Teaching academic ESL writing part 11

6 Sentence Building II Chapters 5 and 8 include lists of academic nouns and verbs extracted from the University Word List developed by Nation 1990.. Appendix A to Chapter 4SENTENCE STEMS

head out for eight miles on the spur of the moment Parents who [ARE—deleted] unfamiliar with the sport or new to the area can join [missing object—activity groups/noun] for ideas on places to go and tips on how to be safe Many families in the Northwest believes [added -s] that it [IS—deleted] especially important for parents to encourage lifelong exercise habits Many experts says [added -s] that the best way to do this [IS—deleted] by setting a

positive example and being active as a family (Adapted from the Seattle Times,

June 8, 2002, Northwest Life, Section E, p 1)

(4) Text-Level Editing Practice Without an Explicitly Stated Focus

This exercise can be used as an individual or small-group practice, or it can be assigned as homework to be spot-checked and discussed in class as needed

In the following texts, please correct all errors that you can find Please be ready to explain each structure that you believe to be incorrect and show how you arrived at your conclusion.

Text 1 Direct mail marketing generate about $244 billion per year

in sales There is at least two issue related to direct mail advertising

that needs a thorough examination Direct mail advertisers, or direct marketing companies, as they are sometimes called, develops and

maintains customer information data Data information include name, address, and estimated income They also contain a list of products

that purchases Your name is probably on the list, marketers sell to

other mailers You might say, I've never ordered anything by mail If

your have ever fills out a warranty card for an item or if your have ever uses a credit card to purchase something in a store, chance are that the data were transmitted somewhere to add to the list of your preferences

in (Adapted from Leslie, 2000)

Text 2 The human family relationship in the 20th century

com-plex Society is composed of individuals pursue different goals in life and have different interests and personality The family is the basic

form of society we are from the moment we are born

Text 3 A big problem in this story Mathilde in the story "The

Necklace," she needs to work very hard for 10 year to earn some

money to replace the lost necklace After she done her jobs, which is

work for ten years to replace it, she can breathe freely Do not see is

that, a small problem or big problem

(5) Sentence Building I

(For additional sentences building practice, see appendix in chap 4.)

Students can be given stripped-down sentences without optional slots and asked to build them up For example:

Please add optional elements to these sentences that consist only of filled required slots You may be asked to explain the differences between the meanings of the original sentences and your own.

1 People dream about two hours every night

2 Most dreams are quickly forgotten

3 Dreams are vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur during Rapid Eye Movement periods

4 Most young children cannot distinguish between dreams and wak-ing experiences

5 Psychologists have been fascinated by dream activity

6 Dreams can be made of false or useless information to remove it from memory

(6) Sentence Building II

Chapters 5 and 8 include lists of academic nouns and verbs extracted from the University Word List developed by Nation (1990) Students can be given

a few of these items singly or in combinations and asked to build sentences that include them, paying special attention to required and optional sen-tence slots This activity can be carried out in pairs or assigned as homework

to be discussed in class or small groups The same exercise can be repeated for nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (see chap 9)

Please construct sentences with the following verbs and be particularly careful with required and/optional sentence elements (e.g., some of these verbs require ob-jects and some do not) You can include as many of these verbs as you like in a sin-gle sentence:

accumulate concentrate contradict enumerate function

approximate conclude elaborate establish generate

challenge constitute eliminate estimate identify

communicate cooperate emphasize found integrate

(7) Sentence Building III

This task can be associated with an assignment on a particular topic or con-sist of individual sentences

Please complete the following sentences paying special attention to required and optional slots.

1 The first step in a research project

2 The statement of a problem can consist of

3 gather data, such as facts and information

4 can be divided

5 Each research design

6 The researcher collects

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1 In English, various sentence types belong to several relatively rigid

patterns To make their teaching efficient and clear, how can the

patterns noted in this chapter be made even more explicit?

2 Why do you think L2 learners can have difficulty identifying

sen-tence subjects and predicates? Why is it important to teach students

to identify sentence elements?

3 The sentences This sandwich is for you or The drinks are for the party do

not neatly fit into the patterns discussed in this chapter Can you

de-termine why? How can this structure and others like it be taught

ef-fectively?

