Tài liệu The complete guide to the toefl IBT reading part 7 doc

Some of these arcade games, and other games that were not seen in arcades, were available for play on personal computers.. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak who had met while designing game

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sciences and even physical sciences When psychologists speak of a dependent

variable in an experiment, they mean the same thing as a chemist does Of

course, some psychological terminology consists of everyday words such as emo-

tion, motivation, intelligence, ego, and anxiety, but psychologists use these words

somewhat differently For example, a non-psychologist may use the word

anxiety to mean nervousness or fear, but most psychologists reserve the term to

describe a condition produced when one fears events over which one has no

es

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Zz

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jargon: the specialized language used by people in the same field

T/F 28 The author explains the special language of psychology in part by giving

the reasons why it exists

T/F 29 In the author's opinion, the jargon used by psychologists is confusing and

unnecessary

T/F 30 The author mentions a chemist to show how different the terminology of

social science and physical science is

T/F 31 The word anxiety is given as an example of a word that has a more special-

ized meaning to psychologists than it does to non-psychologists —

EXERCISE 4.2 Focus: Answering multiple choice purpose, method, and attitude questions about

longer passages

DIRECTIONS: Read the passages Then mark the answer choice that best answers

the question

Passage 1

1 Computer games were designed and played as long ago as the 1950's The first

known game was Tennis for Two (1958), designed by William Higginbotham

Another early game was Steve Russell’s Spacewar! (1961) These games never

became very popular It was not until the 1970's and 80’s, when computer

arcade games were introduced, that computer games attracted millions of

game-players The first to make a splash was Pong (Atari, 1972) It was designed

by Nolan Bushnell and Alan Alcorn The game play was extremely simple Two

players bounced a moving ball back and forth between their two electronic

“paddles.” Bushnell placed the first game machine in a local gas station When

he returned in a few days, the machine was so full of coins that it could no

longer operate Pong became an instant success and it helped create the arcade

game industry Other blockbuster games such as Space Invaders (Bally/Midway,

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1978), Asteroids (Atari, 1979), and Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981) followed

Perhaps the most popular arcade game ever, Pac Man (Bally/Midway, 1980) was based on an ancient Japanese folk tale Some of these arcade games, and other games that were not seen in arcades, were available for play on personal computers It can even be said that computer games helped popularize the idea of owning a home computer and shaped the way computers were made Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak (who had met while designing games for Atari) designed the Apple II, the first popular personal computer, so that it could be used to play computer games at home

2 Today, there are four main types of devices that computer games can be

played on Personal computers, consoles, handheld consoles, and arcade

machines are all common platforms Personal computer (PC) games are designed to be played on standard home computers Often no special controls are needed—the game can be played with a keyboard or mouse—but some games are played with a joy stick Video feedback is received by the user through the computer monitor and audio feedback through speakers or head- phones Players can buy PC games at the store—usually stored on CD ROMs—

or download them from the Internet Players of PC games can also play against live opponents on the Internet

3 Console games are often referred to as video games They are played in a

specially made computer called a console PlayStation (SONY), GameCube

(Nintendo), and XBOX (Microsoft) are the three most famous types of consoles

Players interact with the game through a controller: a handheld device with buttons, analog sticks, or pads Games are generally stored on cartridges or - sometimes on disks Games are available for sale at many types of stores and for rent at video rental stores

4 Handheld consoles are portable, battery-powered consoles that can be

played anywhere The most famous is the Game Boy, first released in 1989 The tiny screen, audio speakers, and controls are all part of one unit Like console games, handheld console games are usually stored on cartridges

5 Arcade games are played on a device composed of a video screen, a coin

box, specially designed computer hardware, and a set of controls Controls include the classic joy stick and buttons, light guns, and pads on the ground that detect pressure These machines are located in public places and players must pay to play them

6 Some computer games can also be played on devices that are not primarily designed for game-playing A good example of this type of device is the cell phone Many games are now available for more than one platform Some games, such as Mario Brothers (1983), which was first developed as an arcade game, have been “ported” (modified) to work on all four platforms Today, games for personal computers and for consoles are routinely launched on the same day This is possible because of the increased computing capabilities of consoles They can now handle games that were formerly only playable on personal computers In fact, in a recent year, console games outsold personal computer games by about 380%

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7 Although there are exceptions, such as in South Korea, retail sales of com-

puter games have been down in recent years In the three biggest markets—

the U.S., the U.K., and Japan—sales peaked in the late 1990's and have been

declining ever since However, this doesn’t mean that fewer people are playing

computer games Today, many games are “shareware” that can be downloaded

from the Internet for free These games pay for themselves by advertising or

other means

a

joy stick: a control device used to play games on computers Joy sticks can be used

1 The author uses the expression “make a splash” in paragraph 1 to indicate that

the game Pong

2 The author mentions Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak in paragraph 1

because they

3 The author classifies computer games primarily by

4, Why does the author mention cartridges in paragraph 4?

