fermented grain legunes seeds and nuts doc

CHAPTER 4 - FERMENTATION OF GRAIN LEGUMES, SEEDS AND NUTS IN Latin America AND THE CARIBBEAN 99 Introduction Grain legume fermentation Fermentation of cereal/grain legume combinations Se

Fermented grain legumes,

seeds and nuts

Fermerted grain legumes,

seeds and nuts

Department of Nutrition and Food Science

Utah State University

Logan, USA

0.8 Oyewole

Department of Food Science and Technology

University of Agriculture, Abeokuta

142

Sa Ser Soros a eens Sects

© Fao 2000

Foreword This isthe third document in the Agricultural Service Bulletin series on food fermentations

in developing countries As with others in this series, this bulletin documents information on fermentation technologies, which are rapidly being lost, and highlights potential areas for the development and improvement of grain-legume, seed and nut fermentations in developing countries

Thank all of the authors who have contributed tothe preparation ofthis document,

It is hoped that this document will generate wider interest in and contribute to the development and improvement of small-scale food fermentations inthe developing world

M, Satin Chief

‘Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest Management Service FAO Agricultural Support Systems Division

Dept of Nutrition and Food Science

Utah State University

Logan, UT

USA

Chapter 2 - Fermentation of Grain Legumes, Seeds and Nuts in Africa

Dr 0 B Oyewole

Department of Food Science and Technology

University of Agriculture, Abeokuta

PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Ni

Chapter 3 - Fermentation of Gr Legumes, Seeds and Nuts in the fie Region

Dr Sue Azam-Ali and Mr

Intermediate Technology

‘Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development,

Bourton Hall, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby,

Instituto de Nutricion de Centro America y Panama

Carretera Roosevelt Zona 11,

Apartado Postal 1188,

Guatemala

L2 Grain legumes, seeds and nuts in human nutrition 5

13 Fermented foods: origin and history 7

L&— Ratianalefarfuad fermematians 17

16 Advantages of fermenting legumes 17 L.7 Nutrition, 5 toxicity and safety considerations safety 18

1.1.2 Toxicity and safety considerations 20

1.7.2.1 Naturally occurring anti-nutrients andioxicanis

1.7.2.2 Mycotoxins in fermented foods 2 1L8 Blavour and texture 2

19 Energy considerations 26 Li0—Future research needs 2 References

CHAPTER 2- FERMENTATION OF GRAIN LEGUMES, SEEDS

ANDNUTSIN AERICA 3

22 — Fermentatian ofthe African locusthean 34

2.2.1 Pre-fermentation processing 35 22.2 Household and village-level fermentation techniques 35 2.2.3 Microflora associated with locust bean fermentations 35, 22:4 Physico-chemical, functional and nut

22.5 Recent developments 38

23.1 Pre-fermentation processing 38 2.3.2 Household and village-level fermentation techniques 39

23 Microflora associated with African oil hean fermentations 33 2.34 Physico-chemical, functional and nutritional changes 39 23.5 Developments 40 24 Fermentation of melon seeds 2

2.4.1 Pre-fermentation processing 2

nai changes 36

242 Household and village-levelfermentation techniques 2 24.3 Microflora associated with melon seed fermentatians 42 2.44 Physico-chemical, functional and nutritional changes 43

245 Developments, 8 2.8 Fermented castor oilseeds

25.1 Pre-fermentation processing 44 2.52 Houschold and village-level fermentation techniques a S3 Mi ated with the fermentation 4 2.5.4 Physio-chemical, functional and nutritional changes “ 2⁄6 Fermentation of fluted pumpkin seed Eq

2.6.1 Prefermentation processing & 2.6.2 Household and village-level fermentation Techniques ue n ns - & : 2.6.4 Physio-chemical, functional and nutritional changes 45 2⁄2 _— Fermentation of sesame seed: 45

2.12.3 Microflora associated with the fermentation —5L 2.12.4 Physico-chemical, functional and nutritional changes sĩ

Page 2.13 Emerging fermentation processes sĩ

26 Gtounna fermentatans

‘Cowpea fermentations 2 T111 Aeea rarbenr 32 2d4_Conelusiong 8

Tempe 3.2.3.1 Tempe kedele Other tempe-type products 32.4.1 Tempe gembus 3.242 Tempe benguk 3.2.4.3 Tempe bongkrek Oncom (ontjom)

CHAPTER 4 - FERMENTATION OF GRAIN LEGUMES, SEEDS AND

NUTS IN Latin America AND THE CARIBBEAN 99 Introduction

Grain legume fermentation Fermentation of cereal/grain legume combinations Seed fermentations

441_Amaranth

442 Quinoa Conclusions

Tabled Grialegumes.oilseedsandnutscommonly usel

in traditional fermented foods

‘Table2 —_Proximate composition of food legumes, seeds and nuts

‘commonly used in traditional fermented foods Table3 _Mineral content (mg/100g) of food legumes, oilseeds and

nuts commonly used in traditional fermented foods Tabled _ Vitamin content of food legumes, oilseeds and nuts

‘commonly used in traditional fermented foods (per 100g TableS Examples of products manufsetured using industei

fermentation processes

‘Tableé _—_-Examples of different categories of fermented foods

‘Table? —_Legume-ased fermented foods

Tahle8 —_Effects of anti-nutrients present in plant foods

Table tural occurrences of selected common mycotoxins

Table10 Occurrence of toxicogenic fungi in indigenous fermented

BEERE

Chapter 2

‘Table1 —_ Fermented grain legumes, seeds and nuts of Africa fe

‘Table1 —_Factors affecting the quality of tempe

‘Table2 —-Mierahes involved in the fermentation of idl

‘Table3 _Essential microorganisms associated with shovu manufacture

‘Tabled ‘Types of miso produced in Japan EEEE

rage LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter2

Figurel Traditional fermentation of locust bean (Parkia spp.) ”

a

CHAPTER 1

GRAIN LEGUMES, SEEDS AND NUTS: RATIONALE FOR

FERMENTATION

1.1 Introduction

Grain legumes (including soybeans) and peanuts are ranked fiflh in terms of

‘annual world grain production, at around 190 milion tonnes, after wheat, rice, com and barley With the exception of soybeans, grain legume production has remained constant and in some areas has even declined over the past decade The major reasons for this decline include higher yields of cereal crops (and thus better returns under traditional farming systems), failure to atain significant breakthroughs in the genetics of grain legumes, and the inherent low productivity of gran legume genotypes Grain legumes

