A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis

A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis A red red rose the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

PHAM NGOC ANH

“A RED RED ROSE”, THE ROMANTIC VERSES

IN A POETIC DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

(“ A Red Red Rose”, những vần thơ lãng mạn dưới lăng kính

phân tích diễn ngôn)

M.A THESIS

Field: English Linguistics Code: 8220201

THAI NGUYEN - 2019

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

PHAM NGOC ANH

“A RED RED ROSE”, THE ROMANTIC VERSES

IN A POETIC DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

(“ A Red Red Rose”, những vần thơ lãng mạn dưới lăng kính

phân tích diễn ngôn)

M.A THESIS (APPLICATION ORIENTATION)

Field: English Linguistics Code: 8220201

Supervisor: CAO DUY TRINH (Ph.D)

THAI NGUYEN - 2019

DECLARATION

I certify my authorship of the study report entitled:

“A Red Red Rose”, the romantic verses in a poetic discourse analysis

In fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts

Trainee

Pham Ngoc Anh

This study was approved by:

GV hướng dẫn ký

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to a number of people for helping me to make this M.A thesis possible First and foremost, I would like to give thank to my supervisor Dr Cao Duy Trinh who deserves much of the credit not only for encouraging, guiding and supporting me to finish this paper but also giving

me mental support from the beginning to the end Only for his hearty instructions that I could have completed my research paper on time

I would like to sincerely thank the anonymous participants who contributed data to this study Without their outstanding cooperation, this thesis would not have been done

I would like to thank my family, especially my parents and my husband for their constant source of love, support and encouragement in times of difficulty and frustration

Finally, I would like to thank my readers for their interests and comments on this thesis

While I am deeply indebted to all these people for their help to the fulfillment

of this thesis, I myself remain responsible for any inadequacies that are found

in this work

ABSTRACT

Different poets use different figurative words to make their poetry expressive and intensive so that it may draw the attention of the readers at once The purpose of this analysis is to spotlight the implicature of this poem to the readers This discourse analysis will find out the truths or purposes behind the written words The poet has chosen ―The Red Rose‖ to compare with his dear lover and the rose, therefore, can be the symbol of his love with romance, purity and innocence

The poet has very artistically draws a picture of his profound love He paints this picture with intense emotions The speaker compares his beloved with ―a red rose‖ and ―sweet melody‖ to intensify his deep feelings for her He addresses her, proclaiming that his love will stay still until the seas dry up and the rocks melt with the sun because his beloved is so adorable For some reasons, he has to go far away from her, but he promises to return even if he has to travel thousands of miles to win her back What enchants the reader is the metaphorical representation of love through natural namely the sea and the sun

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 Aims of the study 3

1.3 Research question 3

1.4 Scope of the study 3

1.5 Design of the study 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Robert Burns 6

2.2 Poetry 9

2.3 Discourse analysis 12

2.3.1 Discourse 12

2.3.2 Significance of discourse in literature 13

2.3.3 Discourse analysis 14

2.4 "Conherence" and "Cohesion" 17

2.5 Figurative Language 19

2.5.1 Convey Meaning 20

2.5.2 Promote a New Perspective 23

2.5.3 Similes 23

2.5.4 Metaphor 27

2.6 Semantic analysis 30

2.7 Syntactic Analysis 31

2.8 Romance in poetry 33

2.9 Rose as symbol of love in poem 34

2.10 Previousa studies 39

2.11 Some definitions 40

2.11.1 Stylistics 40

2.11.2 Poetry……….40

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 44

3.1 Method of the study 44

3.2 Data collection instrument 45

3.3 Data analytical method 45

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 47

4.1 An introduction of ―A Red, Red Rose‖ 47

4.2 Literary features of ―A Red, Red Rose‖ 49

4.3 Discourse analysis of ―A Red, Red Rose‖ 51

4.3.1 First Stanza 53

4.3.2.Second Stanza 53

4.3.3 Third Stanza 54

4.3.4 Fourth Stanza 54

4.4 Summary 55

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 57

5.1 Conclusion 57

5.2 Limitations 61

5.3 Suggestions for the further studies 61

REFERENCE 63

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale

Literature has always been open to interpretation and the readers interpret it

in order to put certain literary, political, critical and social ideas into practice Language plays a fundamental role, for every artistic activity is prepared, accompanied, influenced and played by language This paper analyzes discourse of literary writing, namely the ― Red Red Rose‖ by Robert Burns Given the enormous stylistic and literary significance of the said poem, in times of critical turmoil, it is absurd to rely on one interpretation

The title of the poem and its overall significance is enhanced with the techniques of Discourse Analysis The aim of this paper is to examine the strategies

of discourse analysis and its literary and critical value

Discourse, as such, is a broad term with many a definition, which ―integrates

a whole palette of meanings‖ (Titscher et al., 1998: 42), ranging from linguistics, through sociology, philosophy and other disciplines For The purposes of this paper, the definition of discourse, based on Robert Burns‘ poem Red Red Rose and his general concept of discourse as text in context, seen as ―data that is liable for empirical analysis‖ is applied (Titscher et al., 1998: 44), with focus being put on discourse as action and process From this, it follows that―discourse‖ is a wider term than ―text‖: ―I shall use the term discourse to refer to the whole process of social interaction of which a text is just a part‖ (Fairclough 1989: 24)