5 Mario Brothers is given in paragraph 6 as an example of a computer game that

is no longer available was released as a console game and a PC game on the same day can be played on any kind of platform

was developed as a PC game but later became an arcade game

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6 The author mentions cell phones in paragraph 6 because

cell phones and computer games were developed at about the same time computer game platforms are used only for entertainment, but cell phones have more important uses

there are many similarities between cell phone design and game platform design

7 The author mentions South Korea in paragraph 7 because

the market for computer games there has not behaved as it has in the biggest markets

my

Passage 2

1 Blood is a complex fluid composed of several types of cells suspended in plasma,

the straw-colored, liquid portion of the blood Disc-shaped red blood cells make

up the majority of blood cells Hemoglobin in the red blood cells picks up oxygen in the blood and delivers it to the tissues of the body These cells carry carbon dioxide from the body’s cells to the lungs and deliver it to the tissues of the body These cells then carry carbon dioxide from the body’s cells to the lungs

2 Think of it as a railroad hauling freight The cargo (oxygen) is loaded into a

railroad car (hemoglobin) Then the locomotive (a red blood cell) carries the

cars where they are needed After unloading, the train returns with a different

cargo (carbon dioxide) and the process starts all over again

3 Blood cells are made up of two components The hemoglobin is in solution

inside the cell The cell is surrounded by a membrane that holds in the hemoglobin A rough analogy would be a toy balloon The plastic would be the membrane, and the hemoglobin the air inside it The blood types that most of

us know—A, B, O, and AB—are properties of the membrane The hemoglobin of

a person with type A blood is identical to the hemoglobin of a person with type

B, O, or AB blood A balloon may be yellow, red, blue, or green, but the air

inside it is the same

4 Hemoglobin is the part of the cell that traps the oxygen and carbon diox-

ide It contains a compound called poryphyrin that consists of a carbon-based ring with four nitrogen atoms facing a central hole The nitrogen bonds to an iron atom, and the iron then captures one molecule of oxygen or carbon

8 The author explains how the blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide by comparing the process to a train carrying freight

giving examples of how the body uses oxygen analyzing the composition of plasma

comparing blood and other fluids

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9 The author compares blood types to

Passage 3

1 The 1960’s saw a rising dissatisfaction with the modernist movement in

architecture, especially in North America, where its failings were exposed in two

influential books, Jane Jacobs’s The Death and Life of Great American Cities in

1961 and Robert Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture in 1966

Jacobs highlighted the destruction of the richness and variety of America that

occurred as a result of the urban renewal programs sponsored by the federal

government She went on to say that these historic buildings were being

replaced by massive, impersonal buildings Venturi implied that modernist

structures were without meaning because they lacked the complexity and

intimacy of historical buildings Both writers called for a new style of architecture

2 By the early 1980's, post-modernism had become the dominant style, par-

ticularly for public buildings in the United States Post-modernism evolved from

modernism and yet it is a contradiction of that style In fact, post-modernists

have little in common with one another in terms of style or theory They are

united mainly in their opposition to the modernist style One quality that is

common to many post-modernist buildings is characterized by what architect

Peter Jencks calls “double coding,” a mixture of two styles: modern mixed with

tradition, contemporary with historical, functional with decorative, and familiar

with newly invented These characteristics can be seen in Robert Venturi’s bold

designs for the Brant-Johnson House (1975) in Vail, Colorado, which mixes con-

temporary and Italian Renaissance styles Similar characteristics are clear in the

work of Venturi’s disciple Michael Graves Graves’s Portland Building (1982) in

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Portland, Oregon, and his Humana Tower (1986) in Louisville, Kentucky, have

the bulk of skyscrapers but incorporate historical souvenirs such as colonnades, belvederes, keystones, and decorative sculpture Likewise, Robert Stern’s Observatory Hill Dining Hall (1984) at the University of Virginia in