‘are usualy grown under rain-fed conditions and in poor soils with very litle, if any chemical inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides,

Globally, over 50 percent of the land area cultivated with grain legumes and nuts

is used for soybean and peanut production (FAO, 1995; Deshpande, 1992) The American subcontinent produces over 70 percent of the world’s soybeans, with the United States alone contributing to about 0 percent of that production ‘Tropical Asian countries

‘produce the bulk of the remaining grain legumes With the exception of soybeans, over

60 percent of grain legumes and practically all peanut global production takes place in developing countries Mean yields of grain legumes and nuts in developing countries however, amount to approximately half of those produced by advanced farming systems

in developed countries, which produce mean yields ranging from 500 to 2 000 kg/ha (Deshpande, 1992) There is consequently tremendous growth potential for the production of grain legumes and nuts in developing counties

‘There are well-defined preferences for grain legumes in various regions of the world, These preferences appear to be related to the virtually simultaneous arrival of the full complement of cereals and grain legumes as a pat ofthe human diet during the early history of human civilization Thus, in each ofthe early agricultural centres, certain grain legumes and cereals were specifically combined In the Far East for example, soybeans were combined with rice and peas, while in the Fertile Crescent cultures, lentils were combined with wheat and barley Several species of Phaseolus beans were combined with com in the New World, while sorghum and cowpea were probably the most

‘important combination in Africa From early times, such specifi pairings of cereals and legumes were most certainly related to recognition of the remarkable complementary nature of cereal and legume proteins inthe human diet

Different types and quantities of grain legumes are produced in different regions India produces approximately one quarter of the total quantity of dry beans grown globally, and almost 80 percent of the global production of chickpeas, while China is the leading producer of broad beans India and Africa produce the greatest diversity of grain legumes, while Central America almost exclusively produces cultivars of dry beans

The availability and consumption pattems of grain legumes vary widely in different regions of the world Grain legume availability in South America and Latin

‘America, ranges from very low in Argentina to very high in Mexico (Hellendoora, 1979)

On the other hand, grain legume consumption in North Ameriea and in most European countries is rather low The Indian subcontinent appears to have the greatest dependence

‘on grain legumes The daily intake of grain legumes in different regions of India ranges between 14 and 140 g/day/person, despite a per capita availability of approximately 50 g/day (Deshpande, 1992) Grain legumes grown in India are predominantly those of the Old World and include green gram, black gram, chickpea, pigeon pea, lentil and kesari dal The Far East (China and Japan) is also an area of high grain legume utilization, in particular soybeans Japan isa rare example of a technologically advanced society with @ high level of grain legume utilization Moderate to intensive use of grain legumes characterizes the African continent, Beans contribute to approximately 65 percent of caloric intake in certain African countries (Deshpande, 1992) Cowpea, the indigenous legume of Affica is widely grown and consumed throughout most ofthe continent Dry

‘beans and broad beans - and to a lesser extent, chickpeas and lentils - have also found acceptance in Aftiean diets

Unlike cereals and grain legumes, which are the staples of the human diet, oilseeds and nuts are primarily used as important sources of energy and as cariers of fat soluble vitamins In addition, they contribute significantly as functional ingredients in

‘improving the sensory characteristics of several processed foods

Oilseeds and their products - mainly oil and defatted meal - are currently ranked the sceond most valuable commodity in world trade Trade in these commodities rapidly increasing to meet requirements of the growing world population Approximately

71 percent of edible oils and fats are derived from plant sources (Salunkhe, e al 1992) Oilseeds are those erops in which energy is stored primarily in the form of oil Oil crops, such as peanut and sesame, are used directly as food while others are exclusively processed for the production of fat or oil, and cake or meal Technological advances have led to increased production, and improvements in product quality and versatility These developments have also paved the way for the development of technologies for the processing of non-food products using oilseeds as the raw material

Oils derived from 40 different types of oilseeds are appropriate for human consumption Only a few ofthese oilseeds however contribute significantly to the world’s edible/non-edible oil supply Among the oilseeds, soybeans account for over 30 percent

of world oilseed outputs Oilseeds are produced primarily in temperate regions Palm rapeseed, peanuts and sunflower account forthe bulk of remaining production,

Per capita consumption of oils and fats in the industrialized counties of the Western world has reached a point at which a substantial increase is not expected On the other hand, inthe developing world, oil consumption is well below recommended levels

“The per capita consumption of oils and fats in India for example, is 4.6 kg against the

‘world average of 7 kg ‘The availability of oils and fats in India is substantially lower (12

‘per day) than the minimum requirement of 18 g recommended by FAO (Salunkhe, et al 1992), Efforts are being made to inerease the production of oilsceds in the developing

‘world, in order to attain minimal nutritional requirements

Oilseed utilization varies considerably in different parts of the world A major proportion of peanut production is utilized for the extraction of oil in the developing countries of Asia In contrast, peanuts are almost exclusively used for the preparation of roasted snack foods and peanut butters in developed countries Similarly, coconut ol is used for cooking in some parts of Asia, whereas it is mostly used in non-food applications in developed countries A similar type of variation in the pattem of utilization exists for rapeseed, cotton and many other oilseeds In order to improve their utilization as human food, novel and alternative uses are being developed for oilseeds Among the oilseeds, only soybeans and, to a lesser extent, peanut, sesame and coconut tare used in preparing indigenous fermented foods in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East

‘The term “nuts” is commonly used to describe the shellencased seeds of non- leguminous trees, although various other seeds commonly termed nuts may not grow on trees, and may even be legumes Peanuts and bambara groundnuts for example, re the seeds of leguminous plants Tree nuts, such as eashew and almonds, enjoy global acceptance and are valued primarily for their sensory and nutritional attributes Being high in lipids (45-70 pereent) and proteins (20-25 percent), they are energy-rich foods They are often used as protein supplements to cereal diets, particularly in regions where animal protein foods are searce

World nut production is small in comparison to oilseed and grain legume production Coconuts and peanuts are by far the most important nut crops Together, they account for about 94 percent of world nut production (FAO, 1995) This is primarily

‘because their ols are among the leading ingredients of margarines and shortenings, With the exception of almonds, which contribute to almost one third of world nut production, relatively few muts are grown in the United Stats