4 In your opinion, which features of the English verb system are most

difficult for L2 learners to learn and use correctly? Why?

5 Do you think it is possible to teach the sentence slot system to

be-ginning learners? What could be advantages or disadvantages of

teaching the slot system to beginners or advanced learners?

6 Would the sentence slot system be easier to work with for native or

non-native speakers of English? Why?

FURTHER READINGS ABOUT SENTENCE

AND PHRASE STRUCTURE

Burton-Roberts, N (1997) Analyzing sentences (2ndecL) Harlow, Essex: Longman Celce-Murcia, M., & Hilles, S (1988) Techniques and resources in teaching grammar.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D (1999) The grammar book (2nd ed.).

Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Fabb, N (1994) Sentence structure London: Routledge.

Jacobs, R (1995) English syntax: A grammar for English language professionals Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Pike, K (1964) A linguistic contribution to composition: A hypothesis College

Com-position and Communication, 15(1), 82-88.

Young, R., Becker, A L., & Pike, K (1970) Rhetoric: Discovery and change New York:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Appendix A to Chapter 4

SENTENCE STEMS FOR WRITTEN ACADEMIC DISCOURSE

As discussed in chapter 3, the teaching of sentence and phrase structure needs to co-occur with instruction on vocabulary and common academic collocations Using stock sentence stems in actual writing can become prob-ably one of the most efficient ways to expand L2 writers' vocabulary and grammatical repertoire particularly when supplemented with substituting their discrete elements Grammatical constructions, such as commonly oc-curring sentences, clauses, and phrases, can be "viewed as big words" and memorized as lexicalized stems

All sentence stems presented in Appendixes A and B can be used for Sen-tence-Building activities (see Suggestions for Teaching Strategies and Tac-tics in this chapter), as well as activities in slot structure analysis and replacement of slot elements (see chaps 5, 8, and 9)

Openings/Introductions

The central issue in xxx is yyy

The development of xxx is a typical/common problem in

Xxx and yyy are of particular interest and complexity

For a long time xxx, it has been the case that yyy.

Most accounts/reports/publications claim/state/maintain that xxx.

According to Smith/recent (media) articles/reports/studies, xxx is/seems to be yyy.

One of the most controversial/important/interesting issues/problems/xxxS (recently/in recent literature/media reports) is yyy.

Thesis/Topic Statements

The purpose of this essay/paper/analysis/overview is to xxx (e.g., take a look at/exam-ine/discuss yyy).

The main emphasis/focus/goal/purpose of the/this essay/paper/project is to xxx (e.g.,

is to analyze/provide an overview/discussion of xxx)

This paper describes and analyzes xxx.

This paper discusses/examines/investigates xxx.

This paper claims/shows that xxx is / is not yyy.

This essay/paper addresses/examines/ is designed to analyze/provide an overview of/take a look at xxx.

My aim in this paper is to

In this paper, I/we report on/discuss

I intend/will demonstrate/show/explain/ illustrate that xxx.

My (basic/main/most important) argument/claim is largely/essentially that xxx.

Secondary Purpose

The primary aim/purpose of this paper is xxx In addition, it examines/discusses yyy Additionally, yyy is discussed/examined.

A secondary aim of this paper is to yyy.

Another reason/point/issue addressed/discussed in this paper is yyy.

Rhetorical Mode/Discourse Organization Statement

This paper (will) compare(s)/'describe/illustrate xxx first by analyzing/compar-ing/demonstrating yyy (that yyy is zzz), then byyyyingzzz, and finally byyyyingaaa This paper first analyzes/discusses xxx, followed by an examination/illustration/over-view of yyy and zzz.

Other Types of Sentence Stems for Essay Development

1 Assertion

It can be claimed/said/assumed that xxx.

It seems certain/likely/doubtful that xxx.

I/we maintain/claim that xxx.

2 Agreement with the author/source

As XXX perceptively/insightfully states I

correctly notes I

rightly observes /

appropriately points out,xxx is/seems to be yyy (adjective/noun).

I/we rather/somewhat/strongly agree with/support (the idea that) xxx.

XXX provides/lends support to YYY's argument/claim/conclusion that zzz.

