English consonants
The introduction of phonetics and the productions of speech sound: consonants and vowels
1 What is Phonetics? Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the linguistic science that studies speech sounds: the way in which they are produced
(uttered, articulated), the way in which they are perceived, their physical characteristics, etc
The intricate process of utilizing our linguistic knowledge to create meaningful utterances begins with an idea or message in the speaker's brain and culminates in a comparable message in the listener's mind This chain of events involves various stages where speech sounds are produced and interpreted, highlighting the complexity of verbal communication.
Phonetics give answers to the following questions:
- What sounds occur in human language?
- How these speech sounds are made?
- What physical properties do they have?
- In what way can speech sound be similar to or different from other speech sounds?
Articulatory phonetics focuses on how speech sounds are produced, detailing the role of vocal organs, also known as articulators, within the vocal tract This field of study is essential for understanding the theories behind speech production.
Articulatory phonetics is the most commonly taught branch of phonetics, serving as a foundation for both acoustic and auditory phonetics It is studied by a diverse range of students, including those in linguistics, speech and language therapy, language studies, medicine, voice training, drama, and singing.
Acoustic phonetics examines the physical characteristics of speech sounds, focusing on how air vibrations transmit sounds from the speaker to the listener A spectrograph is an instrument that analyzes sound waves and visualizes them as spectrograms or sonograms, illustrating key attributes such as duration, frequency, intensity, and quality of the sounds.
Auditory phonetics, a branch of physiology, focuses on how speech signals are detected in the auditory canal and processed by the brain Essentially, it examines the perception of speech sounds by listeners.
Phonology is the study of the distinctive sound units, known as phonemes, within a language and how they interact with each other This field involves analyzing a language to identify its unique sounds and establishing rules that govern the changes these sounds undergo in various contexts Key areas of phonology include the examination of sound patterns, relationships, and transformations.
- Study of the phonemic system
- Phoneme sequences and syllable structure
- Supra-segmental phonology (stress, intonation)
Phonology is divided into two main branches: segmental phonology and suprasegmental phonology Segmental phonology focuses on the organization of individual speech sounds, emphasizing their functions and combinations within a sound system rather than their physical properties or perception In contrast, suprasegmental phonology, or prosody, examines pronunciation features that span multiple sounds, such as stress, rhythm, and intonation, which are essential for understanding the nuances of spoken language.
A standard variety has a fixed grammar and vocabulary, but its pronunciation may vary according to the regional origin, social group, or ethnicity of the speaker
The term "accent" describes the pronunciation of a language variety, and a standard variety can be spoken in multiple accents Typically, one accent holds the most prestige and serves as the model for teaching pronunciation For instance, the most esteemed accent of Standard British English was initially referred to as
Public School Pronunciation, known as Received Pronunciation (RP), emerged in the 1920s as a prestigious British accent In contrast, the most esteemed accent of General American lacks a widely accepted name but is often called Network Standard or Network English.
Received Pronunciation, often linked to the dialect of south-eastern England, refers to a form of speech that is widely regarded as the standard or proper way of speaking.
RP was initially described by the British phonetician
Daniel Jones (1881-1967) in the first edition of his
English Pronouncing Dictionary in 1917 And although
Received Pronunciation (RP) is one of the most talked-about accents globally, yet it represents a minority pronunciation, historically spoken by only 3 to 4 percent of the British population The majority of educated British English speakers utilize a modified version of this accent.
This book utilizes Received Pronunciation (RP), or a close variant, as the foundational model for demonstrating English phonetics and phonology RP is the accent featured in nearly all British dictionaries and introductory linguistic textbooks.
Speech sounds are the acoustic results of the movements and positions of human speech organs, shaped by the historical evolution of mankind The human speech mechanism serves as the primary source of these sounds, and linguistic studies focus on the functions of the speech organs in producing speech To effectively analyze the linguistic functions of phonetic units, it is essential to understand how the speech mechanism operates in generating oral communication.
