Handbook of Globalization and the Environment doc

Someargue that globalization protects the global environment from environmentaldegradation and promotes sustainable economic growth in the world, especially in developing countries.. Kel

In the past few decades, worldwide social, political, legal, ethical, culturaland technological forces have led to a globalization movement Indeed, manyefforts have been made in globalizing various economic areas, including globalenvironmental protection, world trade agreements, global sustainable develop-ment, etc However, there are many debates on globalization and its effects onthe environment and/or sustainable economic growth around the globe Someargue that globalization protects the global environment from environmentaldegradation and promotes sustainable economic growth in the world, especially

in developing countries But some others, particularly those in developingcountries, believe that globalization is a threat to economic growth and sustain-able development This handbook will address these major issues: globalization,development, and the environment We hope that the book will enrich thisdebate

Khi V ThaiDianne RahmJerrell D Coggburn

Dianne Rahm, PhD, is professor of public administration at The University

of Texas at San Antonio Dr Rahm received her PhD from the SyracuseUniversity’s Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs Her researchinterests are in environmental policy, energy policy, and science and technologypolicy She has authored or co-authored, and edited or co-edited over 50 articles,book chapters, and reports and five books including Sustainable Energy and theStates: Politics, Markets, and Leadership, (2006), United States Public Policy:

A Budgetary Approach (2004), Toxic Waste and Environmental Policy in the

U.S Competitiveness: An Institutional Focus, (1992).

Jerrell D Coggburn, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department ofPublic Administration at The University of Texas at San Antonio, where he alsoserves as chair His primary research interests are in human resources manage-ment, public management, and public procurement He is a past recipient (withSandra K Schneider and William G Jacoby, 1997) of the William and FrederickMosher Award for the best Public Administration Review article written by anacademician Coggburn serves on the editorial board of the Review of PublicPersonnel Administration and the executive board of the American Societyfor Public Administration’s Section on Personnel Administration and LaborRelations His research has appeared in Public Administration Review, Review

of Public Personnel Administration, Journal of Public Administration Researchand Theory, Public Performance & Management Review, International Journal

of Public Administration, Public Administration Quarterly, and other scholarlyoutlets Coggburn received the BA degree (1992) in political science fromOklahoma State University and MPA (1994) and PhD (1999) degrees from theUniversity of South Carolina

Nicholas School of the Environment

and Earth Sciences Levine Science

Department of Public Administration

The University of Texas

San Antonio, Texas

Bruce Bjork

Department of Public Administration

The University of Texas

San Antonio, Texas

Jerrell D Coggburn

Department of Public Administration

The University of Texas

San Antonio, Texas

David Howard DavisPolitical Science and PublicAdministration

University of ToledoToledo, Ohio

Ilhom EsanovTashkent Institute for Irrigationand Melioration

Tashkent, Republic of Uzbekistan

Kyle FarmbrySchool of Public Affairs andAdministration

Rutgers UniversityNewark, New Jersey

Michael J GaffneyInstitute for Environmental StudiesVrije University

Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Joyeeta GuptaInstitute for Environmental StudiesVrije University

Amsterdam, The NetherlandsJennifer E Horan

Department of Political ScienceUniversity of North CarolinaWilmington, North Carolina

University of San Francisco

San Francisco, California

Wendy A Kellogg

Levin College of Urban Affairs

Cleveland State University

The Maxwell School of Citizenship

and Public Affairs

Department of Political Science

and Environmental Studies

Pennsylvania State University

Altoona, Pennsylvania

Tetyana Lysak

Department of Political Science

Washington State University

Levin College of Urban Affairs

Cleveland State University

Cleveland, Ohio

Public AdministrationOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia

Michael J MortimerDepartment of ForestryVirginia Polytechnic Instituteand State UniversityBlacksburg, VirginiaCeleste Murphy-GreeneSchool of Urban Studies andPublic AdministrationOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia

Lisa NelsonDepartment of Political ScienceCalifornia State PolytechnicUniversity

Pomona, CaliforniaAnna Ya NiCenter for Technology andInformation PolicyThe Maxwell School of Citizenshipand Public Affairs

Syracuse UniversitySyracuse, New YorkBrian PangrleLee & Hays, PLLCSpokane, WashingtonLaura E PasqualeFlorida Department of EnvironmentalProtection

Tallahassee, FloridaRoss PrizziaPublic AdministrationUniversity of Hawaii, West OahuPearl City, Hawaii

Dianne RahmDepartment of Public AdministrationThe University of Texas

San Antonio, Texas

Department of Political Science

Oregon State University

Corvallis, Oregon

Mark Stephan

Department of Political Science

Washington State University

Pullman, Washington

Katrina Darlene Taylor

Department of Political Science

Florida Atlantic University

Fort Lauderdale, Florida

Fort Lauderdale, Florida

Dang TranDepartment of Economics &Statistics

California State UniversityLos Angeles, California

Rebecca L WarnerDepartment of SociologyOregon State UniversityCorvallis, Oregon

Edward P WeberDepartment of Political ScienceWashington State UniversityPullman, Washington

Fariborz ZelliTyndall Centre for ClimateChange ResearchCoordinator MOSAIC ResearchGroup

University of East AngliaNorwich, United Kingdom

Table of Contents

Khi V Thai, Dianne Rahm, and Jerrell D Coggburn

1.1: Overview 1

1.1.1: The Conceptual Meaning of Globalization 2

1.1.2: Perspectives on Sustainable Economic Growth 2

1.1.3: Globalization, the Environment, and Sustainable Economic Growth 2 1.1.3.1: Globalization and Sustainable Economic Growth 3

1.1.3.2: Globalization and a Sustainable Environment 4 1.2: Book Contents 5

1.2.1: Part One: Global Environmental Issues and Policies 5

1.2.2: Part Two: Global Environmental Organizations and Institutions 8 1.2.3: Part Three: Environmental Management and Accountability 10

1.2.4: Part Four: Controversies in Globalization and the Environment 12 Acknowledgments 14