[Nuts are still gathered from wild trees in many parts of the world, Revent growth

in demand for nuts together with the rapid loss of wild tees to other land use, have now

‘made it profitable to utilize more intensive and scientific methods of nut production,

‘The various common and scientific names of food legumes, seeds and nuts commonly used for preparing a variety of traditional fermented foods are summarized in Table 1

Table 1 Grai legumes, oilseeds and nuts commonly

‘used in traditional fermented foods

Botanical Name Common name

Grain Legumes

ore gram

‘Lent masue dha

‘Lapin, tri, tarin, peat lpi, sweet pine Moth bean

“Mung bean, green gram, golden gram

‘Mung bean, mungo bean urd da, black gram

“Mung bean, golden gram, geen gram Common ben, kidney bean, navy bean, back, pink, or red bean, pinto bea, roman bea, gest northern bea, dry bean, fej, jo, French kidney, Kinotocki

‘Winged bean, go bean

‘Moth bean, mati, mouth bean, mat, math Mung bean

Green gram

Cowpea Black gram Compa, black-eyed pea, black-eyed bean, dried compa Rice Bean, red bean, arbi bean

Blackeyed cowpea, black-eyed pe, cowpea Bambara groundnut, Madagascar groundnut, canh pea

Oilseeds and Nuts

— Soybean, soybean, soja Oil bean wee, Congo acacia, ata bean

‘Almond Sesame, angel,

12 Grain legumes, seeds and nuts in human nutrition

Grain legumes play a special role in the human diet in that they contain almost two to three times more protein than cereals In fact, grain legumes constitute the principal source of dietary protein for vegetarians Although total protein production from cereals in 1995 was about two and a half times that from grain legumes, lysine ields from grain legumes was, in fat, greater than that from cereals Since lysine isthe principal deficient amino acid in most plant proteins, the importance of grain legumes in human nutrition may be vastly underestimated Although cereals supply nearly 50 percent of the protein in the human diet worldwide, their unfavourable balance of amino acids requires that complementary protein be provided for optimal nutrition Animal proteins (meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and milk) contribute substantially to the dict in Western developed countries This preference may be based on intuitive recognition of their higher intrinsic nutritional value or a more favourable balance oftheir constituent amino acids In Western diets therefore, the poor quality of cereal proteins is hardly of |

‘any importance In developing countries, however, animal proteins are either too expensive (€., in Latin America and Africa) or are not readily accepted (e.g in India), Grain legumes serve as main sources of both protein and calories in many of these

‘wopical and sub-tropical areas Dry grain legumes and legume produets are in fact the richest sources of food protein derived from plants (Deshpande, 1992)

In addition to providing calories and serving as important sources of several B complex vitamins, minerals and fibre, gran legumes provide an important source of plant protein for human nutrition Grain legume proteins are generally of poor quality However, when consumed in combination with eereals ther protein quality is enhanced due to a mutually complementary effect of their constituent amino acids with those of cereal proteins The relative proportion of grain legumes used in legume-cereal

‘combinations shows regional variation, In Latin America, grain legumes constitute about

10 percent of the diet, while in different regions of India, the proportion ranges between

30 and SO percent ‘The mutually complementary effect of grain legumes and cereals is

‘due to the fact that the sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine and eysteine) are limiting in grain legumes while lysine is limiting in cereals A maximum complementary effect often occurs at a 50:50 ratio ofthe two types of proteins A maximum inerease in nutritive value is obtained for combinations of grain legumes with cereals such as com and sorghum, which are of poor protein quality, followed by combinations with wheat, rice and oats

‘The oil content of most oilseeds varies between 20 and 40 percent, while that of peanut and coconut oil exceeds 50-60 percent Oils consist primarily of mixtures of triglycerides The chemical and physical characteristics of vegetable oils are dependent

on the nature and quantity of their fatty acid constituents Nutritionally, vegetable oils supply about 9.3 calories per gram, However polyunsaturated fats and vitamin E are the

‘most valuable nutritional constituents of vegetable oils With the exception of cocoa butter, coconut and palm oils, most vegetable oils possess a higher degree of unsaturation

than fats derived from land animals In addition, vegetable oils are free of cholesterol,

\which is often implicated inthe etiology of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases

Ol extraction is a major operation in oilseed processing The residual oil content

of the solventextracted meal varies between 1 and 2 percent The oil content of oil cake

‘or meal obtained after expeller pressing varies between 4 and 6 percent, and is rich in protein The protein content of soybean meal varies between 45 and SO percent, while

‘that of peanut meal varies between SO and 60 percent Other oilseed meals, which are generally used in animal feeds, also contain between 35 and 40 percent protein Technologies are being increasingly developed and standardized for the commercial processing of protein-rich defatted meal or cake into food grade products such as flour, protein concentrates and isolates Such technological developments will facilitate improvement of the contribution of oilseeds to world food supply in general, and as a source of dietary protein, in particular

Defatted meals of most oilseeds are relatively good sources of minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus and magnesium, and are reasonably good sources of vitamin Be complex

Grain legumes, oilseeds, and nuts contain abundant quantities of nutrients Due to their high fat content, most nuts supply atleast 500 calories per 100 g portion Although the protein content of nuts is approximately equivalent to that of legumes (about 20 percent, on average), the ratio of protein to calories for most nuts (about 4 g protein per

100 calories) is only two-thirds ofthat for legumes, Defatted by-products of nuts such as almond meal and peanut flour, however, are much better sources of protein and are substantially lower in calories Nuts are particularly useful for low-carbohydrate diets,

‘owing to their low carbohydrate content They are also good sources of minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, zine, and copper, and provide a good source of the B-complex vitamins Roasting, however, destroys much of the thiamin content of nuts,

With the exception of coconuts, which contain over 90 percent of saturated fatty acids, most edible nuts contain atleast 77 percent of unsaturated faty acids Many nuts also contain significant quantities of linoleic acid, an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid

in the human diet,

Asis the case with grain legumes, nuts contain about twice as much protein as the common cereal grains and have amino acid patterns, which generally complement those

of cereals However, nuts contain less of the amino acid lysine than do grain legumes In general, nuts are nutritionally adequate, provided that 350-450 g are consumed daily along with some fruits and/or vegetables to supply vitamins A and C The high cost of nuts however makes it more economical to consume dietary combinations of animal foods, cereals, and legumes It is therefore apparent that with the exception of a few undeveloped areas blessed with an abundance of wild nut trees, most individuals of

modest means would have to setle for using nuts as oecasional snacks and gamishes for dishes,