Speech organs can be categorized into four main groups based on their sound-producing functions: the power mechanism, which includes the lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, and bronchi; the vibrator mechanism, comprising the larynx, vocal cords, and glottis; the resonator mechanism, consisting of the nasal and mouth cavities; and the obstructer mechanism, which involves the tongue, lips, hard and soft palate, and teeth.
Air flows from the lungs through the windpipe to the larynx, where the vocal cords are located The space between the vocal cords, known as the glottis, plays a crucial role in speech production by providing the necessary energy source When the vocal cords are apart, the glottis is open, allowing for non-phonetic breath Conversely, when the vocal cords are tightly closed, air cannot pass, and a sudden opening of the glottis creates a sound known as the glottal stop This sound is common in English, often reinforcing or replacing the sounds [p], [t], [k], and can precede the articulation of vowel sounds.
Vowels
In the initial lecture, we defined consonants as sounds produced when one articulator moves toward another or when two articulators come together, creating an obstruction in the airflow In the English language, there are a total of 24 consonant sounds.
Consonants are produced by obstructing the airflow through the vocal cords, which allows for their classification based on two key factors: the place of articulation, where the obstruction occurs, and the manner of articulation, which describes how the airflow is obstructed.
The place of articulation refers to where the airflow is obstructed during the production of consonants, indicating the specific point where the articulators make contact or come closest together Key locations for producing English consonants are outlined in the table below.
Note that the terms used to describe the sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sounds
Labio- dental Lower lip+ upper teeth
Retroflex Back of alveolar ridge _ tongue
Join of hard palate and alveolar ridge + tongue
Bilabials are consonant sounds produced by obstructing airflow with both lips, followed by a release that creates a burst of sound These consonants can be either voiced, where the vocal cords vibrate, or voiceless, where they do not Present-Day English features a variety of bilabial consonants.
1 /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop
2 /b/ (the phoneme spelled b in bat): voiced bilabial stop
3 /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal
4 /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) bilabial semivowel
They are the sounds which are produced with the lower lip touching the upper front teeth e.g /f/, /v/
Dentals are sounds which are produced with the tip or blade of the tongue touching the upper front teeth e.g /θ/, /ð/
Alveolars are the sound made with the tip or blade of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge
A retroflex is a consonant formed when the tongue rises toward the back of the alveolar ridge and then retracts toward the back of the oral cavity Present-Day
English has one retroflex, which is voiced /r/ (the phoneme spelled r in root): (voiced) alveolar retroflex
Palato-alveolar sounds are articulated with the tongue tip or blade positioned near the area between the back of the alveolar ridge and the front of the hard palate Examples of these sounds include /∫/, /3∫/, and /t∫/.
They are sound in the production of which the front of the tongue comes close to the hard palate /j/
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate
(known also as the velum)
They are the sounds which are produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth e.g /h/
The manner of articulation is a key aspect in describing speech sounds, focusing on how much the airflow is obstructed by the speech organs at the consonant articulation point This obstruction varies in type and degree, influencing the characteristics of the produced sounds.
Manner of articulation refers to how the airflow is modified during the production of speech sounds, detailing the type of obstruction created by the narrowing or closure of the vocal tract.
Nasal Complete closure in the mouth, air escape through nose
Fricative Narrowing, resulting in audible friction
Affricate Closure, then slow separation
Lateral Closure in the centre of mouth, air escapes down sides
Approximant Slight narrowing, not enough to cause friction
Stop consonants are produced by completely obstructing airflow in the mouth using the lips or tongue, followed by a sudden release There are four pairs of stop phonemes: /p, b/, /t, d/, /k, g/, and /tʃ, dʒ/, where each pair consists of a strong and a weak sound.
In English, there are three nasal consonant phonemes: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/ These sounds are produced by lowering the soft palate while blocking the mouth passage, allowing air to flow exclusively through the nose.