References 14

PART I: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND POLICIES

Perspective 19

Ross Prizzia

2.1: The Movement toward Sustainable Development 19

2.1.1: Definition 19

2.1.2: From Stockholm to Rio, Kyoto, and Beyond 20

2.1.3: Growth as a Challenge to Sustainable Development 22

2.1.4: Sustainable Development in the United States 26

2.2: National Strategies and Good Practices

in OECD Countries 28

2.2.1: Policy Integration 30

2.2.2: Intergenerational Timeframe 31

2.2.3: Analysis and Assessments 32

2.2.4: Indicators and Targets 33

2.2.7: Stakeholder Participation 36

2.2.8: Monitoring and Evaluation 37

2.3: Conclusion 39

References 40

David Howard Davis

3.1: Introduction 43

3.2: The European Union Commission 43

3.3: Climate Change Treaty Structure 47

4 Transborder Air Pollution 61

Zachary A Smith and Katrina Darlene Taylor

4.3.3: United States and Canada 64

4.3.4: United States and Mexico 65

4.3.5: China and Japan 65

4.4: The Globalization Effect 65

4.4.1: WTO 66

4.4.2: NAFTA 66

4.4.3: Viewpoints of the Relationship between Trade

Liberalization and the Environment 66 4.5: International Environmental Regimes 67

4.5.1: Trail Smelter Dispute 68

5.2.3: Desertification and Global Interdependence 82

5.2.3.1: Agricultural Trade Liberalization 83 5.2.3.2: Climate Change and Loss of Biological Diversity 84 5.3: Governing Global Desertification 85

5.3.1: The Political Globalization of Desertification 85

5.3.2: The UNCCD Process in its First Decade 87

5.4: Summary and Outlook 90

References 91

W Henry Lambright and Anna Ya Ni

6.1: Introduction 95

6.2: Conceptual Framework 96

6.3: Space and the Home Planet 96

6.3.1: Space in the Environment—Energy Decade 97

6.3.2: The Ozone Hole 99

6.3.3: Mission to Planet Earth and Earth Observation System 99

6.3.4: Landsat 100

6.4: Near-Earth Orbit 102

6.4.1: The Commercial Significance of Geosynchronous Orbit 102

6.4.2: Policy Problems of Geosynchronous/

Geostationary Orbit 104 6.4.3: Electromagnetic Spectrum 105

6.4.4: The Role of International Telecommunications Union 106

6.4.5: Space Debris 106

6.4.6: The Outer Space Treaty 107

6.5: Deep Space as Environment 108

7 Human Rights to Water 115

Zachary A Smith and Kristi L Ross

7.1: Introduction 115

7.2: Addressing the Variables that Affect Access 116

7.2.1: Distribution, Supply, and Demand 116

7.2.2: Pollution 118

7.3: Toward Human Rights to Water 119

7.3.1: Integrated Water Resources Management 120

7.3.2: What is a Human Right to Water? 121

8 Global Environmental Governance 137

Frank Biermann

8.1: Introduction 137

8.2: The Concept of Global Environmental Governance 138

8.3: Characteristics of Global Environmental Governance 141

8.3.1: Increased Segmentation: Complexity through

Fragmentation 141 8.3.2: Increased Participation: Diversity through Inclusion 142

8.3.3: Increased Privatization: Negotiation through Partnerships 144

8.4: Current Reform Debates 144

8.4.1: Segmentation: the Debate on a United Nations Environment

Organization 145 8.4.2: Participation and Privatization: Institutionalizing

Civil Society Involvement 148 8.5: Conclusion 149

9.2: Stockholm, 1972: Convention on the Human Environment 158

9.2.1: Creation of the UNEP 158

9.2.2: Initial Multilateral Environmental Agreements, 1972–1987 159

9.3: Brundtland Report, 1987 160

9.4: Rio De Janeiro, 1992: the Earth Summit and Agenda 21 161

9.4.1: The Rio Declaration 161

9.4.2: Agenda 21 161

9.4.3: The Convention on Climate Change 162

9.4.4: The Convention on Biodiversity 162

9.4.5: Commission on Sustainable Development 162

9.4.6: Rio C5 163

9.4.7: Summary of Rio Conference 163

9.5: The Millennium Development Goals, 2000 163

9.6: Johannesburg, 2002: Renewal of Commitments 166

9.7: Additional Conventions and Secretariats, 1993–2002 166

9.8: Beyond the 2002 Earth Summit 167

Appendix A: Rio Declaration 170

Annex I 170

Appendix B: Excerpt from the Johannesburg Declaration on

Sustainable Development 174 References 174

10.2.2: Looking for a Signpost: the WTO’s Effect on Domestic

and International Environmental Policies and Standards 180 10.3: The WTO’s Environmentally Relevant Institutions 182

10.3.1: The Old GATT and the Environment 183

10.3.2: WTO Bodies of Environmental Relevance 184

10.3.3: WTO Rules of Environmental Relevance 185

10.4: Conflicts between WTO Law and Domestic Environmental Law 187

10.4.1: Cases on Issues of Species Protection and Biological Diversity:

Direct Import Restrictions 188 10.4.2: Cases on Human Health Issues: Risk Assessment, Prior Informed Consent, and Labeling Requirements 190

10.4.3: Conclusion: the WTO is Taking Over 192

10.5: Conflicts between WTO Law and Multilateral Environmental

Agreements 193

10.5.1: Increasing Institutional Overlap and Conflict among

International Institutions 193 10.5.2: The Basel Convention, Cites and the Montreal Protocol:

Direct Import Restrictions 194 10.5.3: The Climate Change Regime: Mix of Direct and

Indirect Trade Restrictions 196 10.5.4: The Convention on Biological Diversity: Benefit-Sharing,

Prior Informed Consent and Labeling Requirements 198 10.5.5: Conclusion: No Dispute, No Problem? 201

