(Luận văn thạc sĩ) developing students’ learning autonomy through project work at a secondary school in hanoi

According to Ramírez 2014: 56, project work fosters active roles for students in which the learners can engage in authentic and interesting tasks to achieve a common goal by means of col

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES

*********************

NGUYỄN HỒNG NHUNG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AUTONOMY

THROUGH PROJECT WORK AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI

(Phát triển tính tự chủ trong học tập của học sinh thông qua làm việc dự án

ở một trường cấp hai tại Hà Nội)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology (applied programme) Code: 8140231.01

HANOI - 2019

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES

*********************

NGUYỄN HỒNG NHUNG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AUTONOMY

THROUGH PROJECT WORK AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI (Phát triển tính tự chủ trong học tập của học sinh thông qua làm việc dự án

ở một trường cấp hai tại Hà Nội)

Field: English Teaching Methodology (applied programme) Code: 8140231.01

Supervisor: Dr Huỳnh Anh Tuấn

HANOI – 2019

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I, Nguyễn Hồng Nhung, declare that this thesis and the work presented it are my

own and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research It has

not been submitted to any other university or institution wholly or partially

Hanoi, July 2019

Nguyễn Hồng Nhung

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor Dr Huynh Anh Tuan, who gave me a lot of valuable guidance, encouragements, criticisms and correction throughout my thesis writing He consistently allowed this paper to be

my own work, but steered me in the right direction whenever he thought I needed it

I would also like to thank fifty grade six students at a secondary school in Hanoi Without their passionate participation and input, the research could not have

been successfully conducted

Last but not least, my sincere thanks go to my family, my colleagues and my friends for their support and encouragement that help me to complete my work

ABSTRACT

The present study was conducted to address two issues: investigating the influence of project work on students‟ learning autonomy and exploring students‟ evaluations of the using project work in developing their learning autonomy The instruments employed for data collection and analysis of the study included two questionnaires, an interview with ten students, students‟ diaries, and observation The findings showed that project work was beneficial to help students to improve their learning autonomy It also revealed that students highly recommended doing projects to enhance learning autonomy though they faced up with some difficulties

in doing the projects Based on the findings, some implications would be suggested for both the teacher and the students With all this information, this study is expected to be significant to both teachers and students in teaching and learning process

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES vii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study 1

1.2 Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study 2

1.3 Significance of the study 2

1.4 Scope of the study 3

1.5 Methods of the study 3

1.6 Organization of the thesis 4

1.7 Summary 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Learning autonomy 5

2.1.1 Definition 5

2.1.2 Types of autonomy 6

2.1.3 Characteristics of autonomous learners 8

2.1.4 Roles of learning autonomy 12

2.2 Project work 13

2.2.1 Definition 14

2.2.2 Types of project work 15

2.2.3 Features of project work 17

2.2.4 Stages of project work 18

2.2.5 Roles of project work 23

2.2.6 Roles of project work in developing students’ learning autonomy 24

2.3 Related studies in promoting students‟ learning autonomy through project work 27

2.4 Summary 29

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31

3.1 Research approach: Action research 31

3.2 Research questions 33

3.3 Participants 33

3.4 English textbook, English syllabus and the projects used in the study 34

3.5 Procedure of the study 37

3.6 Instruments for data collection 41

3.6.1 Questionnaire 41

3.6.2 Semi-structured interview 42

3.6.3 Students’ diaries 43

3.6.4 Observation 43

3.7 Data collection procedure 45

3.7.1 Questionnaires 45

3.7.2 Semi-structured interview 45

3.7.3 Students’ diaries 46

3.7.4 Observation 46

3.8 Data analysis procedure 47

3.8.1 Data from the questionnaires 47

3.8.2 Data from the semi-structured interview 48

3.8.3 Data from the students’ diaries 49

3.8.4 Data from the observation 50

3.9 Summary 52

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 53

4.1 The extent to which the students‟ learning autonomy can be enhanced through project work 53

4.1.1 Findings from the questionnaires 53

4.1.2 Findings from the interview 58

4.1.3 Findings from students’ diaries 60

4.2 The students‟ evaluations of the projects assigned to them to develop their learning autonomy 61

4.2.1 Findings from interview 61

4.2.2 Findings from observation 63

4.3 Discussion 64

4.4 Summary 66

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 68

5.1 Major findings of the study 68

5.2 Implication 69

5.3 Contribution of the study 70

5.4 Limitations of the study 71

5.5 Suggestions for further studies 71

5.6 Summary 72

REFERENCES 73 APPENDICES I

APPENDIX 1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ENGLISH LEARNING PROCESS I APPENDIX 2 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PROJECT WORK V APPENDIX 3 DATA FROM QUESTIONNAIRES V APPENDIX 4 SAMPLE OF A PROJECT PLAN VIII APPENDIX 5 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS XI APPENDIX 6 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS XII APPENDIX 7 T-TABLE XXVI APPENDIX 8 SAMPLE OF TEACHER‟S FIELD NOTE FROM OBSERVATION XXVIII APPENDIX 9 SAMPLES OF STUDENT‟S DIARY XXIX

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: The project used in the study 35

Table 3.2: Procedure of the study 38

Table 3.3: Overview of the questionnaires 42

Table 4.1: Statistical test result in determining objectives 54

Table 4.2: Statistical test result in choosing contents 55

Table 4.3.: Statistical test result in selecting methods and techniques to be used 56