There are nine consonant phonemes whose main sounds all have friction as their most important feature
They are /f, v, ð, θ, s, z, ∫, Ʒ, h/.In the production of these sounds, air escapes through a small passage and makes a hissing sound sometimes called “friction”
Fricatives are continuant sounds, which means that you can continue making them without interruption as long as you have enough air in your lungs
An "affricate" is a phonetic term that refers to a type of consonant sound produced by a plosive followed by a frictional release This occurs when the release of the plosive is accompanied by significant friction at the point of articulation, creating a unique sound characteristic.
An affricate is a type of consonant that starts as a plosive and transitions into a fricative Unlike standard fricatives, the friction in an affricate is shorter in duration, creating a unique sound characteristic.
The English consonant /l/ is produced laterally, allowing airflow to pass around the sides of a central obstruction in the mouth rather than down the middle.
The sounds produced when two articulators come close together, yet without the vocal cords creating friction noise, are known as approximants.
Approximants, often referred to as frictionless continuants or "gliding sounds," are characterized by a smooth, rapid transition towards a vowel sound without friction For example, the sound /j/ represents a swift glide from the vowel position of /I/ or /i/ to another vowel The word "yes" is typically transcribed as /jes/, but it can also be represented as /ie:s/ or /ies/, reflecting the brief duration of /i:/ or /I/ and the fluid movement to the subsequent vowel /e/.
Similarly, /w/ consists of a quick glide from the vowel /u: / or /Ʊ/ to whatever vowel follows
3.1 Voiced consonants vs Voiceless consonants
All sounds that are produced by an egressive pulmonic air-stream mechanism, and therefore all
English sounds, pass through the glottis , which we have defined as the space between the vocal folds, located behind the Adam's apple in the voice box, or larynx
When the glottis narrows and the vocal folds come together, the air-stream causes them to vibrate, producing what are known as voiced sounds To determine if a sound is voiced, you can place a finger on either side of your larynx or close your ears while speaking For instance, when pronouncing the word "zeal," you can feel the vibration of the vocal folds throughout the entire pronunciation, as all three sounds in the word are voiced.
Phonemes
Vowels are produced by the flow of voiced air through various mouth shapes, which are influenced by the positioning of the tongue and lips The unique quality of each vowel sound is shaped by the specific configuration of the vocal tract.
Different parts of the tongue may be raised or lowered
Lips can be either spread or pursed, but the airflow passage remains sufficiently open to ensure a free air stream Consequently, vowels are traditionally categorized based on three specific criteria.
1 How high is the tongue?
2 What part of the tongue is involved, that is, what part of the tongue is raised? What part is lowered?
3 How long or short are the vowels?
1 Mono-thongs or single vowels
Monophthongs are vowel sounds characterized by a consistent articulation, where the speech organs maintain the same position throughout the vowel's duration.
Vowels can be classified according to three variables:
- Part of the tongue which is raised
High vowels are produced with the tongue positioned high in the mouth, elevated above its resting position Essentially, these vowels involve the tongue being raised close to the roof of the mouth during articulation.
High vowels: kit fleece foot goose
Low vowels are produced with the tongue in a lowered position, resulting in a noticeable opening of the mouth and a dropping of the jaw.
Low vowels: trap lot palm
Mid vowels represent an intermediate category between high and low vowels They can be further classified into high mid vowels, such as those found in the words "face" and "goat," and low mid vowels.
(like the dress, thought, strut vowels) depending on whether they are nearer the high end of the scale, or nearer the low end
Mid vowels about nurse strut
1.2 According to the part of the tongue raised
Front vowels are articulated with the front of the tongue elevated towards the hard palate, ensuring that airflow remains unobstructed to avoid any local friction, as vowels are classified as approximants.
BE GA kit dress trap fleece ɪ e a i: ɪ e ổ i:
1.2.2 Back vowels: Conversely, back vowels have the back of the tongue raised, towards the soft palate or velum
BE GA lot ɒ o foot ʊ ʊ palm a: a: thought ɔ : ɔ : goose u: u:
Central vowels are a distinct category of vowels that lie between front and back vowels They are characterized by the elevation of the tongue's body towards the junction of the hard and soft palate.