Romantic poems will always go along with years and become eternal, especially English poems about love Love has long become a familiar theme indispensable in poetry The sweet poems contain the love that is the sincerest way

to express the love that couples have for each other

It can be said that literary analysis is the first step in creating the pen in any field Some of them have contributed to the training of the copywriter's pen much

richer, the rest more deeply express the characteristics of the perfect literary works

to life

A Red Red Rose was first published in 1794 in A Selection of Scots Songs,

edited by Peter Urbani Robert Burns took the image of the red rose symbolizing

the undying love in his poetry (Ruby and Milne, 2000) To describe the eternal nature of his love, the author uses metaphor in poetry, as well as centralized images

of great love, as well as showing his love of romance and intensity, overcome barriers and obstacles of life In the end, he wanted to let his woman know that his love never lost

In trying to quantify his feelings - and in searching for the perfect metaphor

to describe the eternal nature of his love - the speaker inevitably comes up against

love's greatest limitation, the sands o' life This image of the hourglass forces the reader to reassess of the poem's first and loveliest image: A Red, Red Rose is itself

an object of an hour, newly sprung only in June and afterward subject to the decay

of time

A Red, Red Rose is a romantic poem about the author's undying love for her

woman The poem is a beautiful work that gives readers a lot of emotion and admiration for a beautiful and intense love This treatment of time and beauty predicts the work of the later Romantic poets, who took Burns‘ work as an important influence Thus, the topic ―A Red Red Rose‖ - The romance in a poem -

A discourse analysis‖ is very exciting to study

The most important figure of speech in this poem is the simile, which compares two different things using the words "like" or "as." In the first stanza, the speaker compares his love ("Luve") to a "red, red rose, / That's newly sprung in June." That is to say that his love is like the rose at its most vibrant state in summer, its "reddest" color (this is why the word "red" is repeated) As the rose is at its reddest color, his love is at its fullest feeling The speaker uses another simile to

compare his love to a melody that's played in tune

1.2 Aims of the study

The study aims to investigate the linguistic features in A Red, Red Rose in

terms of non-figurative and figurative language and the romantic expressions to help learners of English further understand use of a discourse in poem

The research also shows the romance in the poem as well as in the style of poetry written by Robert Burns, whose poetics are innocent, so he also borrowed folk culture to create the depth of thought or thickness of the human experience in his works

1.4 Scope of the study

The research is working out the romance in the poem A Red, Red Rose

written by Robert Burns in 1794:

O my Luve's like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung in June:

O my Luve's like the melodie, That's sweetly play'd in tune

As fair art thou, my bonnie lass,

And the rocks melt wi' the sun;

And I will luve thee still, my dear, While the sands o' life shall run

And fare-thee-weel, my only Luve!

And fare-thee-weel, a while!

And I will come again, my Luve, Tho' 'twere ten thousand mile!

In addition, the research is looking into the problems for the students Firstly, lack of skills and knowledge for poem analysis, the student faced difficulties to understand poet‘s ideas Secondly, the poem is very difficult to perceive normally because poetry is a form of art and art is meant to be non-linear Poetry is inspired from life and life is complex Therefore, poetry can be complex too The same thing happens with poetry Don't just read the lines, feel every word, ever sound, every image, and every emotion the poet tries to create When readers do this even a difficult poem will seem crystal clear to them Thus, it needs more skills to analyze

a poem

1.5 Design of the study

The chapter 1 is introduction part in which rational and the aim of the study; moreover, scope of the study is presented

The chapter 2 is Literature review part in which the introduction to the author Robert Burns is presented first Then, Figurative language including similes and metaphor is introduced After that, semantic and syntactic analyses are studied Finally, it is previous analytical

The chapter 3, the analyst presents research methodology Firstly, some definitions are presented such as stylistics, poetry and descriptive analysis At last,

Research procedure, Data collection instruments; data collection and Data analytical method are showed

The chapter 4, it is findings and discussion in which the findings presents syntactic and semantic (figurative language) features and the romance in the poem

as well as in the style of poetry written by Robert Burns with deeply discussion Findings show how to use the language in the author's poetry from which to see the expression of his love in very warm but strong words Moreover, the findings also focus on analysis of figurative language including simile, metaphor, especially, The romance in the style of poetry was presented specifically

Chapter 5 presents conclusion and recommendation of the study In addition, limitation of the thesis and suggestions for further research are also given out

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter critically reviews the literatures relating to the poem and poet which is selected as the sample in this current study Firstly, the researcher presents

bibliography of Robert Burns as the writer of A Red, Red Rose Then such

theoretical fundamentals related to poetry, discourse analysis and romance in poetry

is explored to develop the foundation for the analysis

2.1 Robert Burns

Robert Burns (25 January 1759 – 21 July 1796) is a Scottish poet and lyricist He is one of the most famous poets of Scotland and is widely regarded as a Scottish national poet Being considered as a pioneer of the Romantic Movement, Robert Burns became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism after his death Most of his world-renowned works are written in a Scots dialect And in the meantime, he produced a lot of poems in English