10.6: Strategies and Proposals to Improve WTO Compatibility with

Environmental Law 203

10.6.1: A Solution under the Legal Status Quo? 203

10.6.2: Initiatives from the Inside 204

10.6.3: Suggestions from the Outside 206

10.7: Summary and Concluding Remarks 209

11.2: Conceptualizing NGO Growth 218

11.3: NGOs and Environment Discourse: between

Stockholm and Johannesburg 220

11.3.1: Stockholm (1972) 221

11.3.2: Implications for NGOs 222

11.4: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,

Rio de Janeiro, 1992 223

11.5: Implications for NGOs 225

11.6: Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 226

11.7: Implications for NGOs 228

11.8: Prescriptive Thoughts 228

11.9: Conclusion 230

References 231

Brent S Steel and Rebecca L Warner

12.1: Introduction 233

12.2: Why is Environmental Learning Important? 235

12.2.1: Correlates and Sources of Environmental

Knowledge and Awareness 237 12.2.1.1: Information Sources 238 12.2.1.2: Formal Environmental Education 240 12.3: State of Global Environmental Awareness 240

12.4: Approaches to Increasing Environmental Awareness 244

to Meeting Global Environmental Challenges 259

Jerrell D Coggburn and Dianne Rahm

13.1: Introduction: Global Environmental Challenges 259

13.2: The U.S Environmental Framework 260

13.3: What is “Green” Procurement? 261

13.4: Evolution of Green Procurement in Federal Government 262

13.5: Green Procurement in U.S State and Local Governments 268

13.6: Adopting and Implementing Green Procurement 270

13.6.1: Green Procurement Policies: Mandatory versus Voluntary 270

13.6.2: Integrating Green Procurement 271

13.6.3: Strategies for Green Procurement Implementation 272

13.6.3.1: Price Preferences 273 13.6.3.2: Green Specifications 273 13.6.3.3: “Best Value” Approach and Life Cycle Analysis 274 13.6.3.4: Setting Green Procurement Goals 275

13.6.3.5: Raising Awareness about Green Procurement 275 13.6.3.6: “Green Teams” 276

13.6.3.7: Cooperative Green Procurement Efforts 277 13.7: Challenges Facing Green Procurement 277

13.8: Conclusion: Assessing Government’s Green Procurement Efforts 281

14.2.2.2: Context 293 14.3: Environmental Management Systems 297

14.3.1: Background 297

14.3.2: Systems Analysis 299

14.3.2.1: Better Alignment 299 14.3.2.2: Decreased Resistance 299 14.3.2.3: Enhanced Use of Information 300 14.3.2.4: Increased Range of Response 300 14.3.2.5: Stronger Foundation 300

14.3.2.6: Tighter Feedback Loops 300 14.3.3: Research Data 301

14.3.3.1: Systems Research 301 14.3.3.2: Stakeholder Participation 301 14.3.3.3: Future Research 303

15.2: Waterfront Growth, Decline and Redevelopment in

the Great Lakes Basin 313

15.3: Urban Sustainability as a Framework for Waterfront Regeneration 316

15.4: Case Studies 317

15.4.1: Selection of Cases 317

15.4.2: Waterfront Redevelopment Cases 318

15.4.2.1: Toronto, Ontario, Canada 318 15.4.2.2: Chicago–Calumet, Illinois, United States 320 15.4.2.3: Hamilton, Ontario, Canada 322

15.4.2.4: Cleveland, Ohio, United States 325 15.5: Discussion 328

15.5.1: Shared Historic Experiences 328

15.5.2: Land 329

15.5.3: Political System 329

15.5.4: The Timeframe of Planning 330

15.5.5: Sustainability as a Waterfront Planning Framework 330

Acknowledgments 331

References 331

Sustainability at the Same Time: What Matters,

What Doesn’t? 335

Edward P Weber, Madina Khalmirzaeva, Mark Stephan,

Tetyana Lysak, and Ilhom Esanov

16.1: Introduction 335

16.2: Research Methods 337

16.3: Performance Outcomes 338

16.4: Explaining the Policy Performance of the Uzbek WUAs 343

16.4.1: Formal Institutions: form and Function 343

16.4.2: The Physical Wealth Framework 346

How Do They Measure Up? 350 16.5: Conclusion 351

Appendix A: Crop Productivity Data 353

Appendix B: Participation and Awareness Index 354

Appendix C: Levels and Sources of Outside Help 354

WUA, Outside Support Crosstabulation Results 355

Appendix D: Egalitarian and Accountability Indexes 355

Egalitarian Decision-Making Index 355

17.1.2: Sustainable or Green Procurement? 359

17.1.3: Implementation through a Procurement Code 360

17.2: Brief Background 361

17.3: What is “Sustainable”? 361

17.3.1: Experience of U.S Forest Service 361

17.3.2: Sustainability at Various Levels 363

17.3.3: Summary of Programs 365

17.4: Implementation in the U.S.: National and Local 366

17.4.1: U.N to National Level 367

17.4.1.1: U.N to U.K and Concerning EU 367 17.4.1.2: U.S Involvement in the U.N.: Millennium

Challenge Account 367 17.4.2: U.S National Level to Local Level 368

17.5: Objective Definitions for “Sustainable” in a

Procurement Code 369

17.5.1: Example: the Mirrae Chain and Aluminum 369

17.5.2: Example: Sustainable Buildings 371

17.6: Harmonization of Procurement Codes and

18.2: How is Nuclear Waste Categorized? 382

18.3: Distinguishing Attributes of Nuclear Material 385

18.4: The Regulatory Framework 386

18.5: Yucca Mountain 387

18.6: Policy Modifications Resulting from the “Global War on Terror” 391

18.7: Effect of the Kyoto Protocol 392

18.8: Conclusion 393

Appendix A: Warnings across Millennia 394

Appendix B 396

References 396

19.2.4: Strategy for Implementation 406

19.3: The Methow Valley 407

19.3.1: Background 407

19.3.2: Okanogan County Memorandum of Understanding 409

19.3.3: Compliance in the Methow Valley 409

19.3.4: MOU Negotiations Fail 410

19.4: The Walla Walla River Basin 410

19.4.1: Background 410

19.4.2: A Take Occurs in the Walla Walla Basin 410

19.4.3: Compliance Issues in the Walla Walla River Basin 411

19.4.4: The Environmental Advocacy Component 412

19.4.5: Compliance in the Walla Walla Basin-Cooperation

Rather than Confrontation 413 19.4.6: The Cooperative Compliance Initiative 413

19.4.7: Interim Outcomes in the Walla Walla 414

19.6.2: Environmental and Political Values 418

19.6.3: Level of Trust in Key Actors 422

19.6.4: Support for the ESA 423

19.6.5: Citizen Perceptions of Good Faith Bargaining 424

20.2: Definitions, Semantics, and a Common Syntax 435

20.3: Direct Action in a Contemporary Context 438

20.4: Causal Factors: Self-Defense, Environmental Preservation,

and Anti-Global Rhetoric 439

20.5: Defining Anti-Globalism 441

20.6: Implications for the Future 442

21.2.5: Spontaneous Globalization: Autonomous versus Orchestrated 455 21.2.6: Inferences 457