Table 4.4: Statistical test result in monitoring acquisition procedure 56

Table 4.5: Statistical test result in evaluating what has been acquired 57

Table 4.6: Students‟ activities in the project work 60

Table 4.7: Students‟ attitudes and behavior when doing the projects 63

Table 5.1: Problems and solutions in doing project work 69

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Action research cycle 32

Figure 3.2: One tailed test distribution 48

Figure 3.3: Data analytical framework 51

Figure 4.1: Mean scores of students‟ learning autonomy in 54

Figure 4.2: The extent of the changes of students‟ learning autonomy 58

after doing the projects 58

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the background to the problem and the reasons for choosing the topic are mentioned As a result, the necessity of delivering the research as well

as the importance of the application of project work in teaching and learning process is revealed The aims and the significances of the study are also stated The final section will present the scope, methods and organization of the study

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study

Being a part of Eastern culture with the great influence of Confucianism, the Vietnamese traditional pedagogy emphasizes on absorbing and memorizing rather than experimenting and producing knowledge (Dang, 2012: 6) In other words, the students‟ ability in applying knowledge learnt at school to real life situations is not the main aim of schooling In traditional classrooms, teachers are the class authorities, and students who are known as passive learners are expected to obey their teachers Standardized examinations are an important feature of the education system that shapes classroom interactions Several standardized examinations are run by the Department of Education and Training in each local area every semester Therefore, classroom teaching and learning activities are often regulated by these examinations Teachers are normally required to follow certain classroom procedures and students are expected to learn from textbooks and their teachers As

a result, negotiations and collaborations between teachers and students or among students are rarely seen (Pham, 2010: 51) Consequently, there is no opportunities for learners to be more independent in the learning process Referring to the issue above, students‟ learning autonomy, which is defined as the responsibility for all the decisions concerned with a student‟s learning and the implementation of those decisions (Dickinson, 1987: 11), is considered an important aspect of successful learners in globalized world, has been a new terminology to Vietnamese learners

and educators so far

There should be solutions to enhance Vietnamese students‟ learning autonomy One of the favorable answers for this problem is applying project work

on the learning process According to Ramírez (2014: 56), project work fosters active roles for students in which the learners can engage in authentic and interesting tasks to achieve a common goal by means of collaborative work and the teacher provides them with opportunities to improve language skills for communicating successfully

Although a large body of research now exists on enhancing learners‟ autonomy through project work, relatively few researchers have explored this controversial issue

in the subject of adolescent learners, especially in the context of Vietnam Drawing on previous studies, and based on the obvious concerns as mentioned above, the present study is undertaken to investigate how doing project work raises students‟ awareness of being responsible to take control their learning process

1.2 Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study

This action research aims at examining whether secondary school students can develop their learning autonomy through participating in project work To achieve this aim, the study has to obtain the following two objectives:

- Investigate the extent to which the students‟ learning autonomy can be enhanced through their participation in project work

- Explore the students‟ evaluations of the projects assigned to them to develop their learning autonomy

In accordance with these two objectives, the research tries to answer the following research questions:

1 To what extent does project work enhance the students‟ learning autonomy?

2 What are the students‟ evaluations of the projects in view of the impact of the projects on developing their learning autonomy?

1.3 Significance of the study

Recently, research on learners‟ autonomy has been conducted in a variety of contexts all over the world, including some Asian countries (Barfield & Brown, 2007; Gardner, 2007; Lamb & Reinders, 2008; Miller, 2007), but the volumne of research in this field carried out in the Vietnamese context is not very substansive Although it can be argued that the Vietnamese English-foreign-language classroom stereotype is rather similar to its Chinese or Japanese counterparts, it has its own educational context which makes it unique Furthermore, in Vietnam, there is no previous study thoroughly discussing the development of students‟ learning autonomy through project work among Vietnamese adolescents Therefore, this study potentially plays a role in contributing other understandings of the examined construct in education

It is hoped that secondary school teachers and students can get some insightful implications from the findings of the study, especially those who wish to choose project work as an alternative activity in their English teaching and learning

practices

1.4 Scope of the study

The research is carried out in eighteen weeks of the second semester in the school year 2018-2019 (from December 25th to May 24th) The study limits itself to the investigation of the effects of project work on the students‟ learning autonomy

as well as students‟ evaluations on developing their learning autonomy through project work The number of participants of the study is quite small – only fifty students in grade six

As a study on one teacher and one class at one school, the conclusion of the study may not be valid to be generalized to apply to any other contexts It may be useful to serve as an intensive source of information to refer to or to provide hypothesis for further studies

1.5 Methods of the study

The study adapts action research approach According to Ferrance (2000: 1), action research is regarded as one of the most common research methods applied in current educational circumstances With the choice of this method, data collection

instruments including questionnaires, artifacts, observation, and interview are used

in order to have a deep investigation into what is being studied

1.6 Organization of the thesis

This research consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter aims at stating the research problems, the significance, the aims, the scope, and the methods of the study

Chapter 2: Literature review

This provides elaboration of key definitions as well as the review on related studies

Chapter 3: Methodology

This chapter issues the description of research approach, research participants, data collection methods and data analysis methods

Chapter 4: Findings and discussion

In this chapter, research findings and discussions are presented Besides, discussion on the comparison between the findings and reviewed literature is also drawn

of main guidelines for the rest of the paper

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter aims at providing readers the theoretical background of the study In the chapter, the key concepts related to learner’s autonomy and its roles,

as well as the main characteristics of autonomous learners, and teachers and students’ roles to promote learning autonomy In addition, background information about project work, and preceding studies will be displayed specifically

2.1 Learning autonomy

2.1.1 Definition

As can be seen, the interest in learning autonomy has grown considerably in the past few decades; therefore, the definition of learning autonomy seems to interpret in many different ways Holec (1981: 3) defines the term as “the ability to take charge of one‟s own direct learning” In other words, it refers to learning activities which give learners more chances to determine the learning objectives, to choose the contents of the lesson, to select methods and techniques to be used, to monitor the acquisition procedure and to evaluate what has been acquired