Charlottesville, Virginia, combines the red brick and white wood of Thomas

Jefferson’s original plan for university buildings with modern building forms and walls with large windows Chinese-American architect | M Pei’s design for

an addition to the Louvre Museum in Paris (1989) included a glass pyramid, referring to the Egyptian art in the Louvre and the fact that French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte played a major role in making Egypt a subject of study in the early 1800's

3 Another major tendency in post-modern architecture is the emphasis on

decoration, which modernism eliminated This can be seen in the works of

Phillip Johnson, who was once a champion of modernism but became an out- spoken advocate of post-modernism He wrapped the AT&T building (1984), which is now the SONY Building, in New York City, in pinkish granite and topped it with a tower that looks like an enormous piece of Chippendale furniture Some architects turned entire buildings into sculptures Frank Gehry’s monumental Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain (1997), resembles an enormous abstract sculpture made of glass and titanium steel

Glossary Chippendale: an ornate style of furniture first developed in Britain in the

10 Which of these statements best expresses the opinion of Jane Jacobs and Robert Venturi as given in paragraph 1?

11 The primary purpose of the second paragraph is to

describe several features of skyscrapers discuss how Pei’s pyramid refers to Napoleon Bonaparte and his study of Egyptian culture

show how post-modernism evolved from modernism

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12 The author probably uses the word souvenirs in paragraph 2 because

souvenirs

memories

people of the past

museums

aw

& —

= Z

a

13 The author presents details about the AT&T (now the SONY) building in

New York City to show that it

resembles an abstract sculpture influenced post-modern furniture design

was built when Johnson was a modernist architect has ornamental architectural features

Passage 4

1 A few languages have only one class of nouns and treat all nouns the same way,

but most languages have different classes of nouns One common way to clas-

sify nouns is by gender In Indo-European languages, genders typically include

feminine, masculine, and neuter Latin has all three of these, but in many of its

modern descendants, such as Spanish and French, the neuter gender has all but

disappeared However, a few words in French, especially pronouns with no clear

gender, such as cela (this), are considered neuter by some grammarians

2 English is one language that uses natural gender (also called logical gender)

Gender depends on biology Mother is feminine, father is masculine, and chair is

neuter There are, however, a few oddities Ships are sometimes referred to as

she, and so are nations Animals can be neuter or follow natural gender:

“This is my dog Suzy She’s really smart.”

“| saw a tiger at the zoo /t was really beautiful.”

3 Other languages use grammatical gender Languages that have only two

genders, such as Arabic, Spanish, French, and Urdu, all use grammatical gender

So do some languages, such as German, Russian, and Greek, which have mascu-

line, feminine, and neuter nouns Sometimes grammatical gender is logical,

especially for nouns that refer to people In Spanish, for example, hijo (son) is

masculine and hija (daughter) is feminine However, while the assignment of

gender to certain nouns seems obvious to a native speaker of these languages,

it seems arbitrary and confusing to non-native speakers Why is chaise (chair)

feminine in French but banc (bench) masculine? Why, in German, is Fels (rock)

masculine, Fenster (window) neuter, and Tur (door) feminine? And noun gender

varies by culture In French, soleif (sun) is masculine, while /une (moon) is femi-

nine The reverse is true in German: Sonne (sun) is feminine, but Mond (moon) is

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4

In some languages, such as modern Greek, it is impossible to predict the gender of a noun by the form of the noun Gender must simply be memorized

In other languages, it is possible, or at least it is sometimes possible In Latin, most singular nouns that end in a are feminine, most singular nouns that end in

us are masculine, and most nouns that end in um are neuter There are, however, exceptions, such as agricola (farmer), which is masculine, and ulmus (elm

tree), which is feminine For some languages, there are complicated and often incomplete rules that relate form to gender This is true in German It may be useful to learn the rule that nouns that end in /ein and chen (meaning young or small) are all neuter The noun Mddchen (little girl) is, rather unexpectedly, neuter However, is it worth learning that, of the 107 single-syllable nouns end- ing in a nasal sound plus another consonant, 70% are masculine? A student may end up learning more rules than nouns

Besides gender, there are many other classes of nouns According to the lin- guist Carl Meinhof, the Bantu language family has a total of 22 noun classes No single language in this family expresses all of them, but Sesotho has 18 and Swahili has 15 Tamil—spoken in Sri Lanka—divides nouns into rational versus nonrational In Ojibwa (a Native American language), there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns The names of all living things, as well as sacred things and things connected to the earth, belong to the animate class