‘The proximate, mineral and vitamin compositions of important legumes, oilseeds and nuts commonly used in traditional fermented foods are summarized in Tables 2 to 4

“The fermented food industry may very well be one ofthe largest worldwide, Well known fermented products range from alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine, 10 cheeses, soured milk products, various types of breads, yeast products and antibiotics (Table 5) In technologically developed regions, these food products have evolved into the large-scale industrial production of fermented consumer goods Their high price, ensured status, and refined quality guarantee continued and increasing consumption Not

so well known ae the fermented foods of various Asian countries, particularly those from China and India Almost unknown in the West is the fermentation of vegetables, including soybeans and cabbage, and the fermentation of grains into porridges in Africa Many of these traditional indigenous foods lack the “high-tech” image accorded to cheeses, cultured milks, pickles, wines and beer, and fermented meat products Some are even regarded as “poor people's food.” Factors contributing to such lack of appeal include inadequate grading and cleaning of raw materials, erude handling and processing techniques, and insufficient product protection due either to the lack offor improper packaging Such unhygienic practices are easily translated into a fear of foodbome diseases in the Western word

Fermentation is in fact one of the oldest and most economical methods of preserving foods The origins of fermentation are lost in antiquity ‘The texture and taste

‘of over-tipe or damaged fruits probably provided the earliest experiences of fermentation

‘and spoilage for nomadie populations, before the dawn of ageiculture and more settled ized societies (13 000-8 000 BC), ‘The gradual domestication of plants and animals

‘and a desire for storage and preservation were also important in providing experiences of spoilage and fermentation, and thus a choice between acceptable and undesirable products, Thus ill smelling, off-lavoured, or toxie products are described as “spoiled”,

‘while pleasantly flavoured foods which are non-toxic with attractive aromas and textures, are described as “fermented foods”

‘Archaeological evidence suggests that mankind has produced fermented foods over several millennia Many fermentations were probably selected, refined and developed together with the domestication of food plants, since most fermented foods are produced from well-known domesticated crops Evidence of beer brewing and

‘winemaking in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia date from 6 000-2 000 BC (Stanton, 1993), Archaeological evidence of Sumerian winemaking dates ftom around 3 500 BC

Table 4 Vitamin content of food legumes, oilseeds and nuts commonly used in

traditional fermented foods (per 100 g)*

“Compiled from Deshpande and Deshpande, (191) and Salus, ea (1992)

[NA Data not available

‘Table 5 Examples of products manufactured using industrial fermentation

processes Alcoholic beverages Wines, beer

Mik and ik produc CCltared milks, yogurts, cheses

‘Aatibaties Denil cerayels, steptomycin

Organic solvents Acetone, butanol, ethanol

Gases Carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane

Flavours Monosodium slatamate, nucleotides

‘Organic acids “Laat aid, citi ac acetic acid

‘Amino aids Lysine, tami acid

Vitamins ‘Vaamins A, C nd B12, rbotavn

Hormones Strid, inslin

Enzymes “Armylases, proteases, invertases

Alcoholic fermentations are almost certainly much older than this, as is vinegar fermentation, which occurred in parallel, following the discovery and development of

‘wine and beer fermentations

Evidence of breadmaking dates back to the ancient Egyptians (about 4 000 BC), although the development of bakeries and the use of yeast obtained from wine appear to

"be Roman in origin Sourdough bread fermentations are thought to originate from about

800 BC Fermented milks were known in India from 2 000 BC, and cheese and yogurt, have probably been made for as long as humans have kept and milked domesticated animals Historical evidence ftom China suggests that many of the oriental fermented foods, such as soy sauce and miso, also date back over several millennia (Stanton, 1903; Steinkraus, 1996),

1.4 Diversity of fermented food products

Fermented foods constitute a diverse range of products from many regions of the

‘world Campbell-Platt (1987) listed some 250 categories of fermented foods with over

3 500 individual products The range of fermented products is extremely diverse, there being over 900 known types of cheeses, over 200 varieties of fermented meats, and over

200 types of breads, Fermented foods ean generally be classified on the basis of the type fof substrate used for fermentation, These fall into eight main eategories: meats, sea- foods, dairy, cereals, root crops, legumes, fruits, vegetables and miscellaneous substrates, Selected examples of the major categories of fermented foods, the substrates used, the

‘main regions of production and the principal microorganisms involved, ae listed in Table

6, Either alkaline (proteolytic), lactic acid, acetic acid or alcoholic fermentations or a combination thereof (Stanton, 1993), are involved in the production of these fermented food products, Autolytic enzymes such as proteases play an important role in the fermentation of some Southeast Asian fermented seafoods Plant ingredients incorporated

in the fermentation may also serve as sources of enzymes, catalysts, and stimulants of

‘microbial activity

Europe is perhaps the most important region for the production of fermented foods However, these consist primarily of fermented dairy products, cereals, aleoholic beverages and fermented meats Fermented foods based on starch erops, legumes and seafoods are produced primarily in developing countries (Reddy, ef al 1986; Stanton, 1993; Steinkraus 1996) The preparation of fermented foods is a widespread tradition both in Southeast Asia and in Affica Processes used in traditional fermentations are relatively simple, inexpensive and do not require complex machinery Fermented products are often treated, as delicacies that supply protein and other nutrients required by millions of people subsisting on marginal incomes on these two continents,

LLegume-based fermented foods of different countries are presented in Table 7

—

andosngy Tipswa9m tan

1.5 _ Rationale for food fermentations

‘Much of the developing world is reliant upon fermentation and solar dehydration for the preservation and processing of its foods at costs within the means of the average consumer, Similarly, since fortification and enrichment of foods using synthetic vitamins and other nutrients is not widely practiced, populations in these pars ofthe world are also

‘often reliant upon biological enrichment for vitamins and essential amino acids in their diets

According to Steinkraus (1996), fermentation plays atleast five important roles in the dicts ofthe developing countries These include:

‘© Dietary enrichment through development of a diversity of flavours, aromas, and textures in food substrates,

« Preservation through lactic acid, aleohole acetic acid, and alkaline fermentations