Similarly, Bergen (1990: 102) states that learning autonomy is characterized

by a readiness to take charge of one‟s own learning in the service of one‟s needs and purposes This entails a capacity and willingness to act independently and in co-operation with others, as a socially responsible person

Besides, view it as a process, Higgs (1988: 41) indicates learning autonomy

is where learners work on learning tasks and activities and largely independent of the teacher who acts as a manager of the learning program and resource person

In addition, Joshi (2011: 14), defines an autonomous learner as “one who has capacity to make and carry out the choices which govern his or her actions

independently” When autonomy is encouraged in the classroom, Joshi (2011: 14) suggests, the learners take on more responsibilities and make more of the choices about their learning, yet often with the guidance and support of their teachers

These above definitions provide a concise description of the characteristics

of learning autonomy, including both individual and cooperative aspects That is to say, learner autonomy is not a totally individualistic process, rather it is a process which is also achieved through interdependence

2.1.2 Types of autonomy

According to Oxford dictionary, autonomy means the right or condition of self-government or the capacity of an agent to act in accordance with objective morality rather than under the influence of desires In moral and political

determining moral responsibility for one's actions The concept of autonomy is also found in education, medicine, psychology, and so on, to which it is applied to come

up with its more precise criteria

In terms of moral autonomy, Kant (1956) developed correlative concepts of autonomy in the context of moral law Autonomy refers to a moral agent‟s capacity

to freely and rationally adopt moral policies Kant believed that a person‟s moral principles, the internal authority which imposes restrictions on how that person acts, originate in the exercise of reason People are offered the choice of many possible principles, but they reject all principles which "cannot accord with the will‟s own enactment of universal law." Autonomous moral principles are laws which we, as rational beings, give to ourselves through consciously identifying ourselves with them

In political ethics, the concept of autonomy is used in efforts to define certain inalienable political rights, such as personal liberty, freedom of speech, and property ownership, which should be guaranteed to every citizen (Autonomy in moral and political philosophy, n.d.) Autonomy in this context implies that these rights are protected unless a citizen actively forfeits them, either by breaking a law

and invoking punishment, or by consciously choosing to give up some of his liberty

in exchange for some other advantage Autonomy implies respect for each person‟s ability to make decisions about his own life and absorb the consequences

Additionally, the promotion of personal autonomy has been identified as one of the aims of the philosophy of education (Personal autonomy, n.d.) A student is to be provided with access to a wide range of choices and experiences,

at the same time as he or she is given the rational tools to evaluate these choices intelligently Upholding the autonomy of a student implies that the student will

be allowed to experience the consequences of his choices with minimal interference Guidance and education will take the form of broadening the student‟s awareness and exposing him to additional choices Protecting the autonomy of a student is believed to encourage active thought and exploration, rather than mere acceptance of knowledge and ideas A student with autonomy feels more freedom to experiment with new ideas, but must also take responsibility to ensure that his contributions have value

When it comes to psychology, according to Frankfurt (1971), to be autonomous is to be directed by considerations, desires, conditions, and characteristics that are not imposed from without but are part of what can somehow be considered one's authentic self It implies a conscious intention to act in a certain way, and to take responsibility for any consequences of those actions In psychology, the issue is defining what is the "authentic self." Within self-determination theory in psychology, autonomy also refers to "autonomy support versus control," hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive social environments are inclined to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthy development, and optimal functioning Efforts to define autonomy in the context

of the personality have given rise to two types of conditions required for autonomy: "Competency" and "authenticity." The definition of competency includes the capacity for various types of rational thought, self-control, and the absence of self-deception or pathological disorders which affect perception of the

self "Authenticity" conditions involve the capacity to reflect upon one‟s desires and consciously endorse or reject them

Among several types of autonomy, this study focuses on autonomy in education; in other words, learning autonomy The students in this study are allowed to make choice and undergo experience They are also encouraged to have active thoughts and exploration when doing projects, which makes them feel free to experiement with new ideas, but must also take responsibility to ensure that his contribution is valuable

2.1.3 Characteristics of autonomous learners

Many researchers in the relevant literature have suggested different characteristics related to autonomous learners Candy (1991: 459-466) states the characteristics of autonomous learners are as follows: methodical and disciplined; logical and analytical; reflective and self-aware; curious, open and highly motivated; flexible, interdependent and interpersonally competent; persistent and responsible; venturesome and creative; and self-sufficient, information seekers, knowledgeable and skillful about learning process and critical thinkers

According to Dickinson (1993: 330-336), although quite a lot of learners actually do not know what is going on in their classes, autonomous learners are able to identify what has been taught They are able to formulate their own learning objectives

in collaboration with teacher, or as something that is in addition to what the teacher is doing In addition, autonomous learners can select and implement appropriate learning strategies consciously, and they can monitor their own use of learning strategies Lastly, autonomous learners should monitor their own learning and self-assessment Cotterall (1995: 199) agrees with Dickinson on self-assessment as she says “it is essential that learners be able to evaluate the quality of their learning An appreciation

of their abilities, the progress they are making and of what they can do with the skills they have acquired is essential if learners are to learn efficiently.”