1.3 According to degree of lip rounding
1.3.1 Rounded vowels: the corners of the lips are brought towards each other and the lips are pushed forwards when making these sounds
1.3.2 Unrounded vowels: those sounds are made with the lips spread The corners of the lips are moved away from each other as for a smile
1.3.3 Neutral vowels: are those produced with the lips neither rounded nor spread
1.4 According to the length of the sounds
Long vowels are typically longer than short vowels in similar contexts, characterized by a single vowel accompanied by a length mark of two dots These vowels differ not only in duration but also in quality, which is influenced by variations in tongue shape and lip position.
English features eight diphthongs, which are unique vowel sounds that transition during pronunciation For instance, compare the monophthong in "car" with the diphthong in "cow," or the monophthong in "girl" with the diphthong in "goal." In both "cow" and "goal," the vowels initiate at one sound and glide towards another Specifically, in "goal," the vowel starts as [∂] and transitions to [ʊ], represented as [∂ʊ] in phonetic notation, as seen in the pronunciation [g∂ʊl].
Diphthongs are characterized by their length, resembling long vowels, with the crucial distinction that the first part is significantly longer and more pronounced than the second part, which is shorter and quieter.
The number of diphthongs is eight and they are divided into three groups: the closing group ending in
/ɪ/, the closing group ending in /ʊ/; the centring group ending in /ә/
A trip-thong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to the third, all produced rapidly without interruption
There are five diphthongs in English They are composed of the five closing diphthongs with /ә/ added at the end
We have: aʊ̯ə, aɪ̯ə, eɪ̯ə, ɔɪ̯ə, əʊ̯ə
Stress
Mark and Mary Brown, both doctors at the same hospital, include a physician and a biologist When an invitation for Dr M Brown is received, the hospital secretary seeks clarification on which Dr Brown is being invited, prompting her to consult a colleague.
The question "Who’s the physician?" leads to the answer "She is," identifying Mary as the invited physician Conversely, if the response were "He is," it would indicate Mark as the physician This key distinction is captured in a concise segment of the dialogue.
These two answers refer respectively to Mary and
(2) a [ʃi: ɪz] she is = Mary b [hi: ɪ z] he is = Mark
If we permute [ʃ] and [h] we change the meaning of the sentence and hence we aren’t speaking about the same person Consider the following sentence:
(3) [ðə kổt ɪz ɒn ðə mổt] the cat is on the mat
If we change the first consonant of the noun cat and insert [ h] instead we get the sentence
(4) [ðə hổt ɪz ɒn ðə mổt] the hat is on the mat which does not have the same meaning
Again, if in (3) we substitute [b] for [k], we get
(5) [ðə bổt ɪz ɒn ðə mổt] the bat is on the mat
The three strings of sound [kổt], [hổt] and [bổt] differ only because of their initial sound and thus are potentially three different words
As in the case of Mark and Mary the substitution of one sound for another one changes the meaning completely
(6) a the cat is on the mat b the mat is on the cat
What is the difference in sounds?
What is the difference in meaning?
Obviously the set of sounds uttered in (6a) and
(6b) is identical So the difference lies in the order in which these sounds appear: [k]and [m] permute in (6b)
We see that the order of appearance can alter meaning
In (6a) and (6b) the relationship between the cat and the mat is inverted
In our examples we produce a change in meaning through a substitution of segments in a string of sounds
These segments are called phonemes
If you're in London and need directions to Bond Street, simply ask someone nearby A couple might respond in unison, guiding you to take the second left and then turn right.
(7) a [sekənd left ən ðen raɪt] b [sekənd left ən ðen Raɪt]
Both speakers convey the same information, yet you may notice a difference in their pronunciations: the woman utilizes the standard English /r/ sound, while the man employs the rolled lingual [R].
This difference in the pronunciation, which allows you to deduce that the wife is English and the husband Scottish, doesn’t entail a change in meaning
The segments [r] and [R] can be used interchangeably without altering the meaning, as their distinction is phonetic In contrast, substituting [h] for [ʃ] in the phrase [ʃi: ɪz] to [hi: ɪz] results in a change of meaning, which is classified as phonological or phonemic.