‘© Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and vitamins

‘© Detoxification

‘© Decreasing cooking times and fuel requirements

Microorganisms associated with indigenous fermented foods are generally edible

‘Those with the ability to produce enzymes, vitamins, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, antibiotics, organic acids, peptides, proteins, fats, complex polysaccharides, desirable flavour compounds, or flavour-enhancing compounds, are of potential value to the food industry The cultures/strains associated with food fermentations offer potential for genetic modification and genetic engineering in the future

High ambient temperatures in tropical regions often lead to rapid food spoilage if

‘the food is not preserved or consumed rapidly Fermentation can extend the shelf life of| perishable foods and improve or salvage nutrition in such foodstuffs, particularly good example of this is the production of fish sauces in Indochina using salt and a selective fermentation facilitated by the action of enzymes indigenous tothe fish,

Fermentation often results in new or improved flavours, aromas and textures in the food product The importance of improving flavours inthe diets of individuals, who consume vegetable protein, either for economic or cultural reasons, cannot be underestimated, Fermented foods such as shoyu and miso produce such strong flavours that these produets are not consumed on their own, but are added as condiments in order

to enhance the flavours of other foods Organoleptic properties of fermented foods are often distinctly different from those of unfermented products, Aroma and flavour compounds may include organic acids, carbonyl compounds, esters, ethanol, ketones, lactones and pyrazines In some instances such as in the conversion of milk to cheese of yogurt, cereals into bread and soybeans into soy sauce or Indonesian tempe, both the texture and organoleptic properties of the raw material are altered,

Fermentation also leads to improved nutritional value through enrichment with

‘microbial protein, amino acids, lipids and vitamins, which are sometimes not present in the original substrate, Unlike Westem fermented foods, many fermented Oriental products utilize cereal-legume combinations Presumably, because of differences in amino acid compositions, these mixtures give a better balanced food product Fermentation does not greatly alter the amino acid content of cereals and legumes but

‘may enhance the availability of proteins through their hydrolysis to amino acids Undesirable beany flavours are destroyed in many fermentations which contain soybeans and other grain legumes In addition, undesirable ant-nutrient, which affect digestion or nutsient bioavailability, are removed either during processing or through enzymatic degradation Product digestibility is partly improved through processing steps, such as heating and soaking of the legumes In fact, many Oriental processes for preparing legume-based fermented foods incorporate soaking and cooking steps withthe soak water often being discarded Soaking removes a significant portion of the undesirable anti- nutrients from legumes Many legume-based fermented foods also require shorter

‘cooking times following fermentation, and consequently have lower fuel requirements

1.7 Nutrition, toxicity and safety considerations

Microbial fermentations have played an important role in food processing and preservation for several millennia, Food fermentations are either natural and/or mixed

‘culture fermentations and incorporate a number of different species and genera of yeast, fungi (moulds) and/or bacteria, Microbial interactions vary in accordance with the type of fermentation, and ate quite complex for many indigenous fermentations In submerged culture fermentations (SCEs), microbial activity occurs at relatively low biomass

‘concentrations in the liquid phase In solid substrate fermentations (SSF5), however, microbial growth and product formation occurs on the surfaces of solid’ substrates (Tengerdy, 1985; Paredes Lopez and Alpuche Solis, 1991; Paredes Lopez, 1992) Soy sauce is a particularly good example of a traditionally fermented product of grain legumes manufactured using SCF Tempe, miso, oncom and natto are examples of products produced by SSF A major distinguishing feature between SSF and SCFS is that

SSF processes require low moisture conditions (approximately 10-20 percent), ic conditions under which water activity favors the development of filamentous fungi It is therefore not unusual to encounter fungal-bacterial, fungal-yeast, and yeast-bacteral

‘combinations during the fermentation of traditional indigenous foods ‘These interactions play an important role inthe nutritional, safety and sensory characteristics ofthe product (Reddy, ef al 1986; Hall, 1989 and Steinkraus, 1996) Some of these considerations are discussed inthe following sections

1.7.4 Nutritional considerations

‘The main effect of fermentation is to make more nutrients available for assimilation, through changes involving the hydrolysis of nutrients such as proteins and starches Enrichment by fermentation may also result in increases in protein, essential

‘amino acids and vitamin content,

‘The proximate composition of most foods does not change significantly during fermentation However, the soluble fraction of a food is increased by fermentation Microbial proteases degrade complex proteins into simple protein, peptides, and amino acids The breakdown of complex carbohydrates also results in an increase in soluble simple sugars In tempe fermentations, which utilize Rhizopus spp significant increases are generally observed in soluble fat, protein and carbohydrate content The free fatty acid content, including the essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids, may also increase in these indigenous fermented foods These increases are thought to be of nutritional significance for individuals who consume marginal diets

The protein content of substrates of a high starch content, such as polished rice,

‘can be increased by fermentation This occurs in the case of Indonesian tempe, and in the fermentation of glutinous rice, Loss of starch solids during fermentation leads to a two- fold increase in protein content on a dry mass basis (Stanton, 1993),

Mixed ceteal-legume fermentations are particularly important with respect to the complementarity of their amino acid content The sulfurcontaining amino acids,

‘methionine and cysteine, are often limiting in legumes, while cereal proteins ate generally deficient in lysine, Fermentation increases the levels of methionine during tempe and Indian idli fermentations and the level of lysine during Indonesian tape and wheat- soybean tempe fermentations It should however be emphasized that the bioavailability

‘and total balance of amino acids ina food product is more important than its total amino acid content

Traditional fermentations dramatically improve the vitamin content ofa variety of substrates, These increases in vitamins are of major significance to individuals who

‘consume a limited diet The synthesis of vitamin B,, in fermented foods is particularly important for vegetarians since this vitamin is normally supplied by animal foods and,

‘can lead to pernicious anemia when deficient in the human diet

Many fermented foods provide a valuable source of readily available energy, including glucose, maltose, ethanol and organic acids Fermentation may also lead to a

‘nutritionally more favourable balance of fatty acids, with increases in the level of polyunsaturated fatty acids,

Although fermentation improves the nutritional composition of many foods, excessive proteolysis in some fermentations may lead to ammonia production and a loss

of valuable nutrients Processing treatments prior to fermentation (Soaking, washing, sieving, etc.) may also lead to losses of certain water-soluble minerals and vitamins Results of fermentation processing are therefore not always nutritionally beneficial,