Robert Burns also known familiarly as Rabbie Burns, theNationalBard,Bard

of Ayrshire and the Ploughman Poet and various other names andepithets (O'Hagan,

A: "The People's Poet", The Guardian, 19 January 2008),was a Scottish poet and

lyricist He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and is celebrated worldwide He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and a light Scots dialect, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland He also wrote in standard English, and

in these writings his political or civil commentary is often at its bluntest

He was born in a peasant‘s clay-built cottage, south of Ayr, in Alloway, South Ayrshire, Scotland in 1759 His father, William Burnes (1721–1784), is a self-educated tenant farmer from Dunnottar in the Mearns, and his mother, Agnes Broun (1732–1820), is the daughter of a Kirkoswald tenant farmer.Despite the poor soil and a heavy rent, his father still devoted his whole life to plough the land to support the whole family‘s livelihood As the eldest son in this seven-child family, Burns tried his best to help his father in youth The severe manual labor of the farm

harmed his health and constitution Under this condition, his father still attached great importance to education, hiring a teacher for him and teaching his children himself Burns had acquired theological knowledge and grammar with little regular schooling Besides, he read a lot on foreign literature

He was also taught by John Murdoch (1747–1824), who had an "adventure school" in Alloway in 1763 and taught Latin, French, and mathematics to him from

1765 to 1768 Then years later, Burnswent to Dalrymple Parish School in

mid-1772 Then after a full-time farm laboring at harvest time at 1773, he was sent to lodge with Murdoch for three weeks to study French and Latin

During the harvest of 1774, he was assisted by Nelly Kilpatrick (1759–1820), who inspired his first attempt at poetry, "O, Once I Lov'd A Bonnie Lass" In

1775, he was sent to finish his education with a tutor at Kirkoswald, where he met Peggy Thompson (born 1762), to whom he wrote two songs,"Now Westlin' Winds" and "I Dream'd I Lay" He has written his poems in his notebook and added comments on his poems At the same time, he was greatly interested in sectarian politics, supporting liberalism and opposing orthodox Calvinism

In 1777, Burnes led his family moved again to Lochlea, near Tarbolton but they were still in poor condition After William Burnes's death in 1784, his family became integrated into the community of Tarbolton At that time, Robert joined a country dancing school in 1779 and formed the Tarbolton Bachelors' Club later with his brother Gilbert There he met Alison Begbie (b 1762) and written four songs for her

Burns fell in love with a woman named Jean Armour and then she became pregnant with twins in March 1786 Burns signed a paper attesting his marriage to Jean, but her parents forbade it Still they were eventually married in 1788 Armour bore him nine children, only three survived infancy Due to financial difficulties, Burns took up an offer of work in Jamaica to be a "book keeper"(assistant overseer

of slaves) Six years later he wrote "The Slave's Lament" which demonstrated his egalitarian views

At about the same time, Burns fell in love with Mary Campbell (1763–1786)

He dedicated the poems "The Highland Lassie O", "Highland Mary", and "To Mary

in Heaven" to her His song "Willye go to the Indies, my Mary, and leave auld Scotia's shore?" suggests that they planned to emigrate to Jamaica together It has been suggested that on 14 May 1786 they exchanged Bibles and plighted their troth over the Water of Fail in a traditional form of marriage But soon afterwards Mary left her work in Ayrshire and sailed home in Campbeltown In October 1786, Mary and her father went to visit her brother in Greenock who fell ill with typhus While nursing him, Mary caught it, too She died of typhus on October 1786 and was buried in Greenock

On 31 July 1786 Robert Burns published his volume of works Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish dialect Known as the Kilmarnock volume, it contained much of his best writing, including "The Twa Dogs", "Address to the Deil",

"Halloween", "The Cotter's Saturday Night", "To a Mouse", "Epitaph For James Smith", and "To a Mountain Daisy" These works were so successful and soon he was known across the country

On 4 September Burns received a letter from Thomas Blacklock who expressed his admiration for the poetry in the Kilmarnock volume, and was suggested an enlarged second edition in Edinburgh.Over there, his first Edinburgh edition of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish dialect was published on 17April 1787 He was warmly welcomed and made the acquaintance of many famous people, one of which was James Johnson, a struggling music engraver and music seller Burns contributed many songs to his volume The Scots Musical Museum

Burns had alienated many of his friends by freely expressing sympathy with the French and American Revolutions and the advocates of reform and votes for all men Burns joined the Royal Dumfries Volunteers in March 1795 in an attempt to prove his loyalty to the Crown Many early biographers who studied Burns believed that excessive drinking and debauchery led to his early death

Near the age of 40, Burns suffered from rheumatic fever then it worsened to

a serious and fatal heart disease He was buried in Dumfries Cemetery after his death in 1796 His friends helped support his family by subscribing to his published collection of poems

Burns was a pioneer of Romanticism in the 18th century He is a prolific writer who has created more than 600 poems in his life, many of which are expressed in the form of singing, mainly exalting the simple feelings of the common people and expressing his deep sympathy for the suffering of the people at the other end of the society