Still, the assignment is somewhat arbitrary, as the word for raspberry is animate but the word for strawberry is inanimate Fula (an African language) distinguishes between liquids and solids, and Indonesian distinguishes between things that can be folded and things that can’t be In Dyibal, an Australian Aboriginal language, the four classes of noun are (1) all animate objects except for women; (2) women, water, and fire; (3) edible fruits and vegetables; and (4) everything else Zande, an African language, has classes that include heavenly objects

(moon, rainbow), metal objects (ring, hammer), and edible plants (pea, sweet

potato) The Alambiak language, spoken in Papua New Guinea, has a class that

includes tall, long, or slender objects, such as arrows, fish, and snakes, and one that includes short, squat, or round things, such as turtles, houses, and shields

14 The author probably does NOT give an example of a language with one noun class because

15 The grammarians mentioned in paragraph 1 believe that the French word cela

can be either feminine or masculine

is not really a pronoun

is neither masculine nor feminine should not be considered neuter

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16 The oddities that the author mentions in paragraph 2

17 Which of these statements probably best expresses the author's opinion of

rules about the gender of nouns in German?

native learners

nouns

lein and chen

18 The main point of paragraph 5 is to discuss

19 The author gives Tamil as an example of a language that

20 How does the author show that the way Ojibwa assigns nouns to a noun class is

somewhat arbitrary?

21 The author gives turtles, houses, and shields as examples of

Passage 5

The sea has been rising relative to the land for hundreds of years, geologists say,

but the rise has accelerated over the last few decades The Atlantic and Pacific

coasts of the United States have eroded an average of two to three feet (0.6 to

1.0 meter), the Gulf Coast even faster In places the erosion has even been more

dramatic Highland Light, the oldest lighthouse on Cape Cod, was 400 feet (135

meters) from the sea when it was built in 1797 Now it is only about 100 feet

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(35 meters) from the ocean Just in the last ten years, a series of harsh winter storms has eaten up over forty feet (10.3 meters) of the beach in front of the lighthouse

2 The United States has over 19,000 miles (33,600 kilometers) of beaches,

and nearly half of the population of the United States lives within 50 miles (80 kilometers) of the coast Some estimates claim that between 80% and 90% of the U.S coastline is eroding And the problem is not confined to the United

States Egypt, Thailand, India, the U.K., Australia, and Japan—almost every coun-

try that has a coastline—share this problem

3 During storms, the action of heavy waves carries sand into the sea and

leaves it on the ocean floor During calm periods, erosion reverses Sand is slowly moved landward by the action of gentler waves In recent times, however, the buildup of sand has not kept pace with erosion In many places, sand has been replaced by sediment

Lately, the leading cause of the increased rate of beach erosion has been global warming Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are generated by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels These gases are accumulating in the atmosphere, trapping in the sun‘s heat Forests are being cut down, leaving fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from the air

Global warming has likely increased the frequency of severe storms that tear sand from beaches Average temperatures are likely to rise higher in the near future, melting glaciers and polar ice caps, causing the levels of the sea to rise, and making coastal erosion even worse

4 Clearly, something must be done Too many people live and vacation in

Miami Beach, Atlantic City, Malibu, Galveston, and Honolulu to simply allow

roads, houses, and resorts to fall into the sea Many engineers maintain that the best way to protect coasts is to build protective structures such as sea walls and breakwaters to protect beaches from the ravages of storms These structures have been tried in a number of places along the U.S coastline and in other countries, notably Japan

5 The problem with defensive structures is that they often don’t work One

study, in fact, has shown that these structures accelerate the erosion of beaches

Not only that, they can be unsightly, destroying the natural beauty of beaches

The states of Maine, North Carolina, and South Carolina have banned the

building of these structures

Some communities have tried another solution: beach replenishment (also called beach nourishment) These programs simply replace lost sand with sand

from deeper parts of the ocean or, in the case of some California beaches, with

sand brought in by trucks from the desert These programs are costly It costs over US$1 million to replenish one mile (1.61 kilometers) of beach Again, however, this method of preserving beaches is of dubious value Another study has shown that only 10% of replenished beaches have lasted more than five years

In some locations, the supply of suitable sand is limited And the quality of the sand used for replenishment is seldom as high as the sand that it replaces

Cape Cod: a peninsula stretching eastward from the coast of southern Massachusetts; it is a favorite place for vacationers

Tiêu đề	Lesson 4: Purpose, Method, and Opinion Questions
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