21.3: Are Resources and Environmental Space Limited? 457

21.3.1: Introduction 457

21.3.2: The Goal: Development versus Sustainable

Development 457 21.3.3: The Resource Base: Limited or Unlimited? 459

21.3.4: Environmental Space: Property or Human rights? 460

21.3.5: Inferences 460

21.4: A Brief History of North–South Issues 461

21.4.1: Introduction 461

21.4.2: North–South: Moot or Passe´? 461

21.4.3: UN Politics: Development versus Environment 462

21.4.4: G-77 Power: Ebb and Flow 462

21.4.5: The Emerging Powers: Friend or Foe 463

21.4.6: Inferences 463

21.5: North–South Problems in Global Governance 464

21.5.1: Introduction 464

21.5.2: Problem Definition: Scaling Up to Gain Control;

Scaling Down to Avoid Responsibility 464 21.5.3: Dilemmas: To Do or Not to Do 465

22.2.1: Chronological History of the Environmental Justice

Movement in the United States 474 22.2.2: Environmental Justice Received National Recognition 475

22.2.3: President Clinton Formally Addressed

Environmental Justice 477 22.2.4: Analysis of Recent Environmental Justice Literature 478

22.3.2: Corporate Transnational Environmental Crime 483

22.4: Cases of Global Environmental Injustice 484

22.4.1: Nigeria’s Ogoniland: a Region of Contrasts 484

22.4.2: Post-Apartheid South Africa 485

22.4.3: United States–Mexican Border Region 486

23.3: What Should LDCs Do? 499

23.3.1: The Necessity of a Market Economy 499

23.3.2: Opportunity Provided by Globalization 500

23.3.3: Costs, Prices, Product Qualities, and Technological Innovations 501 23.3.4: Institutional Factors 502

23.3.5: Role of the Government 503

23.3.6: Attractiveness and Competitiveness of a Nation 505

23.3.7: Emphasis on Manufactures and High-Technology Products 506 23.3.8: Environmental Consequence of Growth 508

23.4: A Growth Model as a Guide for Policy Formulation 509

23.4.1: Demand for Export Function 510

23.4.2: Demand for Import Function 510

23.4.3: Balance of Payments Equilibrium Condition 510

23.4.4: Wage Setting Condition 513

23.4.5: Verdoorn’s Law 513

23.4.6: Balance of Payment Equilibrium Growth 514

23.5: Empirical Estimation of Parameters 515

23.6: Policy Implication of Globalization 515

24.2: Complex and Contentious Problems 528

24.3: Shifting Views of Science 529

24.4: Institutional Change 532

24.5.1.1: Problem Definition 537 24.5.1.2: Formulation of Scientific Research Questions 539 24.5.2: Models as Tools to Assist Development of Shared Understanding 540 24.5.3: Boundary Organizations 542

24.6: Process Design Considerations 545

24.7: Conclusion 547

Acknowledgments 548

References 548

Nations of Mexico and Ecuador 553

Jennifer E Horan and Donna L Lybecker

25.1: Introduction 553

25.2: Negotiations within Latin American Countries 555

25.3: Mexico 555

25.3.1: Mexican Environmental Politics and Management 556

25.3.2: The Mexican State 557

25.3.3: Mexican Environmental Negotiations: the Actors 558

25.3.4: Genuine Inclusion or Superficial Change?

The Gray Whale Controversy 559 25.3.5: Mexican Environmental Negotiations: Gray Whales and

the Desert Biosphere Reserve 560 25.3.6: Mexican Environmental Negotiations: Lessons from the

Gray Whale Controversy 562 25.4: Ecuador 563

25.4.1: Ecuadorian Environmental Politics and Management 564

25.4.2: Problems of Institutional Legitimacy 565

25.4.3: Ecuadorian Environmental “Negotiations”: the Actors 566

25.4.4: Ecuadorian Environmental Negotiations: the Case of

Cayapas–Mataje 568 25.4.5: Ecuadorian Environmental Negotiations: Lessons from

the Case of Cayapas–Mataje 569 25.5: Conclusion 570

References 572

Globalization and the

Environment: an

Introduction

Khi V Thai

Florida Atlantic University

Dianne Rahm and Jerrell D Coggburn

The University of Texas at San Antonio

1.1 Overview

There are many debates on globalization and its effects on the environmentand/or sustainable economic growth around the globe Proponents of globali-zation argue that it protects the global environment from environmentaldegradation and promotes sustainable economic growth in the world, especially

in developing countries Opponents, on the other hand, contend that tion is a threat to sustainable development According to these opponents,global corporate business enterprises are responsible for environmental catas-trophes that hinder sustainable economic growth This chapter will brieflyreview the literature on globalization, the environment, and sustainable eco-nomic growth We close with an overview of the book

globaliza-1

1.1.1 The Conceptual Meaning of Globalization

Globalization is viewed as a step toward a fully integrated world market [1,2] and as

a key ingredient of a global society [3] Globalization is also seen by some academics

as a “borderless world” [4] Brown [5] expounds on globalization as large-scaleopenness of borders accomplished by loosening state regulations to promote rapidfinancial transactions, trade, communications, and other social and culturalactivities More precisely, globalization is a phenomenon that encourages inter-national integration through free trade and communication across borders [6,7].Matteis [8] defines globalization as the process of progressive growth ofeconomic activities which transcends any kind of geographical border Accor-ding to this definition, globalization can be seen as the increasing movement ofgoods and services as well as human resources through trade and investmentsamong nations Trade liberalization policy and international trade are perceived

as important ingredients of globalization

1.1.2 Perspectives on Sustainable Economic Growth

The World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainabledevelopment simply as “development that meets the needs of the presentwithout compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs” [9].From this definition, sustainable economic growth can be explained as sufficienteconomic growth for the present generation without harming the ability offuture generations to attain their needs The 1992 Rio Earth Summit provided aframework for moving towards sustainable development The summit wasrooted in the notion that efforts to protect the environment must considereradication of poverty and the need for economic development while at thesame time economic development programs should reflect consideration oflong-term environmental impacts The Rio framework reaffirmed the principles

of sustainable development provided by the World Commission on Environmentand Development [10] The Earth Summit emphasized that the internationaleconomy should provide a supportive international climate for achievingenvironmental and development goals by promoting sustainable developmentthrough trade liberalization [10,11]