According to Holec (1981: 3), basically, autonomous learners are those who take charge of their own learning They are aware of their personal and educational needs and can determine the objectives and goals for their own learning They can

also establish a link between what is to be learned, how to learn, and the resources available They develop a capacity that enables them to define the contents of their learning, select methods and techniques to be used, monitor the procedures of acquisition and evaluate what has been acquired

Briefly, as defined by different researchers, there are many characteristics of

an autonomous learner After all, stated by Holec in 1981, learners who are autonomous will be able to:

2.1.3.1 Determine the learning objectives

In self-directed learning, determining the learning objectives will be based on

an analysis made by the learner, in accordance with his subjective criteria As regards the communicative competence, the learner will set objectives in terms of lexis, grammar and phonology so that he can find himself in any communicative situations

The objectives will not necessarily be fixed for all time, the learner may look at them again as his learning continues and alter them

Changes occurring in the external situation forming the learning environment:

 Professional or vocational situation: where the motive for learning is professional or vocational, any change in language needs connected with such occupation will involve a change of objective

 Social situation: where the motive for learning is social one, certain changes in this field may involve a change of objective (eg where the learner wishes

to be able to communicate among a circle of acquaintances)

 Material situation: changes of all kinds may involve a change of objective (eg a move to another area making it possible to receive foreign television)

Changes occurring in the internal learning situation:

 Level of knowledge: as his level of knowledge of the language he is learning changes, the learner may be led to amend his initial objectives either because some objectives regraded as unattainable become attainable or vice versa,

or because fresh objectives are revealed in the light of knowledge already acquired, thus in fact development in any learning experience may be the reason for a change

in objectives

 It must not be forgotten that the leaner may simply change his mind

In the context of this study, learners may changes their objectives because

of the changes occurring in the internal learning situations

2.1.3.2 Choose the learning contents

The contents are defined in terms of lexis, grammar, and phonology

 As regards lexis, the choice is usually made on the basis of frequency lists, possibly supplemented by a “specialized vocabulary”

 As regards grammar, the principle is approximately the same: basic structures and possibly distinct structures

 As regards phonology, since the elements available for selection are somewhat limited in number, the whole is generally made an integral part of the curriculum: pronunciation of phonemes, intonation and rhythm

In self-directed learning, the contents will as a general rule be defined by the learner One of the two fundamental features of definition of contents by the learner is that the thematic content of the communication aimed at is given priority The learner wants above all to communicate (to understand and to express), which means he has to think what words and grammar he must master so as to understand the first and express the second Thus the contents will be defined in terms of lexis, grammar and phonology

The second fundamental feature is that the contents are no longer “brought in” from outside but are to some extent “created” by the learner He will have to discover those contents by observing and analyzing the sources of information available to him: written texts, films, dictionaries, etc These sources will also include both educational and authentic documents, and native speakers

2.1.3.3 Select the methods and techniques to be used

In self-directed learning, the learner himself will be defining his methods and techniques

He will not make this definition a prior before starting his study but right

at the beginning and as his studies continue He will in fact proceed by trial and error: by using the methods and techniques he has chosen and then evaluating them

he will be able to decide which are appropriate to his own case

The methods and techniques that will be available to the learner include:

 Those that he knows because he has used them in earlier studies

 Those he will learn of from other learners or in miscellaneous teaching materials

 Those he will devise for himself

The criteria he will use for selection purposes will be of two kinds:

 Criteria of efficacy as regards the objectives set: knowing exactly what his objectives are and making his own assessments of progress made, the learner will

be able to determine accurately enough how far the methods and techniques he has used have been effective; this judgement, coupled with what he has learned during his studies, will enable him to make valid assumptions as to the reasons for the failure of any particular method or technique where he has been let down in any way and to plan his decisions for the next attempt

 Criteria regarding adaptation to external and internal constraints on the learner: the proposed methods and techniques must be adapted as far as possible to constraints of all kinds affecting the learner during his studies – restrictions in the matter of place, time, materials, etc – and must fit in as far as possible with the type

of the learner

2.1.3.4 Monitor the acquisition procedure

The acquisition procedure has reference to spatial and temporal dimensions: where the acquisition takes place, at what times, according to what timetable, at what rhythm, and so on

In self-directed learning, the student decides for himself when to study, how long to work at a time, and he can therefore adjust his learning rhythm to his

acquisition rhythm Where the end of the course is decided for him by others, he can

to some extent overcome this restriction by speeding up his learning rhythm either

by devoting more time to his studies or by increasing the number of maximally effective sessions

2.1.3.5 Evaluate what has been acquired

With regard to criteria used in evaluation, these are chosen by the learner from all possible criteria, by reference to his own definition of the component parts

of successful attainment and the relative importance thereof These component parts will perhaps include correct grammar, lexical wealth and correct pronunciation Moreover, this choice need not necessarily be final: for each new step in his learning, the learner may select other criteria and other combinations of them which are better suited to his new learning objectives and in line with his new level of knowledge

This self-evaluation of learning will be carried out on the basis of personal criteria such as compatibility between the proposed methods and techniques and the external constraints (availability of place and time, physical possibilities, etc) and internal constraints (intellectual and physical ability, etc)

As a general rule it will lead the learner to evaluate how he has taken charge of his learning, from the definition of objectives and contents to selection of methods and techniques, monitoring the learning procedure and evaluating what has been acquired

2.1.4 Roles of learning autonomy

The learning process in Vietnam in particular and in other countries in general is originally considered a cognitive matter, mainly involving memorization Today, however, one of the dominant techniques in teaching is communicative approach Supporting for the process of improving communicative competence, learning autonomy is particularly necessary for the success of the communicative approach Therefore, students who learn under the communicative approach need to

possess an adequate level of learning autonomy to actively participate in customized communicative situations to develop their competence