Burns' poetry was deeply influenced by the Classical, Biblical, and English literature He was not only good at writing in the Scots language but also in the Scottish English dialect of the English Language Some of his works, such as "Love and Liberty" (also known as "The Jolly Beggars"), are written in both Scots and English for various effects

His works are mostly lyric poems, such as A Red, Red Rose praising people‘s

love, "Scots, Wha Hae" expressing patriotism and so on He also wrote many satirical poems, such as "Holy Willie's Prayer", and narrative poems, "The Two Dogs" and "The Jolly Beggars" His world-famous poem"Auld Lang Syne" is written in Scots language and now is used to bid farewell to the old year at the stroke of midnight on New Year's Eve

Burns also claims to freely pursue wine, women, poetry and songs His creation has many styles, but mainly is marked by spontaneity, directness, and sincerity This essay mainly talks about his views and feelings on love from the

poem A Red, Red Rose

2.2 Poetry

―Poetry is the most intense, most highly charged, most artful and complex form of language we have long associated with the distant origins of music, dance, and religious ritual in early human cultures‖ (Grossman 2010:7) The

Concise Oxford Dictionary defines a poem as ―a literary composition that is given intensity by particular attention to diction (sometimes involving rhyme), rhythm, and imagery.‖ One might wonder about the accuracy, or specificity of this definition, especially when considering some moving oration, e.g., a sermon, that may well manifest all three characteristics—elaborate diction, a certain rhythmic cadence, and imagery—to a noticeable degree (is such an effective sermon an instance of poetry?) The preceding notions may be specified like this: ―Poetic language [exhibits] form, style, structure, and contents of cultivated verbal articulation‖ that together signify ―higher levels of organization and meaning‖ (Gerstenberger, 2014:27) Poetry is artistically embellished, typically condensed discourse that appeals to the sense of sound

The following, more focused perspective points to a crucial distinctive feature of most poetic traditions in the world: "As soon as we perceive that a verbal sequence has a sustained rhythm, that it is formally structured according to a continuously operating principle of organization we are in the presence of poetry and we respond to it accordingly, expecting certain effects from it and not others" (Spicehandler et al., 2012:601) Thus poetry involves some type of sustained rhythmic principle that is manifested in measured line-forms as well as in recurrent patterns of larger formal and/or thematic organization Note also that poetic forms elicit a particular kind of cognitive and emotive response ―Poetry is the sound of language organized in lines, [and] poems are poems because we want to listen to them‖ (Longenbach, 2008:120) As for most languages, the concept of poetry is culturally-defined, and there are no sharply drawn diagnostic boundaries to distinguish such discourse from prose The different concentrations of linguistic (or literary) features found within a given text must be evaluated in terms of their relative frequency of occurrence, diversity, density, or syntactic position, on the one hand, and with respect to the quality and intensity of their rhetorical effect upon an assumed implied audience, on the other These range from those that are more, to those that are less poetic (or more prosaic), as determined on the basis of a complex bundle of interrelated stylistic qualities:

Thus, every text must be analyzed and assessed on its own terms with regard

to its complement of stylistic features and discourse Finally, it may be noted that, after all, the point of any biblical text study is not simply to determine its formal status - whether prose, poetry, or something in-between - but rather to ascertain how its constituent linguistic-literary characteristics actually function, both individually and together in context, to convey meaning, that is, semantic content, functional intent, pragmatic implication, structural form (e.g., acrostic poetry), and so forth In addition to the use of a set of heuristic analytical criteria such as the following, a good deal of scholarly intuition is also involved in any description and interpretation of the posited relationship between form and function in literary texts, especially where more poetic discourse is concerned

A poem is a work of literature that uses the sounds and rhythms of a language to evoke deeper significance than the literal meanings of the words There are numerous literary devices that may be found in any given poem, such as meter, rhyme, rhythm, symbolism, imagery, repetition, consonance, assonance, alliteration, enjambment, and so on Furthermore, there are a number of different ways to classify a poem, such as analyzing its meter or finding it to be either blank verse or free verse There are also many different recognized forms in which a poem may be written, such as a sonnet, haiku, sestina, villanelle, limerick, ode, ghazal, etc

There is a wide variety of written works which qualify as poems, and thus it can be difficult to say exactly what a poem ―is‖ or what it does However, most people do not struggle to identify that an example of a poem is, indeed, a poem There are certain conventions in poetry that distinguish it, especially the visual look

of a poem upon a page with its lines that form stanzas rather than paragraphs (though there is a recent genre in poetry called prose poetry, which mixes these two forms)

Cultures from around the world and throughout generations have generated poetry for many different purposes There are religious scriptures which are written

as poetry, poems that are meant to convey profound yet secular truths about the world, and light poetry which is meant to be humorous

Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence' This contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax) Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together

Some discourse analysts consider the larger discourse context in order to understand how it affects the meaning of the sentence For example, Charles Fillmore points out that two sentences taken together as a single discourse can have meanings different from each one taken separately To illustrate, he asks you to imagine two independent signs at a swimming pool: "Please use the toilet, not the pool," says one The other announces, "Pool for members only." If you regard each sign independently, they seem quite reasonable But taking them together as a single discourse makes you go back and revise your interpretation of the first sentence after you've read the second