A phoneme is the smallest segment of sounds which can distinguish two words and any smaller subdivision would be impossible
There are 44 phonemes in English They can be divided into two types: consonants (24) and vowels
(20) Each phoneme is meaningless in isolation It becomes meaningful only when it is combined with other phonemes
Phonemes form a set of abstract unit that can be used for writing down a language systematically and unambiguously because of the following reasons:
-different letters may represent a single sound, as shown in: to, too, two; or through, threw, clue, shoe
- a single letter may represent different sounds like in: dame, dad, father, call, village, many or pin/ spin, kin/ skin, tick/ stick
- A combination of letters may represent a single sound:
- Some letters have no sound at all in certain words in which they occur:
- Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
- One letter may represent two sounds; the final x in Xerox
To determine whether two sound segments represent the same phoneme or different ones, we place them in identical contexts, using the same sequence of sounds When a distinction between two such identical sound strings leads to a change in meaning, they form what is known as a minimal pair Examples of minimal pairs can be found in the previously mentioned instances (1a), (1b), (3), (4), and (5).
When one segment is replaced by another and the meaning changes, it indicates that the segments represent different phonemes For example, [k] and [m] are realizations of the phonemes /k/ and /m/, respectively, as substituting them in the string [-ổt] yields distinct words: /kổt/ (cat) and /mổt/ (mat).
To identify the phonemes of a language, a useful guideline is to check if changing one sound alters the meaning; if so, the sounds are distinct phonemes Words that differ only by a single sound in the same position are referred to as minimal pairs.
Sink and zinc are examples of minimal pairs, similar to fine and vine or chunk and junk In contrast, seed and soup do not qualify as minimal pairs because they differ in both vowel sounds and final consonants.
To accurately transcribe speech sounds, traditional spelling is insufficient; a systematic method that links sounds to specific letters or symbols is essential Each distinct sound should consistently correspond to a unique symbol, creating a one-to-one relationship known as a phonographic relationship Phonetic symbols are used to represent these speech sounds, and collectively, they form a phonetic alphabet.
Diacritics are marks used to denote slight variations in the standard value of phonetic symbols Phonetic transcription is the process of representing spoken language using these phonetic symbols, resulting in a written text that accurately reflects pronunciation.
Transcription broadly refers to the representation of abstract speech sounds, capturing idealized utterances that align with a speech community's understanding of a language's sound system This process focuses on a moderate level of accuracy, highlighting only the articulatory details that are essential for distinguishing meaning, specifically the distinctive features of speech.
Broad transcription, also known as phonological or phonemic transcription, involves the transcriber capturing what they expect to hear rather than what is actually spoken This method utilizes phonetic symbols to represent phonemes, with the transcribed text enclosed in slashes (//) Allophonic variations are disregarded, and the only additional mark used is the length mark, which is applied to the five long vowel phonemes, not classified as a diacritic in IPA terminology.
Phonemes can be realized in various ways depending on their phonetic environment For instance, the /t/ in "tea" is aspirated, while the first /t/ in "eat two" is unaspirated Despite these differences, English speakers recognize both variations as the same phoneme /t/ These distinct realizations of phonemes are known as allophones.
Allophones are the variations of phonemes that arise in spoken language, influenced by surrounding sounds or their position within a word For instance, the phoneme /t/ can be pronounced as [t h ] in the word "tea," demonstrating how context affects pronunciation.
[ t̠] get there Usually when we indicate different allophones we write phonetic transcription (narrow transcription)
Aspects of connected speech
In English pronunciation, emphasis is placed on one syllable within a word, making it louder and more prominent than the others This syllable is articulated with greater strength, while the remaining syllables are spoken softly.
Stress in spoken language refers to the emphasis placed on a specific syllable or word, which is articulated with greater energy This heightened stress makes the syllable or word stand out within a word, phrase, or sentence, enhancing its importance in communication.
Stress in language can be categorized into two types: word stress and sentence stress Word stress refers to the emphasis placed on a specific syllable within a word, which is typically consistent In contrast, sentence stress involves emphasizing a particular word in a sentence, and this emphasis can vary based on the speaker's emotions, attitudes, and the intended message for the listener.