Moreover, as proposed by Dickinson in 1987, by having learning autonomy, learners can master (1) self-instruction, which refers to a situation in which learners are working without the direct control of the teacher, (2) self-direction, which means situations in which learners accept responsibility for all the decisions concerned with learning, (3) self-access learning, in which learners make use of self-access teaching material or instructional technology, and (4) individualized instruction, which refers to situations in which the learning process is adapted, either by the teacher or by the learner, to suit the specific characteristics of an

individual learner

2.1.5 The role of teachers and students to promote learning autonomy

There is a relationship between the role of the teacher and learners in promoting learning autonomy as McCarthy (2000: 6) and Scharer (2000: 11) argue that "the teacher-student relationship is crucial" in developing students‟ learning autonomy The trust and cooperation between the teacher and students make the students feel comfortable and secure in the classroom Benson and Vollers‟s study

in 1997 also finds that teachers have a significant role to play in launching learners into self-access and in helping them to stay afloat In this investigation, it is found that there is a great change for both the teacher and learners The teacher is no longer in her dominant position as a speaker in class while learners are not passive receivers any more However, it does not necessarily mean the teacher is less important On the contrary, the teacher‟s job is more demanding and challenging in helping students grow up as creative and independent learners The teacher must focus her attention on how to learn instead of how to teach She must play different roles in class as a guide, facilitator and counselor Therefore, adjusting the teacher's and students‟ roles, and establishing proper relationship are the keys to the success

in promoting autonomous learning (Benson & Vollers, 1997: 2)

2.2.1 Definition

There are several definitions regarding project work and it is relevant to distinguish some of them It is suggested that a “project is the development of an experience centered on the student and his environment, that it is a creative and enriching experience on the student‟s interest” (Jiménez Raya, 1994: 52) Secondly, project work “is a versatile vehicle for fully integrated language and content learning” (Stoller, 1997: 3) Students are invited to live a meaningful experience that goes beyond the syllabus and classroom walls This way, learners and teacher negotiate how they will implement a project in their own context based on their needs Regarding the previous definitions, project work can be understood as a successful way to provide learners with opportunities to create their own planning

in the classroom It focuses on the learner, promotes the development of intrinsic motivation and positive attitudes towards learning; it increases student responsibility, fosters participation when making decisions concerning projects, facilitates the gradual acquisition of autonomy and the use of the language, and promotes interdisciplinary and cooperative work

Project work is an extended process of inquiry through which students investigate a complex question, problem or challenge as an extension of what has already been learned in class In project work, students work collaboratively, in pairs or teams, to develop a product or solve a problem by following some steps like planning, organizing, negotiating, arriving at a consensus about such issues as tasks

to be performed, methods and materials to be used and responsibilities to be shared Interaction, critical thinking, problem solving and collaboration are some of the benchmarks of project work The key components of project work were identified

by Larner and Mergendoller (2010: 34-37) as significant content, a need to know, a driving question, student voice and choice, 21st century skills (collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creative thinking), inquiry and innovation, feedback and revision, and publicly presented report

2.2.2 Types of project work

Projects are in-depth investigations of real-world topics and issues that are worthy for students to know and understand They can do creatively reading/ writing projects, information-data organizing projects, major investigation projects, design projects, problem-solving projects, argumentation projects, and authentic projects (Seven types of projects that foster powerful learning, 2014)

1 Reading/Writing projects

Students read, comprehend and interpret specific books, novels, plays, poems, etc., often around themes Sometimes books are assigned, while at other times students select their own books Through reading/writing projects, students demonstrate comprehension, understanding, and ability to interpret the text Reading/writing projects often include class discussions around dilemmas inherent

in the reading and/or writing general reactions, interpretive essays, poems, stories and plays based on the material read

2 Information-data organizing projects

The goal of information-data organizing projects is for teachers to have students collect, sort and summarize information and data around a topic, question, theme or unit from multiple sources, such as textbooks, fiction, and non-fiction texts Students might synthesize articles and other readings around a topic of interest, analyze surveys and interviews designed to explore key questions or find ways to put information into a variety of formats, including graphs and charts Sometimes information is represented in other formats, such as through artwork, crafts, and music Information-data-organizing project approaches are useful when students are studying a particular topic or question since this type of project helps students learn how to use multiple resources instead of solely using a textbook

3 Major investigation projects

Major investigation projects enable students to create their own questions around a topic, collect, organize, and evaluate information, draw conclusions and share results through presentations and explanations Students may demonstrate the results of their investigations through different types of products and experiences, including the writing of a paper, the development of artwork, oral presentations, audio and videotape productions, photographic essays, simulations, or plays

Sometimes students select their own topics for research projects based on their interests, while at other times research projects are focused around specific academic topics being studied in class In some senior project formats, students are free to select any topic of interest for an investigation project

While major investigation projects are often considered long-term activities, some investigation projects can be conducted over relatively short periods of time when adequate amounts of time are devoted to them each day

4 Design projects

Students invent products and objects, design technology, or design artwork

or models, for example, students might be asked to use scientific principles to design an object that will descend from a specific height at the slowest speed, to design artwork using artistic principles, or to design a house using the latest technological software

5 Problem solving projects

Students solve problems and make decisions by being given or creating specific situations and complex problems Problem situations around topics such as pollution, world events, health care, poverty, and economic issues are interesting and exciting areas of study and provide students with opportunities to learn about current and future complex issues and problems and to use creative problem-solving processes Complex mathematical problems are another source of problem-solving

projects Decision- making projects through simulations of both historical and present-day decisions are worthwhile projects

6 “Argumentation” projects

After considerable research and discussion about an issue or dilemma, students write a persuasive essay or position paper giving their point of view, reasons, and evidence to support this point of view Some argumentation projects are built around debates or simulations

7 Authentic projects

These provide students with the opportunity of conducting projects with direct links and potential payoffs either to themselves or to the outside world Projects which lead to personal improvement, community involvement, and service, multicultural explorations in real-world settings, an understanding of careers and career options, cooperative work experience, internships, and a focus on health

issues produce direct payoffs for students in a changing world

In conclusion, based on the conditions of the school, the students‟ level, and the purpose of fostering the students‟ learning autonomy, the teacher chooses information-data organizing project which students collect, sort and summarize information and data around a topic, and then present the information through posters or powerpoints

2.2.3 Features of project work

In the last decades, several studies conducted on project work have revealed increasing concern about the issue In Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Report, Railsback (2002: 7) assembled research on the common features of project work follows:

 Student centered, student directed

 A definite beginning, middle and end

 Content meaningful to students; directly observable in their environment

 Real-world questions and problems

 First hand investigation

 Sensitivity to local culture and culturally appropriate

 Specific goals related to curriculum and school, district, or state standards

 A tangible product that can be shared with the intended audience

 Connections among academic life and work skills

 Opportunity for feedback and assessments from expert sources

 Opportunity for reflective thinking and student self-assessment

 Authentic assessments (portfolios, journals, etc.)