The World Bank [12] holds a complementary view on sustainable ment [10]; it holds that environmental degradation, if extreme enough, candestroy societies, making whatever level of development previously achievedunsustainable The World Bank emphasizes the need for control of populationgrowth and the use of technology in developing countries to promotesustainable development [10,13]

develop-1.1.3 Globalization, the Environment, and Sustainable

1.1.3.1 Globalization and Sustainable Economic Growth

According to Matteis [8], globalization will have both positive and negativeconsequences with respect to sustainable economic growth The positiveaspects of trade liberalization in a global marketplace include competition,increased productivity, economic growth, and increased access to foreigncapital By creating competitive global markets, trade liberalization maximizesresources with consequent reduction of production costs and helps increaseproductivity Similarly, the United Nations’ World Commission on Environmentand Development [9] views the free market economy and trade liberalization asindicators of promoting sustainable economic growth Free market access forproducts of developing countries, lower interest rates, technology transfer, andlarger capital flows—the main ingredients of the global economy—have beenidentified by the United Nations as essential to sustainable development andpoverty reduction The World Bank [12] also focuses on the need for a freemarket economy and trade liberalization to reduce poverty and achievesustainable growth Globalization has provided the power of technology,especially information technology, to bolster the path of sustainable develop-ment for many nations; and has driven the world into a state of greater openness,interdependence, and integration that will bring about new developmentopportunities [14]

In addition, transnational corporations play a significant role in promotingsustainable economic growth within developing nations [15] Halme, Park, andChiu [16] explain the diverging impacts of globalization on sustainable economicgrowth They argue that in spite of economic crisis in the late 1990s, countries inthe Asia-Pacific region have attained the fastest rate of economic growth in theworld over the past quarter century Although the absolute number of poorremains high due to rapid population growth and other factors, the percentage

of Asians who live in poverty has been reduced from 50 to 25% over the sameperiod of time

However, globalization imposes exogenous constraints on economic growthand contributes to strengthening economic dependence on internationaldemand It increases vulnerability to the fluctuations of international markets[8] Indeed, according to Pronk [2], globalization will increase consumption andproduction, which will be coupled with unequal access to resources Pronkemphasizes the need for creating new sustainable production and consumptionpatterns, as well as redirecting economic growth toward labor-incentive andbottom-up development which reduces poverty

For example, the structural adjustment reforms in the 1980s and the influence

of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in the 1990s turing sector in the Caribbean island states failed to create a sustained pathtowards economic growth and have reduced the competitiveness of regionalassembly-based manufacturers in the island states [17] In addition to manufac-turing, Caribbean service exports also continue to be affected byincompatibilities among global and local structures and institutions Unfortu-nately, according to Mullings [17], individual island states have little power tochallenge the trade or policy-based lending requirements of powerful global

manufac-institutions like the World Trade Organization (WTO) or the InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF).

Holliday, Schmidheiny, and Watts [18] emphasize the need for corporatesocial responsibility, that is, “commitment of the business to contribute tosustainable development, working with employees, their families and localcommunity and society at large to improve their quality of life.” Unfortunately,although globalization is purported to create “trickle-down” gains for all, it hasall too often resulted in gains for just a few—most of whom are wealthy [19,20].Concerns over equity issues are plentiful

1.1.3.2 Globalization and a Sustainable Environment

Researchers also disagree on the impact of economic growth helped byglobalization on the environment The United Nations [11] argues that environ-mental degradation can be reduced through reduction of poverty Holliday,Schmidheiny, and Watts [18] believe that producing more goods and services withfewer resources will reduce waste and pollution while promoting sustainablegrowth In this respect, they argue that free and open markets are essential forsustainable economic growth Jeppesen and Hansen [15] found that transna-tional corporations in collaboration with enterprises in developing nations play

an important role in environmental affairs for at least two reasons Transnationalcorporations have environmental standards, monitoring, and pollution controlmechanisms in place Moreover, transnational corporations provide technicalassistance and training to businesses in developing countries, which in turnpromotes environmentally friendly economic development

However, Castro [10] rejects the idea that economic growth is achieved byfree trade, that economic growth reduces poverty, and that if poverty is reducedenvironmental degradation will be reduced Castro argues that despite thepartial success in reducing poverty, rapid economic growth, coupled withincreasing urban population, has surpassed antipollution investments and hasresulted in deteriorating air and water quality as well as loss of biodiversity andnatural resources

Major pollution threats to the environment in the age of globalization comefrom economic activities, such as agriculture, mining, manufacturing, andtransportation [21] For instance, deforestation rates in East Asia were thehighest of any region in the early 1990s The World Bank [22] reports thatIndonesia alone lost 20 million hectares of forest between 1985 and 1998, whilealmost 90% of productive old-growth forests have been destroyed in thePhilippines since 1990 Halme, Park, and Chiu [16] further argue that globaliza-tion is a challenge to sustainable development in Asia because the wealthynorthern countries consume 80% of the world’s production while developingcountries bear the burden of environmental and social impacts caused by thatconsumption Moreover, threats to the environment in developing nations aremore severe than in the developed world, due to cheap labor, access toinexpensive raw materials, poor environmental regulations, and other invest-ment-friendly incentives offered by the governments of the host countries

A positive trend has emerged recently: sustainability reporting and mental information disclosure For example, the sustainability reports published

environ-by the Fortune Global 250 indicate that the largest most visible multinationalcompanies are very active in disclosing information on their environmental andsocial policies as well as their performance Data show that European countriesand Japan maintain a certain level of sustainability reporting, both in quantityand quality Many multinational companies have also started disclosing econ-omic aspects of sustainability [23], which indicate that global corporations areconducive to sustainable development