While every act of communication can count as an example of discourse, some scholars have broken discourse down into four primary types: argument,

narration, description, and exposition Many acts of communicate include more than one of these types in quick succession

- Argument: A form of communication meant to convince an audience that the writer or speaker is correct, using evidence and reason

- Narration: This form of communication tells a story, often with emotion and empathy involved

- Description: A form of communication that relies on the five senses to help the audience visualize something

- Exposition: Exposition is used to inform the audience of something with relatively neutral language, i.e., it‘s not meant to persuade or evoke emotion

Other literary scholars have divided types of discourse into three categories: expressive, poetic, and transactional

Expressive: Expressive discourse comprises those acts of literary writing that

is creative, yet non-fiction This could include memoirs, letters, or online blogs

Poetic: Poetic discourse comprises creative, fictional writing Poetic discourse includes novels, poems, and drama These types of work often prioritize emotion, imagery, theme, and character development, as well as the use of literary devices like metaphor and symbolism

Transactional: Transactional discourse is used to propel something into action, such as advertising motivating a customer to buy, or showing a customer how to use a product via a manual This type of discourse generally does not rely so much on literary devices

2.3.2 Significance of discourse in literature

Discourse of any type is one of the most important elements of human behavior and formation Countless studies have been done on the way the brain shapes thoughts into words and, indeed, the way that communication shapes the brain Many studies have specifically targeted the way that speakers of different

languages understand concepts differently Thus, the creation and dispersion of discourse is of the utmost importance to the perpetuation of the human race Literature is one of the primary ways of maintaining a record of discourse and creating new ways of understanding the world By reading texts from other cultures and other time periods, we are better able to understand the way in which the authors of those texts thought Indeed, reading literature from our own ostensible cultures can better highlight the ways in which we think and interact Since each piece of literature ever created is an example of discourse, our understanding of discourse is vital to our understanding of literature

2.3.3 Discourse analysis

Since discourse introduction to modern science the term ―discourse‖ has taken various, sometimes very broad, meanings In order to specify which of the numerous senses is analyzed in the following thesis it has to be defined Originally the word ―discourse‖ comes from Latin ―discursus‖ which denoted ―conversation, speech‖ Thus understood, however, discourse refers to too wide an area of human life, therefore only discourse from the vantage point of linguistics, and especially applied linguistics, is explained here

There is no agreement among linguists as to the use of the term discourse in that some use it in reference to texts, while others claim it denotes speech which is for instance illustrated by the following definition: ―Discourse: a continuous stretch

of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative‖

By Gillian Brown and George Yule, discourse analysis is a term that has come to have different interpretations for scholars working in different disciplines For a sociolinguist, it is concerned mainly with the structure of social interaction manifested in conversation; for a psycholinguist, it is primarily concerned with the nature of comprehension of short written texts; for the computational linguist, it is concerned with producing operational models of text-understanding within highly limited contexts In this textbook, first published in 1983, the authors provide an

extensive overview of the many and diverse approaches to the study of discourse, but base their own approach centrally on the discipline which, to varying degrees, is common to them all - linguistics Using a methodology which has much in common with descriptive linguistics, they offer a lucid and wide-ranging account of how forms of language are used in communication [1]

An Introduction to Discourse Analysis examines by James Paul which is the

field and presents Gee‘s unique integrated approach which incorporates both a theory of language-in-use and a method of research In this book, discourse analysis considers how language, both spoken and written, enacts social and cultural perspectives and identities, include new material such as examples of oral and written language, ranging from group discussions with children, adults, students and

teachers to conversations, interviews, academic texts and policy documents An

Introduction to Discourse Analysis includes perspectives from a variety of

approaches and disciplines, including applied linguistics, education, psychology, anthropology and communication to help students and scholars from a range of backgrounds to formulate their own views on discourse and engage in their own discourse analysis [6]

Discourse analysis as an approach lies at the interface of many disciplines such as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, philosophy, text linguistics It has attracted the attention of many scholars both abroad and at home This book deals with DA in such a fundamental way, defining discourse as a socially situated communicative and interactional process It is purpose and action oriented

―Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method‖ defines and redefines such critical concepts for DA as context, coherence vs cohesion, the communicativeness, relevance of discourse, structure of discourse and how background knowledge is used in computing comprehension of discourse, as well as its semiotic nature.[7]

Tarigan (1987:2) says that ―Discourse is the language above level of sentence In other words, it is larger unit than sentence or clause‖ He also classifies discourse into some types namely prose, poems, conversation and text Discourse

analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used It grew out of work in different disciplines in the 1960s, including semiotics, psychology, anthropology and sociology Discourse analysts study language use in written texts of all kinds and spoken data from conversation

to highly institutional forms of talk

The study of discourse concerns with four points, as described as follows:

- Discourse has a topic

It means that each discourse must have topic in order to get the reader understands easily about the content of the text

- Discourse has audiences

It means that audience is important in discourse because the audience is considered as the supporter of discourse

- Discourse has channel of communication

It means that each discourse must have channel of communication in order to get people communicate in a better way in discourse