3 Disagreement with the author/source

I/we rather/somewhat/strongly disagree with XXX/ that yyy.

As XXX states (somewhat) undearly/erroneously,

XXX does not support YYY's argument/claim/conclusion about zzz/that zzz.

Although XXX contends that yyy, I/we believe that zzz.

However, it remains unclear whether

It would (thus) be of interest to learn more about yyy/how

4 Comparison

Both xxx and yyy are (quite) similar in that zzz.

Xxx is like/resembles yyy.

Both xxx and yyy are/seem to be zzz (adjective/noun).

Xxx and yyy have/share some aspects of zzz.

Xxx is similar to I not unlike yyy (with respect to zzz).

5 Contrast

Xxx is (quite) different from yyy (in regard to zzz).

Xxx is not the case with yyy/the same as yyy.

Xxx does not resemble yyy (in regard to zzz).

Xxx contrasts with yyy (with regard to zzz).

Xxx is unlike yyy in that/with respect to zzz.

6 Recommendations

Let me recommend/suggest that xxx be/have/do yyy.

What I want/would like to recommend/suggest is that xxx.

One suggestion is/may be that xxx (do yyy).

7 Citing sources/supporting arguments, claims, conclusions, and general-izations

As proof/evidence/an example (for this), (let me cite/quote xxx).

According to xxx,

As XXX says/claims,

XXX provides evidence/support for yyy / that yyy.

XXX demonstrates that yyy shows evidence for yyy / that yyy.

Xxx is an illustration/example of yyy.

8 Citing sources/referring to external sources of knowledge

It is/has been (often) asserted/believed/noted that xxx (YYY, 2003)

It is believed that xxx (YYY, 1999)

It is often asserted that xxx.

It has been noted that xxx.

9 Classification

Xxx can/may be divided/classified into yyy (and zzz).

Xxx and yyy are categories/divisions of zzz.

There are xxx categories/types/classes of yyy.

10 Generalization (see also chap 11)

Overall,

In general,

On the whole,

Generally speaking,

In most cases,

One can generalize that xxx,

For the most part,

With the exception of xxx,

With one exception,

11 Closing statement

In sum/conclusion,

To sum up/conclude,

To tie this (all) together,

(Adapted from Nattinger & DeCarrico [1992] and Swales & Feak [1994].)

Appendix B to Chapter 4

The most common verb/preposition combinations in academic prose (Biber et al., 1999; see also appendix to chap 7) are:

The Top Most Common:

be applied to

be associated with

be based on

be derived from

be known as

be used in

deal with depend on lead to

refer to result in

The Second Most Common:

account for

add to

be composed of

be divided into

be included in

be involved in

be related to

be required for belong to come from

consist of contribute to differ from look at look for

obtain [noun] from occur in

think of

5 Nouns and the Noun Phrase

OVERVIEW

• Noun groupings and substitutions to expand vocabulary

• Vocabulary in academic writing

• 380 essential nouns in academic texts

• Required elements of the noun phrase

o Articles

o Count and noncount nouns

• Different meanings of singular and plural noun forms

• The importance of gerunds and nominalizations in academic text

• Compound noun phrases

• Strategies for teaching nouns and teaching activities

Most people who have learned a foreign language and attempted to use it for their daily tasks are painfully aware of how an insufficient repertoire with regard to nouns and verbs can become a severe handicap in practically any interaction—even trying to place an order in a restaurant In academic texts, when students need to demonstrate their understanding of assign-ments and readings, and in addition explain their ideas on the subject mat-ter, the shortfalls in their lexical repertoire often turn into great obstacles Both in reading and writing, many learners are faced with either having

to look up numerous words in a dictionary or make do with the lexicon ac-cessible to them If they elect to look up words, translating dictionaries often provide "matching" items that can render a student's text incomprehensi-ble, while working with English-English dictionaries may take an inordi-nate amount of time—again due to the simple fact that one needs to have a solid lexical foundation in place to be able to understand distinctions be-tween partial synonyms provided in dictionary entries