Fermented foods are in general more efficiently uilized by the human digestive system owing to the fact that they contain increased amounts of soluble proteins, an improved amino acid profile, and reduced levels of certain ant-nutritional factors (see the section on Toxicity and safety considerations) An increase in protein elficiency ratio (PER) and biological value (BV) is often observed, particularly in those indigenous fermented foods that utilize cereal-legume combinations

1.72 Toxicity and safety considerations

1.7.2.1 Naturally oceurring anti-nutrients and toxicants

Food legumes contain significant levels of anti-nutrtional and toxie components

‘Commonly occurring ant-nutrients in plant foods used for human consumption and their biological and anti-nurtional effects are summarized in Table 8 Many of these anti-

‘nutritional and toxic components are capable of reducing the nutritional value of foods by limiting the digestibility of proteins and carbohydrates (e.g enzyme inhibitors, lectins, and tannins), or by reducing the biological availability of minerals (eg phytate and foxalates) Grain legumes, such as lima beans, also contain significant amounts of

‘cyanogenic glycosides The liberation of hydrogen eyanide (HCN) from these cyanogenic glucosides can pose an aetual or potential danger o human health The consumption of field or broad bean (Vicia faba) is also associated with favism; a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia in certain susceptible population segments in Mediterranean counties Individual susceptibility 10 this disease, is however believed to be of genetic origin (Deshpande and Deshpande, 1991),

eonsumption (Deshpande, 1992) Many Oriental fermented food-processing operations for example, include a soaking and a cooking or heating step prior to fermentation Discarding the soak water prior to further processing can result in the removal of significant amounts of anti-nutitional factors from these foods Further elimination of toxie compounds may also occur during the actual fermentation process Many microorganisms are important in the degradation of ant-nutrtional and toxic

‘components, which influence the bioavailability of nutrients in foods Little is, however, known about the individual species of microorganisms involved in ‘traditional fermentation processes and their capacity to hydrolyze or degrade anti-nutritional factors fom various legumes Research geared toward identification of bacteria, yeasts and

‘moulds and combinations thereof that rapidly degrade anti-nutrients during early stages

of fermentation will certainly be useful in developing safer and more nutritious fermented foods

‘Table 8 Effects of anti-nutrients present in plant foods

Antisntrient tects

Pytohemagelatinins (ects) Growth depression, faa

Protease inhibitors Pancreatic hypertophy, diay loss of S-amino acid, reduced

protein uiizaen Amylase ibibitrs Amylase inhibition, may hinder carbohydrate lization

Flaten factors Flaus resulting in dscomfon, abdominal rumblings, cramps, pai,

and aires Phytte Reduced miner bioavailability, altered protein solubility, enzyme

Sahib Onaates Chelation of dietary divalent cations and redvedbiosvalbiity Polyphenols (amine) Reduction in protein dgesily and utilization, inhibition of

several enzymes cyanogens (Cjnidepotscning, act as progotrogens

Goitrogens Inhibition ffdine Binding To thyroid gland

Saponias Biter tae, foaming, hemolysis

Allergens Several allege reactions

Lathyrogens Nerotoxic nervous paralysis of lower limbs, fatal

Favism Hemolytic anemia

Of-avours Loss of cerain amino aes, reduced product aceptabilty to Phytoalexins Hemolyss, ncoupe oxidative phosphorylation

Esuogens Growth inhibition, interference With reproduction

{ysionolanine [Nepirtonciy,redution in available Tyne, kiney cell micleus

nd estoplsm enlrgement

‘Amino acid racemiation (Generation of D-amina aes, may act as syperist to Iysinoaanine

Inexpession of nephrocytomezaly

‘Toxic amin aids Seuctrl analogs of protein amino acids, act as antimetabolites,

potent inhibitors of several enzyme stems Antianin Increased vinin reguvemens, rachitogeni, er necrosis,

muscular dstophy

1.7.2.2 Mycotoxins in fermented foods

The risk of mycotoxin contamination in fermented foods is quite high, since many fermented foods are produced with the use of fungal species The primary reason for avoiding the consumption of mouldy foods, other than the wel-known fermented foods,

is their undesirable lavour and appearance The ingestion of mould-contaminated foods

by humans and animals may also have adverse heath effects

Hundreds of mycotoxins have been discovered and documented in the literature

‘over the past SO years, owing tothe unique ability of fungi to produce a diversity of these

“organic metabolites Biological effects of mycotoxins are as varied as are their chemical structures Mycotoxins cause acute and chronic toxicity, in addition to immunosuppression, carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects (Sharma and Salunkhe, 1991; Chu, 1996),

Some commonly occurring mycotoxins, their sources and biological effects are summarized in Table 9 A majority of mycotoxins are produced by toxie strains of the Aspergillus and Penicillium genera; however, Fusarium and other fungi produce some of the more potent toxins Cereal products (com and wheat), peanuts, cottonseed, and

‘mixed feeds appear to be the foodstuffs which are most commonly contaminated with mycotoxins Practically all foods are susceptible to mould contamination and thus possible mycotoxin contamination, since mycotoxins are produced both in the field and during storage and fermentation,

Among the mycotoxins, aflatoxins have been extensively studied owing to their potent carcinogenic effects, stability and the wide distibution of flavus and A parasiticus in the environment The question of whether aflatoxins and/or other

‘mycotoxins may be associated with traditionally fermented foods has been raised ever since the discovery of aflatoxins 4 flavus which is morphologically related to the well= known 4, oryzae, is used in the preparation of koji, a starter for a number of Oriental fermented foods Extensive studies, revently reviewed by Chu (1996), have however shown that industrial koji inocula do not produce aflatoxins

Although 4 oryzae koji is considered safe for use as a starter culture in the preparation of a number of Oriental fermented foods, 4 flavus and other mycotoxin- producing fungi have on occasion been isolated from fermented foods (Table 10), Aflatoxins have also been detected in some of these indigenous fermented foods Mycotoxin producing fungi in fermented foods originate either from contaminated rav

‘material, or as a result of contamination during fermentation and/or storage due to {improper sanitation practices The presence of toxicogenic fungi in fermented foods thus increases the risk of mycotoxin production in these foods

Table 10, Occurrence of toxicoger ic fungi in indigenous fermented foods*

Fermented Foods Toxleogele Fungi Katsvobashi Aspergillus las, A glacus group, A ochraces, A