Assessing the full impact of globalization on poverty reduction, economicdevelopment, and environmental quality is difficult to do The phenomenoncalled globalization continues to transform as time goes on Likewise, ecosys-tems respond to more than just globalization Climate change, populationgrowth, the use of new technologies, changes in patterns of consumption,alterations in production processes, civil conflict, and variations in the use ofnatural resources each play a role in environmental outcomes Some areindependent of globalization; others are intertwined with it In this tightlycoupled complex scenario, prediction of outcomes may be more art thanscience Nevertheless, deepening our understanding of these phenomena iscritical if we are to move to a more effective policy that seeks to end poverty andcreate economic growth, while at the same time protecting the environment.That is the purpose of this book

1.2 Book Contents

The book is divided into four parts Part One focuses on global environmentalissues and policies Part Two looks at global environmental organizations andinstitutions Part Three addresses environmental management and account-ability Part Four discusses controversies in globalization and the environment.Further detail on the contents of each part is provided below

1.2.1 Part One: Global Environmental Issues and Policies

Global environmental issues and policies are the subject of Part One The term

“sustainable development” only entered the global environmental lexicon about

20 years ago with the 1987 publication of Our Common Future by the UN’sWorld Commission on Environmental Development Since that time, efforts havebeen made to bring meaning to the term and to pursue strategies that integrateeconomic, environmental, and other social considerations Ross Prizzia’s chapterconsiders sustainable development from an international perspective In the firstpart, he explores the challenges of simultaneously promoting development andthe environment As noted, many developing countries focus on rapid economicgrowth in the short-term at the expense of the environment, with the idea thatenvironmental problems can be fixed “later.” In contrast, the UN’s Conference

on the Environment and Development and its Agenda 21 have spurred some

countries to develop specific sustainable development strategies In the secondpart of the chapter, Prizzia uses “good practices” guidelines for nationalsustainable development strategies, as outlined by the Organization of Econ-omic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the UN, to examine OECDcountries’ performance These good practices fall into eight categories: policyintegration, intergenerational timeframe, analysis and assessment, indicators andtargets, coordination and institutions, local and regional governance, stake-holder participation, and monitoring and evaluation Finally, Prizzia concludes

by calling for more meaningful measures of sustainability, arguing thattraditional measures of economic welfare, such as gross national product(GNP), eschew important aspects of human and environmental well-being,hence obfuscating true welfare, and calling for far more internationalcooperation

David H Davis’s chapter examines the evolution of global warming policywith a special emphasis on the European Union and its member countries.Davis provides an overview of the environmental policy framework in Europe,including an account of the prominent role played by scientific and technicalstaff in the various environmental bureaucracies Environmental staffers were,for example, instrumental in pushing the European Union to assume aleadership role in global carbon reduction efforts Davis shows not only theUnited States’ reluctance to embrace global agreements like the Kyoto Protocol,but also the bargaining and compromise (e.g., on emissions trading) that hastypified the progress that has been made on global warming policy Thechapter concludes by drawing contrasts and similarities between Europeancountries and the United States in this important facet of globalenvironmental policy

Zachary A Smith and Katrina Darlene Taylor provide a detailed look attransborder air pollution and its relationship to globalization The authors arguethat the rise in environmental degradation associated with transborder airpollution is linked to and probably caused by the increase in globalization.The chapter examines several framework international agreements or regimesthat have been created to deal with air pollution The authors conclude that forinternational environmental regimes to be effective, they must be enforced,transparent, and held accountable They also suggest that trade agreements,including environmental provisions, might be the logical instrument for futurenegotiations to control transborder pollution issues

Steffan Bauer’s chapter focuses on the interlinkages between the process thathas come to be called desertification with global development, povertyeradication, and global warming Arguing that dryland degradation is a betterconcept with which to describe the local and regional processes at work, Bauerreminds the reader that desertification is not the encroachment of existingdeserts on fertile lands, as is commonly thought In that sense, desertification

is not a global commons phenomenon like global warming or stratosphericozone depletion Despite the fact that desertification occurs locally and needs to

be primarily addressed at local and regional levels, Bauer contends thatdesertification has evolved as a globalized concept that has achieved significantstatus in the governance of North–South relations The global governance

approach to dryland degradation is outlined by the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification, which the author contends reflects two decades ofenvironmental politics in which development concerns have taken precedenceover environmental issues

While the other chapters in this section focus on “global” environmentalissues, the chapter by W Henry Lambright and Anna Ya Ni explores a differentenvironmental frontier: space The chapter is framed around the development ofspace technology and the subsequent policy change associated with efforts torealize positive uses of space technology and mitigate potential negativeimpacts The authors examine three areas of space technology and policy,each with environmental dimensions: space-based observation of Earth, near-earth orbit, and deep space First, the writers illustrate how technologicaladvances witnessed the development of satellites used for space-based obser-vations of Earth’s weather, atmospheric conditions (especially ozone levels—something that solidified NASA’s environmental role in the United States), andland resources Second, their section on near-earth orbit demonstrates, in whatmay be surprising to some, the exhaustible nature of space resources, includingdesirable orbital positions for communications satellites and workable frequen-cies This section also discusses the increasingly serious environmentalproblem—both on Earth and in space—of space debris Finally, their section

on deep space discusses policy efforts related to forward (from Earth to otherplanets) and backward (from other planets back to Earth) contamination On thewhole, the chapter effectively demonstrates that global environmental concernsextend well beyond Earth’s atmosphere

