Motivation is a psychological attribute that directs human desire and behavior towards success (Lodhi et al., 2019; MacIntyre, 2002). Motivation has two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic (Ryan & Deci, 2000). While the inherent type is defined as an internal genuine desire for learning and achievement, extrinsic motivation drives learning in response to an external stimulus, such as rewards or publishment. According to Dửrnyei (2006), L2 motivation is influenced by learners' attitudes, interethnic contact, and linguistic self-confidence.
Recent educational research has explored learning or student motivation. Accordingly, student motivation or learning motivation refers to all the internal factors that motivate students to study and practice to achieve goals. Every student entering the course of acquiring knowledge and skills has ambitions, dreams, and has specific goals for themselves to achieve during their years of study at the school. Those are the factors that motivate students to learn (Harandi, 2015). The factors that motivate students to learn today can be identified from students' activities, behaviors, and attitudes as desire to get good academic results and win a scholarship, desire to study so that they can get a job with high income and high status in society later, learning to assert yourself to satisfy long- cherished dreams and ambitions, and learning to contribute, to do useful things for the society.
Regarding the difficulty in identifying learning motivation, some researchers (e.g., Brookhart et al., 2006; Harlen & Crick, 2003) outline the four main inherent
characteristics of learning motivation. First, students' learning motivation is associated with a specific learning and training environment, so to study students' learning motivation, we must study the issues that belong to the subject itself, learning environment, specific learning conditions. Second, learning motivation is a stimulating factor that appears inside students. Motivation is not the absence of motivated people and unmotivated people. Therefore, it should not be assumed that motivation is an internal factor that cannot be affected but that by certain measures is completely capable of affecting students' motivation. Third, students' learning motivation is voluntary. It comes from the students themselves, expressed in their passion and interest in learning.
Therefore, motivating students is just creating favorable conditions to stimulate students to find their own learning motivation. Fourth, learning motivation is the source of improving student learning outcomes (while other conditions remain constant).
However, it should not be assumed that learning motivation will inevitably lead to high learning outcomes because learning results also depend on many factors such as capacity, cognitive ability, learning methods, conditions, or learning materials.
It can be concluded that voluntary learning motivation comes from students' interest in learning. Therefore, the essence of motivating students to learn is to create favorable conditions for students to study so that students can find their own interest in learning and have conditions to maximize their capacity and creativity.
2.2.2 Learning Motivation and Related Concepts
Some researchers (e.g., Harlen & Crick, 2003) do not separate motivation and effort because one's effort is an indicator of motivation. However, in motivational psychology, motivation is defined as a desire for a particular task and effort or volition as action or
"arena of implementation" (Corno, 1993, p. 18). In other words, motivation arises before effort.
Brookhart et al. (2006) introduced a model illustrating the effects of classroom assessment on learning motivation, volition, and accomplishment in basic education contexts (see Figure 2.1). Accordingly, classroom assessment, environment, and preexisting student characteristics directly influence student motivation to learn, which in turn drives student effort, and finally promotes academic achievement. The classroom assessment event occurs when the teacher practices assessment to which students are
motivated to respond.
Figure 2.1. Motivation, Effort, and Achievement (Adapted from Brookhart et al., 2006) Other factors that influence motivation include the classroom environment and student characteristics and experiences. The classroom environment is described as the context of assessment. Learner variables, including experiences, affect their beliefs about assessment, which then influences their effort and subsequently academic results.
The study by Guilloteaux and Dửrnyei (2008) explored the effectiveness of motivational strategies in an L2 English context of South Korean. Data were collected from classroom observations and a questionnaire of three main constructs (learner attitudes, linguistic self-confidence, and L2 classroom anxiety). The results showed that the motivational techniques used by the L2 teachers improved students' learning motivation in terms of self-reported behavior and motivational state. Teachers are suggested to "apply motivational strategies systematically and in a context-appropriate manner" (p. 73).
2.2.3 Motivation for Second Language Learning
A large spectrum of theories covers the many variables that affect student motivation in the second language (L2) classroom. Research on L2 motivation (until the early 1990s) was inspired by Gardner (1983; 1985), Clement (1980), and their colleagues. L2 motivation was then seen as influenced by learners' attitudes towards social perceptions of the L2 and its speakers, their interethnic contact, and the resulting degree of linguistic self-confidence (Dornyei, 2006). For example, Gardner (1985, p. 186) reports that students' attitudes towards a specific language group are “bound to influence how successful they will be in incorporating aspects of that language”. This is especially true considering that learning a foreign language is different from learning other subjects as language is viewed as part of one's identity. Guilloteaux and Dornyei (2008) argue that learning a foreign language involves far more than simply learning skills or a system of grammar rules. According to him, it involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviors and ways of being, and, therefore, has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner.
In addition, endeavors in L2 motivation by Dornyei (2006) and Guilloteaux and Dornyei (2008) revealed a need for a more pragmatic education-centered approach, examining classroom reality and identifying and analyzing classroom-specific motives. For example, an empirical survey of motivational strategies in language classrooms in Hungary (Dornyei & Csizer, 1998) resulted in ten commandments for motivating language learners that teachers should set a personal behavior example, make sure that the class atmosphere is relaxed and pleasant, present tasks properly to the learners, have good teacher-student relationships, work on increasing learners' self-confidence, ensure that language classes are interesting to the students, promote as much as possible learners' autonomy, personalize the learning process, increase learners' goals, and make sure that learners are familiar with the target language culture.
The study was replicated on Taiwanese students (Cheng & Dornyei, 2007), but the results differed due to the participants' different backgrounds, traditions, identities, and cultures. Cortazzi and Jin (1999) also found that culture and identity are two essential variables motivating L2 learners.
Other researchers also argued that L2 involves the development of an L2 identity and
incorporates elements from the L2 culture, and contains environmental factors, cognitive factors, featured personality, and social dimensions (Dornyei, 1998). Simard and Wong (2004) support this development of second language awareness as it not only improves second language learning, but it also promotes greater cross-cultural understanding among the second language learners. Taking this identity theory further and not excluding previous motivation theories, Dornyei (2010) has recently described this new approach in second language learning as the 'L2 motivational self-esteem' that links the foreign language learning to one's personal 'core' or identity. This has implications for learning a foreign language in that the learner develops 'self-maturity' and thus 'self- motivation' in acquiring the target language.