Sani (2014: 173-174) also shares the characteristics of effective project work, they are hereunder:

 It should direct students to investigate idea and essential question

 It is as inquiry process

 It links the need and interest of students

 It is students centered by creating a product and presenting to public

 It uses creative and critical thinking to search information in doing investigation, making conclusion and releasing a product

 It links with real problems and authentic issues

In this research, the projects do not contain all but almost these features above, including student-centered learning, using creative and critical thinking to search information in doing investigation and making conclusion, first hand investigation, specific goals related to curriculum and school, and opportunity for reflective thinking and student self-assessment

2.2.4 Stages of project work

Sheppard and Stoller (1995: 10-15) proposed an 8-step sequence of activities for orchestrating project work That model has been fine-tuned, after testing it in a variety of classrooms and teacher-training courses The new 10-step sequence (Stoller, 2002: 112-117) is described here in detail The revised model gives easy-to-manage structure to project work and guides teachers and students in developing meaningful projects that facilitate content learning and provide opportunities for

explicit language instruction at critical moments in the project

Step 1: Students and the teacher agree on a theme for the project

To set the stage, the teacher gives students an opportunity to shape the project and develop some sense of shared perspective and commitment Even if the teacher has decided to pursue a structured project, for which he or she will make most decisions, students can be encouraged to fine-tune the project theme While shaping the project together, students often find it useful to make reference to previous readings, videos, discussions, and classroom activities

Step 2: Students and the teachers determine the final outcome

Whereas the first stage of project work involves establishing a starting point, the second step entails defining an end point, or the final outcome Students and the teacher consider the nature of the project, its objectives, and the most appropriate means to culminate the project They can choose from a variety of options, including a written report, letter, poster or bulletin-board display, debate, oral presentation, information packet, handbook, scrapbook, brochure, newspaper, or video

Step 3: Students and the teachers structure the project

After students have determined the starting and end points of the project, they need to structure the “body” of the project Questions that students should consider are as follows: What information is needed to complete the project? How can that information be obtained (e.g., a library search, interviews, letters, faxes, E-mail, the World Wide Web, field trips, viewing of videos)? How will the information, once gathered, be compiled and analyzed? What role does each student play in the evolution of the project (i.e., who does what?)? What timeline will students follow to get from the starting point to the end point? The answers

to many of these questions depend on the location of the language program and the types of information that are within easy reach (perhaps collected beforehand

students, the language demands of the information-gathering stage (Step 5) The teacher can then plan language instruction activities to prepare students for information-gathering tasks If, for example, students are going to collect information by means of interviews, the teacher might plan exercises on question formation, and set aside time for role-plays to provide feedback on pronunciation and to allow students to practice listening and note taking or audiotaping If, on the other hand, students are going to use a library to gather materials, the teacher might review steps for finding resources and practice skimming and note taking with sample texts The teacher may also help students devise a grid for organized data collection If students will be writing letters to solicit information for their project, the teacher can introduce or review letter formatting conventions and audience considerations, including levels of formality and word choice If students will be using the World Wide Web for information gathering, the teacher can review the efficient use of this technology

Step 5: Students gather information

Having practiced the language, skills, and strategies needed to gather information, students are now ready to collect information and organize it so that others on their team can make sense of it During the data-gathering stage, the teacher, knowing the issues and propositions being researched, can also bring in information that is potentially relevant for student consideration, such as readings, videos, dictocomps, and teacher-generated lectures

Step 6: The teacher prepares students for the language demands of compiling and analyzing data

After successfully gathering information, students are confronted with the challenges of organizing and synthesizing information that may have been collected from different sources and by different individuals The teacher can prepare students for the demands of the compilation and analysis stage by setting up sessions in which students organize sets of materials, and then evaluate, analyze, and interpret them with an eye toward determining which are most appropriate for

the supporters and opponents of a given proposition

Step 7: Students compile and analyze information

With the assistance of a variety of organizational techniques (including graphic organizers), students compile and analyze information to identify data that are particularly relevant to the project Student teams weigh the value of the collected data, discarding some because of their inappropriateness for the project and keeping the rest Students determine which information represents primary

“evidence” for the supporters and opponents of their proposition It is at this point that topical teams divide themselves into two groups and begin to work separately

to build the strongest case for the debate

Step 8: The teacher prepares students for the language demands of presentation of the final project

At this point in the development of the project, the teacher can bring in language improvement activities to help students succeed with the presentation of their final products This might entail practicing oral presentation skills and receiving feedback on voice projection, pronunciation, organization of ideas, and eye contact It may involve editing and revising written reports, letters, or bulletin-board display text

Step 9: Students present final project

Students are now ready to present the final outcome of their projects Students stage in front of the audience, following the format previously agreed upon The presentation is videotaped so that students can later review their performances and receive feedback from the teacher and their peers