There is little disagreement that access to clean, safe drinking water is anecessity, but there is also little agreement over how best to ensure that statesprovide that access to their citizens This topic, human rights to water, is thesubject of the chapter by Zachary A Smith and Kristi L Ross They illustratehow the demand for freshwater has grown rapidly in recent decades, alongwith a rise in global population and in industrial and agricultural production, all

of which strain the supply of the resource Smith and Ross argue that thefundamental problem is one of access, something that is itself affected by a host

of direct (e.g., distance to sources, cost, supply) and indirect (distribution anddemand) factors The authors discuss the shift in efforts to resolve water accessissues from national and collaborative water management strategies to a focus

on governance One such example, viewing water as a human right, asarticulated in declarations by various international organizations, is a shiftthat has not come without controversy or concern Some parties argue thatwater should be viewed as a common good to which humans have a right (e.g.,the right to a certain daily amount of water), while others view water as aneconomic good (i.e., something that is economically valued and, as such, will(should) be conserved and protected) This chapter weighs the merits ofseveral approaches to addressing the problem of water access, concludingthat ultimate solutions will be difficult given the increasing interconnectedness

of the world and that any effective approach must be one devised withinregional and local contexts

1.2.2 Part Two: Global Environmental Organizations and

Institutions

Part Two looks at global environmental organizations and institutions It beginswith Frank Biermann’s chapter on global environmental governance regimes.Biermann begins by defining the term “global governance” as new forms ofregulation that differ from traditional hierarchical state activity (“government”).Governance, the author suggests, implies self-regulation, public–private co-operation, and new forms of multilevel policy efforts The chapter reviews some

of the disagreement in terms of how governance is defined, with normativeapproaches differing from phenomenological ones From a phenomenologicalframework, global governance is an emerging new phenomenon in worldpolitics that can be described and analyzed From a normative framework,global environmental governance is a political program that is coping (or failing

to cope) with contemporary problems associated with modern environmentalissues Biermann describes three features that make global governance differentfrom traditional international relations: increased segmentation of policymaking, increased participation of nonstate and intergovernmental actors, andincreased influence of private organizations in policy making The chapterconcludes with two examples of reform in the existing system of globalenvironmental governance: the United Nations Environment Organization andinstitutionalizing civil society involvement

In “The Role of the United Nations: From Stockholm to Johannesburg,” LisaNelson explores the role the United Nations has played as the world movedtoward globalization and began to consider seriously the interconnectionbetween development and environmental deterioration The author arguesthat the UN first recognized the potential conflict between development andthe environment in the early 1970s, and since then has woven a concern for theenvironment into all development programs and a concern for developmentinto all environment programs In addition, acknowledgment of global inter-dependence and transnational environmental issues has led to a series ofinternational conventions or treaties that are administered by the UN Despitethe lack of enforcement capability, Nelson suggests that the UN has successfullyconstructed a world environmental regime that addresses long-term issues ofenvironmental degradation In addition, the UN has not only been the forcebehind defining sustainable development, it also has served as the driving forcefor demanding an integration of social, economic, and environmental factors.The chapter reviews the sustainable development efforts undertaken by the UNfrom the 1972 meeting in Stockholm to the 2002 meeting in Johannesburg.One obvious manifestation of globalization is trade, and with trade comesenvironmental impact Helping to shape these issues are international insti-tutions like the WTO—the focus of Fariborz Zelli’s contribution to thishandbook The relationship between trade and the environment and the role

of the WTO in mediating that relationship is not all at once clear Skepticscontend that the WTO and international trade liberalization will harm theenvironment by, for example, creating a race to the bottom in environmentalstandards, shifting environmental risks to less-developed countries, and

encouraging economic growth and the concomitant exploitation of resources.

On the other hand, those holding more optimistic views suggest that the WTOcan positively affect environmental performance in global trade by raisingenvironmental awareness and facilitating the dissemination of environmentallypreferable technologies and products Zelli’s chapter provides a comprehensiveexamination of this trade–environment nexus First, he presents various (and, attimes, conflicting) assumptions about trade–environment compatibility Next,

he reviews the WTO’s environmentally-related organizational arrangementsand their record, to date, in handling environmentally related trade disputes.The chapter concludes with a discussion of potential strategies for improvingWTO compatibility with environmental law In its totality, Zelli’s chapter vividlyillustrates the complexity of sorting out the relationship between global tradeand the environment, as well as the need for additional empirical evidence toserve as the basis for future informed action

Nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs, are playing increasingly ant roles in a variety of policy domains, including environmental Kyle Farmbryand Aroon Manorahan examine this emergence of NGOs in their chapter

import-“United Nations Conferences and the Legitimization of Environmental NGOs.”The authors describe the confluence of events that served to increase thelegitimacy and prominence of NGOs during the latter part of the twentiethcentury Using the framework of the United Nations’ environmental confer-ences, the evolutionary development of NGOs’ roles is explicated The authorsargue that this development now places NGOs at a critical juncture in terms ofthe scope of their roles and activities relative to other legitimate players Theysuggest that a model of NGOs as partners in change, as opposed to drivers ofchange, may be emerging Building on this suggestion, Farmbry and Manor-ahan develop a prescriptive framework for furthering the discourse on thenongovernmental sector, with emphasis placed on issues of capacity develop-ment and long-term sustainability, and ensuring states maintain theirenvironmental responsibilities

Brent S Steel and Rebecca L Warner’s chapter analyzes the state of globalenvironmental knowledge and awareness from an international and compara-tive perspective They begin by noting contributing factors (e.g., socioeconomicstatus, sources of environmental information, formal environmental edu-cational) to a perceived knowledge gap in worldwide ecological scienceliteracy Next, Steel and Warner assess the current state of global environmentalawareness and knowledge They present survey data that suggest both are highregardless of type of country (i.e., developing, current/former communist,industrial/postindustrial), a finding that augers well for global environmentaleducation efforts Speaking of such efforts, the authors submit that a one-size-fits-all approach to environmental education will be ineffective Some countries(e.g., postcommunist countries with high literacy and education participationrates but underdeveloped civil societies) may benefit most from formaleducation approaches through schools, while others (e.g., developingcountries) may benefit most from “hybrid” approaches that combine bothformal and informal elements, including indigenous knowledge Whether theapproach be formal, informal, or hybrid, the authors note the existing general

agreement that environmental education should contain four components:providing information on ecological concepts, raising awareness of howhuman behavior affects the environment, offering opportunities for investigatingand evaluating environmental solutions, and developing skills to implementthose solutions Steel and Warner conclude by posing the challenge oftranslating environmental awareness, knowledge, and education into behaviorsupporting sustainability if the “attitude–behavior gap” is to be closed.

