One of the overarching theoretical frameworks that are often used to illustrate the role of assessment in enhancing students' motivation to learn is Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT classifies motivation into intrinsic inspiration, extrinsic motivation, and motivation. Within the SDT framework, intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity simply for its instrumental value. Ryan and Deci describe motivation as the state of lacking an intention to act.
According to Ryan and Deci (2000), motivation results from not valuing an activity, not feeling competent to do it, or not believing it will yield the desired outcome. Drawing on SDT and other motivational theories, Harlen and Crick (2003, p. 86) grouped motivational variables as related to assessment into three categories. The first category relates to “motivational variables such as self-esteem, self-concept, and test anxiety. The second category relates to motivational variables such as effort, interest in and attitude toward subject. The third category relates to motivational variables such as goal- orientation, self- efficacy, and locus of control”. Applying Harlen and Crick's (2003) categorization of motivational variables in analyzing the effect of assessment tasks to students" motivational effort, Brookhart et al. (2006, p. 163) reported that within a particular classroom assessment environment, “Teacher assessment practices impact students' learning processes by shaping study behaviors and academic self-efficacy,
enabling self-adjustment and organizing and securing the storage of knowledge and skills.”
In keeping with the motivational theories discussed above, some researchers in general education, educational assessment, L2 assessment, and acquisition have suggested a variety of strategies to use classroom assessment to motivate students" learning. Keller (2008) proposed four classroom conditions that are believed to effectively motivate students. These four conditions can equally be applied to assessment as being a subset of the classroom learning environment: 1) Motivation to learn is promoted when a learner's curiosity is aroused due to a perceived gap in current knowledge; 2) Motivation to learn is promoted when the knowledge to be learned is perceived to be meaningfully related to a learner's goals; 3) Motivation to learn is promoted when learners believe they can succeed in mastering the learning task; 4) Motivation to learn is promoted when learners anticipate and experience satisfying outcomes to a learning task. These four major characteristics of classroom conditions facilitating students" motivation are also mirrored in Dửrnyei's (2006) six strategies for establishing motivational teaching practices in the EFL classroom: 1) making learning stimulating and enjoyable; 2) presenting tasks in a motivating way; 3) setting specific learner goals; 4) protecting the learners" self-esteem and increasing their self-confidence; 5) creating learner autonomy;
6) promoting self- motivating learner strategies.
Meanwhile, assessment researchers such as Stiggins (2005) particularly highlight the importance of engaging students in the assessment process as it can motivate students to learn. Students also need to know about scoring or rating criteria to keep up with their development and performance, which is a source of internal motivation. Proposed by Cheng and Fox (2017), self-assessment can also help generate learning motivation as students observe their progress and commitment to their learning. Thus, self-assessment is related to long-term motivation. Learner autonomy, which is proved to generate students’ responsibility for their learning in the current literature, can be enhanced by formative assessment. In other words, when students receive helpful feedback from the teacher or peers, they have a sense of progress.
Dửrnyei (2006) emphasizes the impact of feedback on students' motivational state: 1) motivational feedback can have a gratifying function that can increase learner
satisfaction and lift the learning spirit; 2) By communicating trust and encouragement, motivational feedback can promote a positive self-concept and self-confidence in the student; 3) Motivational feedback prompts the learner to reflect constructively on areas that need improvement.
Cauley and McMillan (2010) further noted that self-assessment also supports mastery goals through developing autonomous students. Indeed, students who practice self- assessment are in control of their learning, and that too can support the development of mastery goals. In addition, self-assessment helps students understand the expectations for the task and the steps necessary to meet the learning goal. Admittedly, when students work toward meeting clear learning targets, they have high expectations for success.
Finally, self-assessment encourages student decision-making about what to do and when to do it.
Arguably, feedback from assessments can help students set attainable learning goals.
Goals that refer to specific performance standards are most effective because self- efficacy is substantiated as students observe their own progress toward the goal (Brown et al., 2009). Indeed, self-efficacy is the belief an individual holds a view of their ability to perform the task at hand. In short, high self-efficacy is present when students are confident that they can be successful when they expend appropriate effort. Moreover, progress toward the goal conveys an increase in skill level to the students (Zimmerman, 2001).
It is commonly agreed that the process of feedback is the starting point for assessment.
Yet not all feedback is effective. A cognitive aspect of assessment provides feedback that closes the gap between a learner's current status and the desired learning goal. It also intersects with Ryan and Deci's (2000) perspective on feedback. They posit that feedback should be affecting-promoting and free from critical evaluations. In this stream, teacher feedback about the value of a chosen strategy and student progress in mastering a task improves self-efficacy. In brief, high self-efficacy can occur when the students receive rewards that are contingent on performance rather than on task engagement.
Undoubtedly, assessment is now recognized as one of the most powerful ways to enhance student motivation and achievement. According to Clark (2011), classroom
assessment aims to provide practitioners, administrators, and policy makers with classroom-level data for improving teaching methods and guiding and motivating students to be actively involved in their own learning. On the face of it, formative assessment should help students become more effective, self-assessing, self-directed learners (Brookhart et al., 2006). Additionally, autonomy is perhaps the big idea behind formative assessment: the theoretical ideal of formative assessment is to develop fully autonomous learners who can self-assess their work, make meaningful inferences from it and plan the next steps for further progress (Black & William, 1998).
Ryan and Deci (2000) parallel authentic motivation with intrinsic motivation and note that people moved by such factors have more interest, excitement and confidence than people who are externally controlled. Indeed, cooperative learning groups foster self- determination and the intrinsic regulation of learning behavior because they are characterized by positive independence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, the appropriate use of interpersonal, small-group skills, and group processing. Besides, cooperative learning groups support relatedness and consequently act as a powerful catalyst for higher achievement, more positive relationships among students, and greater psychological health.
To develop the drive to achieve, students need to believe that achievement is possible, which means that early opportunities for success should be provided. It is then crucial to firmly attach academic success to moderate effort (Cauley & McMillan, 2013). Clark (2013) asserted that "A major outcome … was the change in classroom practices which increased the active engagement of students, who were encouraged to take ownership of their learning rather than being the passive recipients of the delivery of curriculum"
(p.34).
It is evident that the students are not the sole beneficiary of a movement from a teacher centered pedagogy to one which places the students and their learning needs at the heart of teaching. A student-centered approach to formative assessment could also have a positive effect on students beyond increasing achievement. According to Stiggins (2005), a strongly student-focused approach to classroom assessment is "almost certain to have an impact on student effect" (p.1), including their academic efficacy, motivation, and eagerness to learn. Carefully attending to theory, research, and practice related to a
student-centered approach to assessment will yield better understandings of the associations between assessment, academic motivation, and self-regulated learning.