Step 10: Students evaluate project

Although students and the teacher alike often view the presentation of the final product as the last stage in the project work process, it is worthwhile to ask students to reflect on the experience as the last and final step Students can reflect on the language they mastered to complete the project, the content they learned about the targeted theme, the steps they followed to complete the project, and the effectiveness of their

final product Students can be asked how they might proceed differently the next time

or what suggestions they have for future project work endeavors Through these reflective activities, students realize how much they have learned and the teacher benefits from students‟ insights for future classroom projects

In order to suit to the participants‟ English levels and circumstance in this research, the researcher would like to adapt Stoller‟s framework and the projects in this study are carried out with the following steps:

Step 1: Selecting topics and setting objectives

Projects can be initiated when learners and teachers decide on a topic It is better to encourage students to bring their own ideas and have a whole class discussion to allot topics to each group or the teacher may offer a list of possible topics Having chosen a topic for the project, learners work together to set the objectives for their project work

Step 2: Planning and language generation

Learners now work together to decide upon how to proceed and what kind of language needs to be used Teacher has to direct this very carefully and here is where the learners need guidance and support Some of the initial discussions may take place in the classroom paving way for activities in and outside the school The work can also be divided among learners

Step 3: Collection of date /information / details

Learners gather required data and information from a number of sources

They can consult encyclopedia, read books, interview people, collect information, pictures and illustrations, record audio or video, surf the Internet, watch TV, etc

Step 4: Planning, writing the draft and editing

Having collected the required data / information and ideas, it is time now to

plan and organise the data and interpret them to write the draft Since most of the projects in language(s) will be of written report or written creative work like play, songs, essays, chapterisation could also be planned It is also possible to have projects in which learners work together to script and enact a play or direct and

enact a play Editing is important part of writing the report Learners should be made aware of process approach involved in writing a good piece of work, which involves various stages

Step 5: Presentation

The goal of the whole project has been aiming is reached when the learners

working together produce a report or do an activity as intended The final product may be written report, a play, collection of songs or enacting a play or a big role play, writing posters, etc Learners are now asked to submit to the teacher and present it to the whole class or to the whole school during assembly or special occasions (in case of play, songs, etc.)

Step 6: Evaluating project

Students can reflect on the language they mastered to complete the project, the content they learned about the targeted theme, the steps they followed to complete the project, and the effectiveness of their final product Learners can also reflect on whether they achieve the objectives or not, and assess their strengths and weaknesses when they do projects

2.2.5 Roles of project work

Project work offers a wide range of benefits to both students and teachers A growing body of academic research supports the use of project work in school to engage students, cut absenteeism, boost cooperative learning skills, and improve academic performance (George Lucas Educational Foundation, 2001) For students, benefits of project work include:

 Increased attendance, growth in self-reliance, and improved attitudes toward learning (Thomas, 2000: 36)

 Academic gains equal to or better than those generated by other models, with students involved in projects taking greater responsibility for their own learning than during more traditional classroom activities (Boaler, 1997: 325; SRI, 2000: 39)

 Opportunities to develop complex skills, such as higher-order thinking, problem-solving, collaborating, and communicating (SRI, 2000: 39)

 Access to a broader range of learning opportunities in the classroom, providing a strategy for engaging culturally diverse learners (Railsback, 2002: 8)

For many students, the appeal of this learning style comes from the authenticity of the experience Students take on the role and behavior of those working in a particular discipline Whether they are making a documentary video about an environmental concern, designing a travel brochure to highlight sites of historical significance in their community, or developing a multimedia presentation about the pros and cons of building a shopping mall, students are engaged in real-world activities that have significance beyond the classroom

For teachers, additional benefits include enhanced professionalism and collaboration among colleagues, and opportunities to build relationships with students (Thomas, 2000: 37) Additionally, many teachers are pleased to find a model that accommodates diverse learners by introducing a wider range of learning opportunities into the classroom Teachers find that students who benefit the most from project work tend to be those for whom traditional instructional methods and

approaches are not effective (SRI, 2000: 40)

2.2.6 Roles of project work in developing students’ learning autonomy

Learners‟ autonomy is a complex concept; therefore, it is difficult for teachers to know where to start fostering it Project work is an appropriate strategy

to develop learner autonomy because it is a teaching practice supported by principles and it puts students in charge of their learning process In the “project method”, students plan, execute, and work in groups; and through groupwork they acquire the skills to participate in a democratic society According to Legutke and Thomas (1991: 160), project work is a theme- and task-centered mode of teaching and learning which results from a joint process of negotiation between all participants It allows for a wide scope of self-determined action for both the individual and the small group of learners within a general framework of a plan

which defines goals and procedures Project work let students possess a basic capacity to direct their learning and to exercise their autonomy in the whole learning process

In the similar vein, Ramíez (2014: 65) states that developing learner autonomy implies not only willingness to take control of learning, but also the necessity to provide students with opportunities to exercise autonomy by making decisions and assuming responsibility in groups for their own learning process Project work has a positive influence on the increase of learners‟ autonomy to discuss and exercise more choices and control over their learning process It is suggested that projects can make students aware of their learning skills and allowed them to work on individual and cooperative tasks In group, students assume the responsibility for taking an active role in order to direct their learning responsibly to create their project together They can also share with the entire class what they learned to generate more ideas Cooperative work fosters a high degree of autonomy because this type of work gives learners the freedom to explore their own preferences and to decide what activities are better for accomplishing their common goals