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Research on L2 written academic text shows that most NNS students, whose time is limited and who deal with large amounts of weekly reading and writing assignments, fall back on the lexicon immediately accessible to them or found in the reading at hand (Johns, 1990a, 1990b; Vann et al., 1991) Although many books for teaching vocabulary can be found on the market, NNS students often find the task of learning thousands of new words daunting The laborious processes of vocabulary teaching and learn-ing are further constrained by the fact that many teachers and teacher train-ers believe that mere exposure to L2 and reading texts at the level appropriate for students' proficiency eventually results in vocabulary acqui-sition sufficient for academic studies in colleges and universities

However, several recent investigations in NNS students' reading, writ-ing, and text demonstrate that even advanced NNS students enrolled in ac-ademic programs in U.S universities do not have the vocabulary range requisite in their degree studies (Hinkel, 2001c; Johns, 1997)

One of the tasks teachers of writing face is trying to build up students' vo-cabulary to provide them with tools for survival in academic courses and writing tasks Although today it is widely known that memorizing lists of ac-ademic vocabulary is not particularly useful in the long run, other options for learning and teaching vocabulary and lexicalized features of nouns are available Teaching techniques discussed in this chapter focus on expand-ing contextualized vocabulary for lexical substitutions, essential and foun-dational vocabulary for university reading and writing (the University Word List), singular and plural constraints on nouns and changes in their mean-ings, increasing the range of gerunds and abstract nominalizations, and compound noun phrases

In each following section, the subheading marks what to teach, and the first paragraph following the heading explains why to teach it The reasons

that something should be taught are useful not only for teachers, but stu-dents as well Experience has shown that explaining to stustu-dents why some-thing is taught and how the material and teaching techniques can improve their writing and, consequently, grades in academic courses usually creates

a more willing and receptive audience who have their self-interest in mind

In addition, such explanations can improve the teacher's credibility and give the impressions of efficiency, preparedness, and professional compe-tence (assuming that the teacher wants to make such impressions)

CONTEXTUALIZED GROUPINGS OF NOUNS

TO EXPAND VOCABULARY

When they write assignments for university classes, students often have a fa-miliar noun or two that they use repeatedly in similar contexts Such over-use of nouns results in redundant text constructions that create an impression of lexical paucity and awkwardness For example,

(1) The people with higher level of education definitely have a better future than the people who have less Mostly, people also choose higher education because of its status People would rather have an average status than a low status The reason is that the so-ciety views these people as underachievers in the community .In the 21st century, one

of the reasons that people will try to get higher education is to have a better status The other reason is to earn more money With status and money, people can afford to have a higher standard of living (From a student assignment on the economic impact

of education on the life of a local community.)

In this excerpt, the noun people is repeated seven times, higher education three times, and reason twice The lexical redundancy clearly demonstrates

the shortfalls in the writer's vocabulary associated with a particular lexical domain Most NNS students who have taken the TOEFL are familiar with the notion (but not necessarily the term) of lexical redundancy because on the test the section on Structure includes items with redundant meanings

In studies of particularly problematic errors in NNS students' writing, uni-versity faculty repeatedly indicated that inappropriate and redundant uses

of vocabulary are among the most egregious shortfalls in L2 academic texts—on par with errors in verb tenses and subject-verb agreement (Johns, 1997; Santos, 1988; Vann, Lorenz, & Meyer, 1991)

To help learners expand their vocabulary range in the domain people,

al-ternatives can be provided and practiced in context:

People—adults, employees of local businesses, individuals, persons, population, the public, residents, community/group members, workers.

Higher education—college/university education, advanced training, college/ uni-versity degree studies, education beyond the high school, professional preparation, professional training, college/university-level training.

Reason—aim, basis, cause, consideration, expectation, explanation, goal, purpose, thinking, understanding.

An important advantage of teaching vocabulary in semantic and

contextually applicable clusters is that students see its immediate

uses and practicality Although to expand students' vocabulary

ranges in various semantic domains simultaneously is a gradual and

painstaking process, it is much easier and more profitable to work

with papers, contexts, and assignments at hand because such an

ap-proach meets students' immediate needs for developing a set of

in-terchangeable lexical "plugs" that can be reused from one written

assignment to the next

Another important consideration when providing students with lexical alternatives is that they are essential in maintaining text cohesion by means

of lexical substitutions (see further discussion on cohesion in chaps 7, 8,