We can study stress from the point of view of production and of perception; the two obviously closely related, but are not identical
Stress in speech production is thought to arise from the speaker exerting more muscular energy compared to unstressed syllables While measuring this muscular effort poses challenges, experimental studies suggest that producing stressed syllables involves greater activity in the muscles responsible for expelling air from the lungs, resulting in increased sub-glottal pressure.
Stressed syllables share a common trait: prominence This prominence is what distinguishes stressed syllables from unstressed ones, making them easily recognizable in speech.
At least for factors makes stressed syllables prominent:
Stressed syllables are perceived as louder than unstressed syllables, indicating that loudness contributes to their prominence In a series of identical syllables, a single louder syllable will be recognized as stressed.
Syllable length significantly influences prominence in speech When a syllable is elongated compared to others, it is often perceived as being stressed.
Every syllable is produced at a specific pitch, which is closely linked to the frequency of vocal cord vibrations and the musical concepts of low and high notes.
Speech prominence is a perceptual characteristic that occurs when one syllable is pronounced with a noticeably different pitch compared to others For instance, if all syllables are spoken in a low pitch except for one that is articulated in a higher pitch, the higher-pitched syllable will be perceived as stressed, while the others will be heard as unstressed.
A syllable is often emphasized when it features a vowel that differs in quality from adjacent vowels For instance, altering one of the vowels in a nonsensical word like "balibaba" typically results in the syllable "bi" being perceived as stressed.
Generally, these factors work together in combination, though syllables may sometimes be made prominent by means only one or two of them
Determining which syllable to stress in English words can be challenging, but it's essential to learn the correct stress for each new word A reliable English dictionary will provide this information Misplacing the stress can alter the word's pronunciation, making it difficult for listeners to recognize.
What sorts of words are stressed, then, and what sorts are unstressed/
In English, all multisyllabic words are typically stressed While there may be instances where speakers choose not to emphasize these words, it is advisable to consistently apply stress to enhance clarity and understanding.
One-syllable words, particularly grammatical ones such as pronouns (I, you, he, she), prepositions (to, for, at, from, by), and articles (the, a, an), are typically not stressed in speech The first article, "a," is pronounced with a schwa sound /ә/.
It is a misconception that /ә/ is the sole vowel present in unstressed syllables; in fact, all vowels can appear in these syllables Notably, the vowel /I/ is frequently found in unstressed positions, while the other vowels occur less often.
Thank you /’θổŋkju:/ maintain /meɪn’teɪn/
Translate /trổns’leɪt/ garage /’gổra: 3/
Decide /dɪsaid/ anything /’enɪθɪŋ/
Unstressed syllables frequently feature the vowel /ә/, which is exclusive to these syllables and never appears in stressed ones For example, in the word "contain" (/kәn’teɪn/), the second syllable carries the stress.
Other words are stressed, for example, full verbs
(eat, love, take, try, etc.), nouns (head, chair, book, pen, etc.), adjectives (good, blue, long, cold, etc.), adverbs
(well, just, quite, not, etc.) and the like In general, the words which give us the picture or provide most of the information are stressed
The prominence characteristics of stressed and unstressed syllables
Tones
Rhythm in speech is characterized by events occurring at regular time intervals, mirroring our biological rhythms like heartbeat and breathing It is traditionally defined as the repetition of stressed syllables at consistent intervals during speech.
English, along with languages such as Russian, German, and Arabic, is classified as a stress-timed language This means that stressed syllables appear at consistent intervals, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables in between While the duration of each syllable may vary, the overall time taken to pronounce each rhythmic unit remains relatively constant.
An example is given below:
Walk down the path to the
4 5 end of the ca nal
In this analysis, the stressed syllables are numbered, indicating that syllables 1 and 2 are adjacent without any intervening unstressed syllables Meanwhile, syllables 2 and 3 are separated by a single unstressed syllable, syllables 3 and 4 by two unstressed syllables, and syllables 4 and 5 by three unstressed syllables.