1.2.3 Part Three: Environmental Management and Accountability

Environmental management and accountability is the theme of Part Three.Concerns over environmental degradation and environmental sustainabilityhave pushed governments to search for new ways to combat environmentalproblems Jerrell D Coggburn and Dianne Rahm’s chapter addresses one suchapproach: green procurement Green procurement attempts to address environ-mental challenges by taking advantage of a government’s vast purchasing power

to create strong markets for environmentally friendly (i.e., “green”) products andservices Coggburn and Rahm first review the policy framework for greenprocurement in the United States Next, they explore developments in greenprocurement at the national, state, and local levels The chapter presents severalbroad strategies governments and procurement professionals can pursue inimplementing green procurement, such as, creating price preferences, devel-oping green product and service specifications, and forming green teams Thechapter concludes by identifying several challenges facing governmentsimplementing green procurement policies and offering guidance onovercoming them

Laura Pasquale’s chapter on environmental management begins with anoverview of U.S environmental regulation and the current range of pollutionprevention mechanisms, both voluntary and mandatory, in use She argues thatdespite the fact that we spend billions of dollars each year trying to preventpollution, relatively little is known about how and why pollution preventionefforts work After reviewing the weakness of the current media-based (air,water, and waste) regulatory structure, Pasquale argues that to improveenvironmental quality, policy makers and regulators need to view the environ-ment and the cultures within it as complex systems The complex system hererefers to the constant interaction of individuals and groups, plants and animals,and local and global ecosystems The awareness of this complexity results in theattempt to move away from “command and control” regulatory structurestowards more flexible options, including social marketing, financial incentives,integrative regulation, sustainability projects, pollution prevention, promotion ofnew technologies, and self-certification The chapter then introduces theenvironmental management system (EMS) and shows how the EMS is effective

in addressing that complexity The chapter concludes with recommendations forsustaining participation in the EMS

In “Sustainable Waterfront Development in the Great Lakes Basin,” WendyKellogg and Erica Matheny focus on the role globalization has played in the

economic function of cities—specifically the cities of Canada and the UnitedStates that historically have depended on the Great Lakes basin to fuel theirurban cores In the last several decades, many of these cities have sought toreverse the loss of a population and industrial base that came with globalizationthrough a reinvestment in their waterfronts For some of the cities, thisreinvestment has primarily been in industry For other cities, the investmenthas been in quality of life amenities and ecological restoration The chapterdescribes efforts in four cities to create urban sustainability by making theirwaterfront the centerpiece.

In their exploration of public policy efforts aimed at promoting bothagricultural productivity increases and environmental sustainability, EdwardWeber, Madina Khalmirzaeva, Mark Stephan, Tetyana Lysak, and IlhomEsanov look at the role of water user associations in Uzbekistan They arguethat a more refined understanding of institutional and social dynamics isrequired for good public policy to be forged They emphasize the importance

of substantive citizen participation in the policy process, collaborative decisionprocesses, and distributed decision-making authority as key to success ofsustainable agricultural practices in Uzbekistan

In “Sustainability Issues and Public Procurement,” Brian Pangrle provides atwo-prong approach highlighting the issues that need to be confronted toestablish a sustainable procurement model Emphasizing the differencesbetween “green procurement” and “sustainable procurement,” Pangrle arguesthat green measures, while useful, fall short of the goal of sustainable practices.The practical issues that confront governments as they establish and try toimplement sustainable procurement codes are discussed

Catherine Horiuchi’s chapter focuses on the management of nuclear waste.After briefly reviewing the types and characteristics of radioactive wastes thatneed to be managed, she turns to a discussion of the planned U.S permanentrepository at Yucca Mountain Over budget and many years behind expectedcompletion, the failure of the government to provide a repository to receive bothcivilian and military radioactive waste has had enormous consequences Theseinclude the problems presented to the nuclear industry of how to continue tostore spent fuel rods in temporary on-site facilities, the contamination problems

at nuclear weapons production facilities, as well as the potential for terroristsgaining access to nuclear materials Horiuchi discusses the routes that othercountries have taken to handle their nuclear waste, including reprocessing andmixed oxide fuel (MOX) technologies to reduce the mass of waste needingpermanent storage She closes on a note of uncertainty, pointing out that whileglobal warming is making production of electricity via nuclear power moreattractive, the problems of disposal are still not tractable, and waste continues toamass without a solution in sight

In their chapter, Nicholas P Lovrich, Michael J Gaffney, Edward P Weber, R.Michael Bierley, Dayna R Matthews, and Bruce Bjork examine a collaborativecommunity-based approach to environmental regulatory compliance Inparticular, the authors examine salmon recovery efforts in the Pacific Northwestwithin the regulatory context of the United States Endangered Species Act Thechapter contrasts two cases, Methow Valley and the Walla Walla Basin, where

efforts have succeeded in achieving legal compliance and protecting gered species While both efforts were successful, the authors point to theadvantages of pursuing the proactive collaborative enforcement model, referred

endan-to as Resource-Oriented Enforcement (ROE), exemplified in Walla Walla Citedadvantages of ROE include it being less polarizing, while promoting trustbetween citizens and government regulatory agencies, and forming a foun-dation for future cooperative compliance efforts The model holds promise forresource protection efforts generally, but requires attention to training regulators

in proactive approaches and appreciation for factors that can mitigate successlike history and relationships from jurisdiction to jurisdiction Success is morelikely where regulatory agencies are consistent, predictable, and reliable andwhere communities exhibit high levels of social capital

1.2.4 Part Four: Controversies in Globalization and

Joyeeta Gupta addresses the issues associated with globalization, mental challenges, and North–South disputes After exploring these conceptsseparately, she links the ideas together She argues that North–South friction hasarisen out of the colonial past, a past that is largely ignored by the North but is avital issue in the South, which seeks to reorganize itself away from the colonialforms The author argues that it is in this context that environment anddevelopment issues become complex The chapter explores much of thiscomplexity

environ-Achieving equal protection from environmental and health hazards is thefocus of Celeste Murphy–Greene’s chapter on environmental justice The chaptertraces the historical development of environmental justice in the United States,