- Discourse has structure

It means that discourse has relationship with linguistic, so discourse must have structure, as it is related to grammar The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous It can refer to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected spoken or written discourse Roughly speaking, it refers to the attempts to study about the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause, and to study larger linguistic unit, such as conversational exchanges or written texts It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language use in social contexts and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers

Grammatical forms and phonological forms are examined separately Both of them are unreliable indicators of function, when they are taken together and looked

at in context, so that we can come to some decisions about function So decision

about communicative function solely be the domain of grammar or phonology Discourse analysis is not entirely separate from the study of grammar and phonology but discourse analysis is interested in a lot more than linguistic forms

The function of discourse analysis is to interpret grammar appropriately of a sentence or dialogue It shows more the relationship between the speakers‘ dialogue and what sort of rules they are following as their converse to one another because every situation will have their own formulas and conventions which we follow; for example, interview for job, buying things on shops, conversation in phone, informally discussion in classroom, etc They will have different ways of opening and closing the encounter, different role of relationships, different purposes and different settings Discourse analysis is interested in all of these different factors and tries to account for them in a rigorous fashion with a separate set of descriptive labels from those used by conventional grammarians Above all, which are the raw material of language teaching, the overall aim is to enable learners to use language functionally

2.4 Coherence and Cohesion

There are two terms that are very fundamental in discourse analysis which studies the relation among a text within the other texts The terms are cohesion and coherence Cohesion is the use of language forms to indicate semantic relations between elements in a discourse It is grammatical and lexical relationship within a text or sentence It can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give it meaning Cohesion in English specifies five major classes of cohesive ties, nineteen subclasses, and numerous sub-subclasses There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical, referring to the structural content, a lexical, referring to the language content of the piece

Coherence is grammatical and semantic interconnectedness between sentences that form a text It is the semantic structure, not its formal meaning, which create coherence Coherency is a condition where sentences in a text hang together

It can occur in relation of sentences that immediately follow each other Coherency grammatically arises when a text contains transition signals or when it possesses consistent pronoun Semantically, a text is said coherence when there is unity of meaning among elements of the texts

Hatch (1992: 1) also defines about discourse analysis and said, ―Discourse analysis is the study of the language communication – spoken or written The system that emerges out the data shows that communication is an Interlocking social, cognitive, and linguistic enterprise.‖ It concludes that in discourse analysis, the process has some research objects that are spoken or written Beaugrande (in Van Djik, 2001: 41) states that the spoken and written discourses are from books, newspapers, radio, broadcast, and so on

The concept of cohesion and coherence are clearly detected in written discourse It is because written discourse has clearer structure, so the devices of cohesion and coherence can be easier to be observed Although object of a discourse analysis is spoken, in order to get evidence, the object must be transform into written discourse Sinclair (2004: 4) says, ―Apparently spoken, these discourses may nevertheless display evidence of having been written.‖

Coherence in writing is the result of many factors such as the combination of words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs to make a whole meaning; furthermore, the ideas in each paragraph should be presented clearly in every sentence With coherence in writing, readers can understand easily the ideas that you express To get a coherent writing, a writer should write coherent sentences, paragraphs and put them in close relations to express a focusing theme

In this analysis, the coherence of the poetic works is done, with the non-figurative and figurative linguistic expressions, to highlight the poet‘s love for his darling throughout the verses

2.5 Figurative Language

Figurative languages is the art of talking, aimed at enhancing the ability to present, persuade and motivate receptors of certain speakers and writers in specific situations As a research discipline, rhetoric plays a central role in the Western tradition Its most common definition comes from Aristotle(Denroche, 2008)

Phrasal verbs or figurative languages are special languages or expressions used by the author to mislead the reader or mislead others In English we often encounter types of rhetoric such as: simile, metaphor, hyperbole, alliteration, personification, idiom, onomatopoeia, (Denroche, 2008)

Figurative language is any figure of speech which depends on a non-literal meaning of some or all of the words used There are many types of figurative language, including literary devices such as simile, metaphor, personification, and many pun examples, to name just a few The definition of figurative language is opposite to that of literal language, which involves only the ―proper‖ or dictionary definitions of words Figurative language usually requires the reader or listener to understand some extra nuances, context, allusions, etc in order to understand the second meaning However, figurative language is such a common part of regular speech that adult native speakers of a language can just as easily interpret figurative language as literal language

Ancient philosophers such as Aristotle (Greek) and Quintilian (Roman) were some of the first to theorize about the use and function of figurative language Aristotle argued that figurative language was not merely an embellishment, but instead mirror the way humans actually process information, which is to say by comparing it to things we already know Thus, when we use the simile, ―Her fleece was white as snow,‖ this isn‘t to provide a trivial comparison but instead to help the reader or listener imagine the purity of Mary‘s lamb‘s fleece

We can find examples of figurative language in the majority of literary works This is both because there are so many literary devices that qualify as

figurative language and also because the human mind responds well to different types of figurative language Indeed, many studies have shown that figurative language comes naturally to children and that it helps them understand new concepts Therefore, when authors use examples of figurative language, they are trying to provide fresh or unique new ways of explaining things However, they are also triggering a very important part of the human mind and creating new synapses