Languages such as French, Spanish, and Japanese exhibit a syllable-timed rhythm, where all syllables are pronounced at regular intervals In these languages, the duration between stressed syllables varies based on the number of intervening unstressed syllables, creating a consistent rhythmic pattern.
In both language groups, the fundamental rhythmic unit is a speech segment that consists of one stressed syllable accompanied by several unstressed ones Typically, an English rhythmic group comprises 2 to 4 syllables, with one syllable receiving the stress The formation of these rhythmic groups varies significantly across different language groups.
In Germanic languages such as English, German, and Danish, there is a notable enclitic tendency where unstressed syllables cluster with the preceding stressed syllable This rhythmic grouping begins with a stressed syllable and encompasses all subsequent unstressed syllables until the next stressed syllable is reached For example, in the phrase "Take me to the seaside resort," the structure illustrates this pattern effectively.
In slow formal speech, the semantic tendency often dominates, causing unstressed syllables to gravitate towards the stressed syllable of the same word or lexical unit, reflecting their semantic relationship For example, in the phrase "Take me to the seaside resort," the connection between the words is emphasized through this speech pattern.
In Roman languages (French, Italian, Spanish, etc.) the proclitic tendency is more obvious: unstressed syllables are grouped with a following stressed syllable
The rhythmic unit, often referred to as a rhythmic group, is traditionally understood as a speech segment that includes a stressed syllable accompanied by preceding or following unstressed syllables An alternative perspective defines a rhythmic group as one or more words that are closely linked by meaning and grammar, featuring only a strongly stressed syllable pronounced in a single breath In this context, the stressed syllable serves as the prosodic nucleus of the rhythmic group, with the preceding unstressed syllables termed proclitics and the following ones called enclitics.
The ' doctor ' says it’s not quite ↘ serious = 1 intonation group [4 rhythmic groups] ðə 'dɔktə 'sez its 'nɔt kwait ↘siə.ri əs
Phoneticians hold two primary perspectives on the role of unstressed syllables situated between stressed ones The semantic viewpoint suggests that these unstressed syllables gravitate towards the stressed syllable of the same word or the related lexical unit, influenced by their semantic relationships and concordance with other words.
Negro Harlem | became | the largest | colony | of coloured people
The enclitic tendency suggests that unstressed syllables between stressed ones often merge with the preceding stressed syllable, leading to the formation of rhythmical groups in phrases.
Negro Harlem | became the | largest | colony of | coloured people
The rhythm-unit break in speech is often unclear, as it is influenced by the tempo and style of delivery Informal speech typically exhibits an enclitic tendency, while more precise and explicit speech tends to follow a semantic tendency.
Assimilation occurs when one sound changes to resemble a neighboring sound in various ways Essentially, it is the effect of one phoneme on another adjacent phoneme, leading to increased similarity between them.
Assimilation occurs to varying degrees depending on the speaking rate and style, being more prevalent in fast, casual conversations and less common in slow, deliberate speech.
When two words are combined, and the first word ends with a single final consonant (Cf) while the second word begins with a single initial consonant (Ci), a specific phonetic interaction occurs This interaction can be visually represented through a diagram, illustrating the relationship between the consonants at the junction of the two words.
When a consonant sound (Cf) changes to resemble a following consonant (Ci), this process is known as regressive assimilation In this phenomenon, the first phoneme is influenced by the characteristics of the phoneme that follows it.
Ci changes to become like Cf in some way, the assimilation is called progressive We have seen that the main differences between consonants are of three types:
Differences in place of articulation
Differences in manner of articulation
Regressive assimilation: the sounds assimilated are influenced by the succeeding sounds
/ju:zd/ (used) → nju:speipə/
(newspaper) / /gu:zbəri/ (gooseberry) /faifpəns/ (five pence) /hổf tu/ (have to) /ju:st tu/ (used to)
Regressive assimilation can also be found in some words like: describe → receive → twelve → five → description reception, receipt twelfth fifth, fifteen, fifty