‘tiaras, Pencilam celta, P patel Kaomak (fermented rice) 4 flans, A parasiticus

Taöje søybetn sauce) A temeas 4 ñmlgane, A clavars

Meju (or kok) 4 clans, A las, A chracens, A ericlor Mimi mash) 4 flares, A ieae

Miso ‘Alemania spp A flans, A slouces group, 4

‘tian, A Supharcus, A teres, A verseoor, P brevcompactum, P charles, P.meogrinum, Paccitomyees aril A ochracens, P, eloptm, P aoleum P pdierm

‘Soybean sauce (pat) A flares, & parasiticus

Soy sauce (shyt, juny) 4 mua P eirinin P xalcum,P variable

‘Tien-mein-jiun (set Hour pase) 4 flovs, A versicolor,

‘Teukemona P-yelopium,P.puberuun

“Compe from Reddy, et al (1986); Seinkraus, (1996) and Chu, (1996)

Relatively few studies have focused on the fate of mycotoxins in the preparation

of indigenous fermented foods Aflatoxin was determined to be unstable in soy sauce, particularly during prolonged storage periods Similarly, at low levels of contamination, aflatoxin is destroyed during the preparation of several traditional Nigerian fermented Foods (Reddy, eral, 1986; Steinkraus, 1996; Chu, 1996)

Control of mycotoxin contamination in fermented foods must focus on preventing toxicity development in raw materials as well as during fermentation processing, Wherever possible, only raw materials of the highest quality should be used in fermentation processing Good sanitary practices and controlled environments are equally important in avoiding contamination with toxicogenic fungi Safe products are usually obtained upon observance of the following recommendations:

‘+ Appropriate soaking of raw materials in acidic environments

‘Adequate cooking

‘Maintenance of hygienic conditions du

and

+ Proper reRigeraion ofproduets bebveen production and consumption

ig production, handling, and storage,

In addition, non-toxieogenic pure cultures should be used as innocula for the industrial processing of fermented foods Most cultures used in traditional fermentations have fortunately been shown to be nontoxic (Steinkraus, 1996) The use of new cultures should be avoided unless proven nontoxic Mycotoxin production in fermented foods

2

right be prevented through adjustment of fermentation conditions Activated charcoal

‘may, for example, be used at the ripening and filtration steps during the preparation of soy sauce, in order to facilitate the removal of mycotoxins Conditions that preclude mycotoxin formation during the preparation of indigenous fermented foods require further study

It should also be noted that part of the benefit of consuming fermented foods, particularly in developing countries, might stem fom the ability of fermentation products, such as organic acids, alcohols, diacetyl, acetoin, and esters to kill or suppress the growth of foodbome pathogenic bacteria, Fermentations involving lactic acid bacteria offer potential for more widespread applications, particularly with respect to the preservation of cereals, legumes and root crops and the provision of safe, low-cost

‘weaning foods for developing countries Stanton, 1993), Lactic acid bacteria associated with fermented foods are a rich source of anti-mierobial compounds that include organic acids, diacetyl, acetoin, hydrogen peroxide and bacteriocins Nisin, a bacteriocin produced by Lactococcus lactis ssp lactis, is active against some bacteria, has a GRAS (generally regarded as safe") status, and is now approved for use as a food preservative

in more than 40 countries With growing interest in natural, minimally processed foods,

‘other bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria may eventually gain approval for use

a preservatives in both fermented and non-fermented foods,

148 Flavour and texture

New or improved flavours, aromas and textures often characterize fermented foods The importance of these factors in enriching vegetarian diets and the diets of developing countries cannot be ignored In fact, extensive studies of the flavour components in Japanese shoyu and miso have led to the development of the huge

‘monosodium glutamate and flavour-enhaneing nucleotide industries of today

In some instances, fermentation is carried out for the specific purpose of imparting colour to the product, while in other instances, such as in miso and shoyu fermentations, the colour ofthe final product is incidental to the fermentation process

Once the flavour and colour of a fermented product are known, new applications can be envisaged for the product A particularly good example ofthis is the possibilities envisioned for the use of miso in domestic markets in Japan and in Western markets The Virtues of miso can be exploited ina number of ways:

‘© A varity of pleasing flavours and colours resulting from ingredients and the length of fermentation

= Ameaty flavour

Good keeping qualities

‘© Absigh salt content

ne

‘+ Nutritious qualities, although this factor is not considered very important in Western dicts

Good consistency, ie blends well with other food i

Favourable thickening properties, and

= Loweost

sdients

Miso ean also be used either as a substitute or in combination with, tomato sauce

in tomato-based foodstuffs, without significantly altering colour and appearance Is high salt content also makes it useful as a salt substitute In addition, it is applicable in the preparation of meat and barbecue sauces, and for the flavouring of snack foods such as, potato chips, com curls, and other similar products Further research, will undoubtedly result in new uses for miso and shoyu, and will result in the development of exciting new products from other traditional fermented foods

Fermentation also provides methods of converting vegetable proteins to meat-like flavours and textures In Indonesia, solid-state bean fermentations forthe production of

‘meat-substitutes, such as fempe have been practiced for centuries, Such “bean cheeses”

‘balance vitamin and essential amino acid deficiencies in predominantly cereal-based diets, while improving digestibility through reducing bean flatulence and the elimination

of anti-nutrtional factors, in particular, trypsin inhibitors,

(One advantage of producing meat analogs is that they are completely edible, in contrast to meats, which contain bones and other inedible components In Indonesia, the tempe process is used for conversion of what might essentially be considered animal feed,

to foods for human consumption The production of tempe demonstrates one methodology for producing protein-rich meat substitutes that are easily digestible, nutritionally adequate, and inexpensive Tempe is already growing rapidly in popularity

in the Western world,

1.9 Energy considerations

A major factor in the under-utlization of food legumes, particularly in developed countries, is their prolonged cooking requirements This has placed them at a disadvantage when compared to convenience foods developed for the retail market Similarly, the scarcity and high cost of fuel in developing countries necessitates investigations into cooking legumes by hydration

Whole or split legumes with or without seed coats are most commonly cooked either at atmospheric pressure and temperature, or by retorting, The primary purpose of cooking is to soften the beans and to destroy anti-nutrtional factors Soaking generally preceeds cooking Depending on the species and the cultivar, cooking times for most food legumes range between 0.5 and 6 hours

og

Fermentation largely overcomes the disadvantage of long cooking times for several legumes through the partial hydrolysis of their starch and protein constituents Fermentation is particularly useful for the processing of hard legume seeds Many traditional fermentation processes employ a soaking step, which facilitates softening of the cotyledons, thus reducing cooking times and consequently energy consumption