Poems play crucial role in romantic expression in which Figurative language

is the key point helping expression of romantics

2.5.1 Convey Meaning

While figurative language is common in literature and poetry as it uses exaggerations or alterations to make a particular linguistic point, it‘s also used in other forms of writing Let‘s explore different variations to see what you‘d like to use in your next writing piece

Alliteration:Alliteration is derived from Latin ―Latira‖ It means ―letters of

alphabet‖ It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series Alliteration helps writers punch points home by repeating the same sound (usually a consonant) of the first or second letter in a series of words It tends to catch the reader‘s eye

E.g.: The professor praised his pupil’s flowery prose

Hyperbole:Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning ―over-casting,‖

is a figure of speech that involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis When a writer exaggerates something - typically in a humorous way — it‘s known

as hyperbole Hyperbole Is exaggeration of the magnitude, scale, nature of things, phenomena are depicted to emphasize, impress and increase expressiveness Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation

E.g.: My eyes widened at the sight of the mile-high sundaes that were brought to our table.”

Metaphor: A metaphor is a comparison between two things They don‘t

necessarily have to be alike but make a link in the reader‘s mind It is the use of things, phenomena to name things, other phenomena based on the similarity (the same) to increase the ability to express, to express the senses A Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics

In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that ―something else,‖ you are speaking metaphorically The following phrase is an example of metaphor, ―My brother is the black sheep of the family,‖ because he is neither a sheep nor is he black However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person A black sheep is an unusual animal, which typically stays away from the herd, and the person being described shares similar characteristics

However, the metaphor figure of speech is different from a simile, because

we do not use ―like‖ or ―as‖ to develop a comparison in metaphor poems and metaphor sentences It makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one

E.g.: Nobody invites Edward to parties because he is a wet blanket.”

Personification: When something non-human is given human-like qualities,

this is known as personification The use of words that are used to describe human actions to describe things, to use words to call people not to make things happen, friendly with human Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing – an idea

or an animal – is given human attributes

The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings For example, when we say, ―The sky weeps,‖

we are giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality Thus, we can say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence

E.g.The leaves danced in the wind on the cold October afternoon

Simile: A simile is a direct comparison between two things, using like or as

In the other words, Simile is a comparison of things, things with things, other things with similarities to increase the power of sex, the sense of expression A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words ―like‖ or ―as.‖ Therefore, it is a direct comparison

We can find simile examples in our daily speech We often hear comments

like, “John is as slow as a snail.” Snails are notorious for their slow pace, and here

the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail The use of ―as‖ in the example helps to draw the resemblance

Eg: Children like buds on branches

Jamie runs as fast as the wind

Symbolism: Symbolism occurs when something that has one meaning is

used to represent something entirely different For example, using an image of the American flag to represent patriotism Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense

Symbolism can take different forms Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value For instance, ―smile‖ is a symbol of friendship Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you

Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in

―A chain,‖ for example, may stand for ―union‖ as well as ―imprisonment‖ Thus,

symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where, and how

it is used It also depends on who reads the work

2.5.2 Promote a New Perspective

Let‘s dig a little deeper Figurative language may also include unusual constructions or word combinations to provide a new perspective Here are some examples:

Assonance: Assonance occurs when you repeat a vowel sound in a phrase

"True, I do like Sue."

Cliché: A cliché is a phrase that is repeated so often, it‘s nearly meaningless

“Try walking a mile in my shoes."

Idiom: An idiom is an expression used by a group of people with a meaning that can only be understood through common usage

“I’m waiting for him to kick the bucket.” (Many idioms are also considered

clichés)

Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech where one word is replaced with

a word that‘s closely associated with it For example, you might hear Washington used to refer to the U.S government

Onomatopoeia: When the name of an action imitates the sound it makes, it‘s known as an onomatopoeia

“The bees buzz angrily when their hive is disturbed.”

Synecdoche: A synecdoche is a figure of speech using a word or words to represent a whole For example, if you refer to credit cards as "plastic," you‘re using

a synecdoche

2.5.3 Similes

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two different things in an interesting way The object of a simile is to spark an interesting connection in a

reader's or listener's mind A simile is one of the most common forms of figurative language Similes can be found just about anywhere from poems to song lyrics and even in everyday conversations

According to Fromilhague (1995), a simile has various functions: First, they serve to communicate concisely and efficiently They are one of the set of linguistic devices which extends the linguistic resources available Secondly they can function

as cognitive tools for thought in that they enable us to think of the world in novel, alternative ways In discourse, they can also fulfill more specific functions depending on the textual genre in which they occur In scientific texts, comparison and analogical reasoning play an important role Simile also differs from analogy, intended in its narrower sense, as former involves four Unlike metaphors, similes require individuation of both source and target concepts, and an evaluation of what they have in common, but unlike literal comparisons, they are figurative, comparing things normally felt to incomparable, typically using vivid or startling images to suggest unexpected connection between source and target Similes have different types and classifications, too Bredin (1998) remarked about a scale going from the most stereotyped to the most creative similes At one extreme are situated the conventionalized and fixed similes, and at the other extreme are the creative similes Between the two extremes, standard (ordinary) and original (fresh, but not totally unexpected) similes can be settled

