dm3 61.024 cubic inches
Decimeter, square Area dm2 15.5 square inches
Dekaliter Volume/capacity dal 2.642 gallons
1.135 pecks Dekameter Length dam 32.808 feet
Dram Mass/weight dr or dr avdp 0.0625 ounce
27.344 grains 1.772 grams Electron volt Energy eV 1.5185847232839 × 10–22Btus
1.6021917 × 10–19joules Fermi Length fm 1 femtometer
1.0 × 10–15meters Foot Length ft or′ 12 inches
0.3048 meter 30.48 centimeters Foot, cubic Volume/capacity ft3 0.028 cubic meter
0.0370 cubic yard 1,728 cubic inches Foot, square Area ft2 929.030 square centimeters Gallon (British Imperial) Volume/capacity gal 277.42 cubic inches
1.201 U.S gallons 4.546 liters
160 British fluid ounces Gallon (U.S.) Volume/capacity gal 231 cubic inches
3.785 liters 0.833 British gallon
128 U.S fluid ounces Giga-electron volt Energy GeV 1.6021917 × 10–10joule Gigahertz Frequency GHz —
Gill Volume/capacity gi 7.219 cubic inches
4 fluid ounces 0.118 liter lx
Global Resources
Trang 8Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents
Grain Mass/weight gr 0.037 dram
0.002083 ounce 0.0648 gram Gram Mass/weight g 15.432 grains
0.035 avoirdupois ounce Hectare Area ha 2.471 acres
Hectoliter Volume/capacity hl 26.418 gallons
2.838 bushels Hertz Frequency Hz 1.08782775707767 × 10–10cesium atom
frequency Hour Time h 60 minutes
3,600 seconds Inch Length in or″ 2.54 centimeters
Inch, cubic Volume/capacity in3 0.554 fluid ounce
4.433 fluid drams 16.387 cubic centimeters Inch, square Area in2 6.4516 square centimeters
Joule Energy J 6.2414503832469 × 1018electron volt Joule per kelvin Heat capacity J/K 7.24311216248908 × 1022Boltzmann
constant Joule per second Power J/s 1 watt
Kelvin Temperature K –272.15 Celsius
Kilo-electron volt Energy keV 1.5185847232839 × 10–19joule
Kilogram Mass/weight kg 2.205 pounds
Kilogram per cubic meter Mass/weight density kg/m3 5.78036672001339 × 10–4ounces per
cubic inch Kilohertz Frequency kHz —
Kiloliter Volume/capacity kl —
Kilometer Length km 0.621 mile
Kilometer, square Area km2 0.386 square mile
247.105 acres Light-year
(distance traveled by light
in one Earth year)
Length/distance lt-yr 5,878,499,814,275.88 miles
9.46 × 1012kilometers
Liter Volume/capacity L 1.057 liquid quarts
0.908 dry quart 61.024 cubic inches lxi
Common Units of Measure
Trang 9Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents
Mega-electron volt Energy MeV —
Megahertz Frequency MHz —
Meter Length m 39.37 inches
Meter, cubic Volume/capacity m3 1.308 cubic yards
Meter per second Velocity m/s 2.24 miles per hour
3.60 kilometers per hour Meter per second per
second
Acceleration m/s2 12,960.00 kilometers per hour per
hour 8,052.97 miles per hour per hour Meter, square Area m2 1.196 square yards
10.764 square feet
Metric See unit name
Microgram Mass/weight mcg orµg 0.000001 gram
Microliter Volume/capacity µl 0.00027 fluid ounce
Micrometer Length µm 0.001 millimeter
0.00003937 inch Mile
(nautical international)
Length mi 1.852 kilometers
1.151 statute miles 0.999 U.S nautical miles Mile
(statute or land)
Length mi 5,280 feet
1.609 kilometers Mile, square Area mi2 258.999 hectares
Milligram Mass/weight mg 0.015 grain
Milliliter Volume/capacity ml 0.271 fluid dram
16.231 minims 0.061 cubic inch Millimeter Length mm 0.03937 inch
Millimeter, square Area mm2 0.002 square inch
Minute Time m 60 seconds
Mole Amount of substance mol 6.02 × 1023atoms or molecules of a
given substance Nanometer Length nm 1,000,000 fermis
10 angstroms 0.001 micrometer 0.00000003937 inch lxii
Global Resources
Trang 10Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents
Newton Force N x
0.224808943099711 pound force 0.101971621297793 kilogram force 100,000 dynes
Newton meter Torque N·m 0.7375621 foot-pound
Ounce
(avoirdupois)
Mass/weight oz 28.350 grams
437.5 grains 0.911 troy or apothecaries’ ounce Ounce
(troy)
Mass/weight oz 31.103 grams
480 grains 1.097 avoirdupois ounces Ounce
(U.S., fluid or liquid)
Mass/weight oz 1.805 cubic inch
29.574 milliliters 1.041 British fluid ounces Parsec Length pc 30,856,775,876,793 kilometers
19,173,511,615,163 miles Peck Volume/capacity pk 8.810 liters
Pint
(dry)
Volume/capacity pt 33.600 cubic inches
0.551 liter Pint
(liquid)
Volume/capacity pt 28.875 cubic inches
0.473 liter Pound
(avoirdupois)
Mass/weight lb 7,000 grains
1.215 troy or apothecaries’ pounds 453.59237 grams
Pound
(troy)
Mass/weight lb 5,760 grains
0.823 avoirdupois pound 373.242 grams
Quart
(British)
Volume/capacity qt 69.354 cubic inches
1.032 U.S dry quarts 1.201 U.S liquid quarts Quart
(U.S., dry)
Volume/capacity qt 67.201 cubic inches
1.101 liters 0.969 British quart Quart
(U.S., liquid)
Volume/capacity qt 57.75 cubic inches
0.946 liter 0.833 British quart Rod Length rd 5.029 meters
5.50 yards lxiii
Common Units of Measure