Fermented legume-based foods require cooking times ranging between 2 and 30 minutes, as compared to requirements of up to 6 hours for whole legumes In fact, Indonesian tempe was one ofthe first quick-cooking foods characteristic, highly prized

in Westem food technology Fermentation is therefore likely to be more popularly used for the processing of various legumes as interest tums towards minimal processing and more efficient use of fod and fuel resources

1.10 Future research needs

Fermented foods are likely to remain an integral part of the human food supply, particularly inthe developing world Improvements in the organoleptic characteristics of traditional fermented foods may increase their production and consumption in the Western world However, several social and scientific factors will affect the wider consumption of fermented foods in the West These include, among others, the following

Scientific interest in fermented foods

Safety of fermented foods

Shelf-life of fermented foods

Physical properties of fermented foods

Interest in a variety of natural products of plant origin

Interest in more healthy foods

[Necessity for increased consumption of plant materials as populations increase

‘Culture and rel

‘Movement of people

Further research is required in onder to enhance the production and consumption

of traditional fermented foods Perhaps the greatest opportunity for the development of fermented foods is in the area of understanding the genetics of the microorganisms involved in indigenous food fermentations with the use biotechnological tools Since

‘microorganisms largely control the quality of fermented foods, an understanding of the role ofthese organisms inthe fermentation process is vital

Village-art methods and age-old techniques are still used for food processing in a number of developing counties However, increasing populations, drought and other natural disasters and inadequate food production, dictate that better options for food

processing be adopted Potential research areas for improving traditional indigenous fermentation processes include

« Isolation, characterization, and preservation of microbial strains from traditional fermented foods and the feasibility of manipulating their genetics using recombinant DNA technology

‘© dentification of strains of existing cultures suited to novel substrates

Selection and use of new organisms in fermentation processes

‘© Feasibility of using non-toxic, pure starter cultures in traditional fermentation processes

Use of multi-strain dehydrated starter cultures that can be stored under ambient conditions inthe tropics

‘+ Use of sporeless mutants, where sporulation is disadvantageous

‘© Identification and use of thermophilic, osmophilic and specific metabolite- resistant motants

‘© Enhancement of the nutvitional value of the raw materials through synthetic additives, such as nitrogen sources, to facilitate rapid growth of fermenting

‘microorganisms and thus inerease the synthesis of particularly useful end products

‘© Identification of fermentation-directing agents, such as pH controllers, or

‘compounds which create osmophilic conditions

Use of water activity-controlling agents, such as salt, sugars, starch and other polysaccharides,

‘© Identification of microflora-restreting agents, such as the addition of general

‘or specific antibiotics to eliminate contaminant flora orto inhibit their growth, thereby enhancing the safety of the final product

‘When considering the genetic improvement of microorganisms used in indigenous fermentations, it is necessary to deal with the target objectives for each individual fermentation process and for each organism concerned Target objectives may include the quality, flavour, texture and safety ofthe fermented food product The overall need is

to obtain a food product that is wholesome, healthy and safe

‘The technological improvement of traditional fermentation processes is yet another area, which requires substantial research ‘There is the need for conversion of the ˆar of traditional processes into a technology which incorporates objective methods of

28

process control and optimization, and to standardize the quality of the end products without losing their desirable attributes Fermentations ean only be optimized when parameters such as temperature, pH, substrate pretreatment, inoculum-substrate ratio, ete, are controlled Surface to volume relationships make the scale-up of solid state fermentations particularly challenging Research into the implementation of continuous fermentation systems using bioreactors with immobilized enzymes and cells is also required,

Methodologies for improving the evonomics of traditional fermentation processes are requited Such studies should incomporate considerations for reducing the time required for the pretreatment of raw materials and for processing Reduced fermentation times may indeed optimize the use of available equipment

Some traditional indigenous fermentation processes are rather wasteful Prolonged soaking and microbial respiration of organic matter for example, may lead to considerable loss of valuable dry matter from raw materials As much as 30 percent of

‘aw material dry matter may be lost by leaching during the soaking steps ofthe traditional tempe and ogi manufacturing processes It is thus desirable to investigate dry matter balances of traditional fermentations with a view to reducing losses of raw material, by implementing “dry” instead of “wet” processing Similarly, the development of aeeeplable methodologies for the disposal of fermentation by-products in an environmentally friendly manner is also required

Development of proper infrastructure in developing countries also offers potential for the large-scale production of traditional fermented foods In this regard, priority should be given to industrializing appropriate indigenous processes, rather than importing technologies from the industrialized world Imported technologies are often unsuitable for local crops and environmental conditions in developing countries Thus, the use of appropriate and affordable technologies should be emphasized in modernizing the production of traditional fermented foods atthe village ot rural level Process changes should take into account the role of the poor who developed and preserved these processes and how technological innovations and modifications of the existing processes

‘would be of benefit to them,

‘Training in basic microbiology, biochemical engineering, and in the new techniques of molecular biology, for personnel of less developed countries, is one of the essential components for improving traditional fermentation processes Scientists from developing countries would also benefit from opportunities for regional and international collaboration Information shaing of this type might be facilitated through periodic seminars and workshops, joint research programmes, and through the establishment of

‘computer networks Each of these interactions might include scientists from industrialized countries Centres of excellence, specializing in regionally important areas, might also be established for the mutual benefit of cooperating institutions

"

Finally, the ultimate goal of conducting research geared toward improved traditional processes or novel products, is the implementation of research results Unfortunately, a wide gap exists between research data published in scientific journals and the practice of food processing Much attention must be given to the useflness of new products to the end user In this regard, not only should the sensory, nutritional, and other quality characteristics of newly developed products or processes be taken into account, but these should also be integrated with sound price calculations, market surveys, and extension efforts Only a competitive process has good chances of being implemented

In summary, the importance of a business-oriented approach and close contact between researchers and food processors, working toward mutual benefit, must be stressed The adaptation of food fermentation processing to changing food habits and improved standards of living and the development of good educational programmes geared toward the education of consumers on the benefits of developing new and improved fermented foods, would certainly enhance the global popularity and

‘consumption ofthese foods

30