A simile is a literary device which is an essential element in the toolkit of writers A simile creates an image for the reader, provided that it is appropriate Similes add flavour to the writing piece They can also be funny to engage the reader, but sometimes they are simply needed to accurately describe emotions and feelings, as well as keep the readers guessing about what is being hunted All in all, similes keep one engaged and interested

Similes and metaphors are often confused with one another The main difference between a simile and metaphor is that a simile uses the words "like" or

"as" to draw a comparison and a metaphor simply states the comparison without using "like" or "as" An example of a simile is: She is as innocent as an angel

For example: She is an angel

Similes are used in literature to make writing more vivid and powerful In everyday speech they can be used to convey meaning quickly and effectively, as many commonly used expressions are similes For example, when someone says

―He is as busy as a bee,‖ it means he is working hard, as bees are known to be extremely busy If someone says "I am as snug as a bug in a rug," they mean that they feel very comfortable and cozy or are tucked up tight in bed

Some other well-known similes we will often hear are:

Similes can make our language more descriptive and enjoyable Writers, poets, and songwriters make use of similes often to add depth and emphasize what they are trying to convey to the reader or listener Similes can be funny, serious, mean, or creative Following are some more examples of similes regularly used in writing:

You were as brave as a lion

They fought like cats and dogs

He is as funny as a barrel of monkeys

This house is as clean as a whistle

He is as strong as an ox

Your explanation is as clear as mud

Watching the show was like watching grass grow

Similes can often be found in song lyrics, as they let you convey deeper meaning with fewer words

For example:

My heart is like an open highway - "It's My Life," Bon Jovi

It’s been a hard day's night, and I've been working like a dog - "A Hard

Day's Night," The Beatles

And it seems to me you lived your life, Like a candle in the wind - "Candle in

the Wind," Elton John

You're as cold as ice - "Cold As Ice," Foreigner

Steady as a preacher, Free as a weed - "American Honey," Lady Antebellum

Similes are a great tool to use in creative language and are fun to come up with They not only make what you are writing or saying more interesting, but they can often intrigue the reader as well When creating your own similes, watch out for clichés though and try to go beyond the obvious comparisons

In the past, English spelling wasn‘t standardized in the way it is today, and

―love‖ could sometimes be spelled ―luve.‖ However, by 1794 this spelling was relatively uncommon It seems Burns intentionally used this unconventional spelling because it was in keeping with the foreign terms and usages that the Scottish dialect introduced, such as ―gang,‖ ―weel,‖ and ―bonnie lass.‖ ―My luve,‖

in this first stanza, is a term of endearment: it refers to the person he loves, not the feeling

The simile ―my luve‘s like a red, red rose‖ is an example of the simplicity that some readers find and appreciate in the poem The comparison of a lover to a flower is not a jarring or surprising one However, Burns adds the element of time

to this conventional simile, adding that the rose is ―newly sprung‖—or newly blossomed - ―in June.‖ This suggests that his beloved has not been corrupted by the passage of time She might literally be young or she might be figuratively fresh in spirit In addition, the repetition of ―red‖ evokes an ideal redness The rose symbolizing his beloved is so perfectly red that the speaker has to say it twice

2.5.4 Metaphor

Metaphor has some similarity to simile in that it compares two wildly contrasting images together to create something new The main difference is that the contrast is implied rather than being direct

Another difference is the absence of the words 'like' and 'as' Like and as are the two critical words that define similes, in that they make all comparisons direct

Metaphor does not do this With metaphor all comparisons are implicit and indirect That is, the language of metaphor, if taken literally, is largely impossible

Two unlike and contradictory images simply cannot be like the other Therefore metaphor is even further removed from the literal than simile, and as such metaphor can communicate a vast array of styles

To identify and understand metaphor in text does require a bit more work on the part of the reader Consequently, word and world knowledge is an important foundational knowledge that is necessary to fully understand metaphor as it appears

in text

Perhaps the best way to explain the power of metaphor is with some examples If we look at our example simile from the simile page we have, 'the girl walked like a gazelle.' If we were to a change that statement into a metaphor we

might have, 'the girl was a gazelle when she walked, or even simply, 'the girl was a

gazelle.'

The removal of the word 'like' eliminates any direct comparison between the

girl and the gazelle In the absence of any direct comparison the statement becomes implicit, the information implied

The figurative language metaphor 'the girl was a gazelle ' requires us to

work a little harder than a simile does But the pay-off is we become more involved

in the act of reading We imagine the girl must be fast, lithe and light on her feet, because our background knowledge tells us that's what a gazelle is like

When reading great writing we thrill to vivid and striking images crafted by

the author For instance, There were ships leaving the harbour now, blowing

columns on the breeze, The Adriatic was the colour of chrome, Excerpt from The Riders, by Tim Winton The Adriatic refers to the Adriatic Sea, which in the real

world is coloured blue-green or grey Chrome is a polished metal that is used by cars, particularly cars from the 1950's and 60's era The sea's color being compared

to a shiny metal is a literal impossibility, isn't it?