Moreover, as stated by Athanasiou in 2007, it can be argued that based learning may be a valuable approach in fostering learners‟ autonomy The reason for this lies in the value the learners place on group discussions, mainly in respect of exchanging opinions, gaining information, becoming critical, and in general learning how to develop their critical thinking and ability to analyse texts It may be suggested that this value place on group discussions is related to the serving independently, individualistic needs, thus fulfilling, to some extent, that of learners‟ autonomy Besides, it also suggests that project work has the potential to be a valuable element in developing learners‟ autonomy Project work involves awareness raising, guidance and practice opportunities in strategy use, aiming at developing learner autonomy Through group discussions, the learners can observe the kinds of strategies their peers used in their learning and studying process, and implement/adapt these in their own learning process The learners themselves also

project-independently choose/create practice opportunities for learner strategy use by directing discussions according to their preferences They place much value on these discussions, clarifying that they enrich their vocabulary and their general knowledge, as well as appreciating the chance to observe the strategies applied by their peers

In the similar way, Villa and Amstrong (2004: 220) proposes that project work enhances autonomy because it is a research endeavor in which learners take control of their own learning They learn how to learn, and can thus apply the knowledge acquired in this experience to life-long learning They decide what they want to learn, set their own goals and plan actions to reach those goals, and they evaluate the process and the results of the experience in order to learn from it They also develop the skills needed to work collaboratively: they engage in dialogue, they develop their own criteria, and they make decisions jointly

In addition, according to Ying (2002: 19),the research project just serves as

a training process, taking students from their states of varying degrees of dependence to the state of the greatest degree of independence It starts from larger groups towards smaller groups, pairs and finally individuals and from giving the students fewer choices concerning their learning and work towards many choices, and finally freer choices such as open-ended tasks, thus allowing students to make their choices entirely on their own Besides, it provides the perfect opportunity for learners to go out and use their language In becoming actively involved in the process of learning, students may set their own objectives By working independently of the teacher both inside and outside the classroom and selecting and using the strategies best suited to the occasion, they may realize a sense of autonomy This learner training process can broaden the horizons of the learner and may empower him or her to become autonomous in their present or future language learning

The whole project not only involves the students' active participation and cooperation, but also sets a high demand on teachers Many people assume that the

teachers in the autonomous settings will transfer all responsibilities to learners, thus becoming a redundant part of the learning process As a matter of fact, the success

of learners‟ autonomy enhancement depends to a great extent on an active role for teachers, whether in a classroom or a self-access center In other words, the teacher still plays an indispensable role in working towards autonomous learning, but instead of being the traditional knowledge giver, he or she will be a facilitator, a counselor and a helper His or her guidance and encouragement will prove beneficial towards learners' autonomous learning, as all learners need to be prepared and supported on the path to greater autonomy

Last but not least, according to Yuliani and Lengkanawati (2017: 292), for improving learner autonomy, it is suggested for the teacher to keep encouraging the students to realize that project-based learning can improve learner autonomy Thus, the teacher has to motivate and facilitate the students to carry out the task willingly and completely It is worth noting that both the teacher and students have to have a

commitment to carry out learner autonomy

2.3 Related studies in promoting students’ learning autonomy through project work

Yuliani and Lengkanawati conducted a case study which was about based learning in promoting learners‟ autonomy in an English classroom in a secondary school in 2017 This study employed descriptive qualitative research design at six participants at grade nine The results of data analysis led to a conclusion that project-based learning has promoted learners‟ autonomy, which covered the criteria of self- instruction, self-direction, self-access learning and individualized instruction in each stage of project-based activity, namely the

project-planning process, the implementation process and the monitoring process

In the same line with these two authors above, Loi (2017) did a case study about promoting learners‟ autonomy through project work in a university Fifty English teaching-majored second-year students were in project work over two semesters Two instruments employed to assess their learner autonomy include a

self-assessment questionnaire and two group interviews The results showed that the students gained a higher degree of learner autonomy after participating in project work However, the gain was largely due to increased self-decisions on learning Other aspects of learner autonomy such as self- regulated learning actions, self-responsibility, and attitudes to social interaction remained unchanged

Ramirez (2014) conducted action research whose title is “Developing learner autonomy through project work in an ESP class” The study was conducted at a regional and public university with environmental engineering undergraduates in an English for Specific Purposes class The instruments for data collection were field notes, semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, students‟ artifacts, and video recordings The results revealed that learner autonomy could be developed by means of cooperative work in order to achieve common interests and support each other Students also displayed self-regulation in regard to facing failures through learning strategies; furthermore, this study showed how intrinsic motivation implies the desire for accomplishment and knowledge to fulfill a learning goal

Recognizing the importance of project-based learning in developing learners‟ autonomy, Guven (2014) conducted a study to investigate the opinions of the English private school students about the Project Based Learning implementation they were involved in at the School of Foreign Languages in Turkey, in 2011-2012 academic school year The case study, one of the descriptive qualitative research models, was used as a method in the study Fifty randomly selected class students participated in the study voluntarily The data were gathered through face to face interviews and a semi-structured form with six open ended questions The findings revealed that Project Based Learning could be used as a means to guide learners advance towards autonomous learning It was also noteworthy that formative assessment should take place in the learning environment as involving learners in their own assessment will help them see their strengths and weaknesses

Similarly, Ying (2012) conducted research which focused on how the research projects promoted autonomous learning through a small-scale study in a

university Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been employed to examine whether in the projects, learners exercised control over their own learning and evaluated its outcome The final results indicated that due to a flexible syllabus, highly motivating research topics and the network-assisted environment, learners did take responsibility for most aspects of learning and thus the projects proved to

be a promising approach for autonomous training

What is more, Villa and Armstrong presented teacher and learners‟ experience implementing project work as a strategy the authors used in an undergraduate foreign language teaching program at an important public university

in their action research in 2004 In order to find support for their view that project work is an effective approach to developing learners‟ autonomy, students who had participated in project work were interviewed and their responses were analyzed

using Benson‟s contributions (1997, 2001) on autonomous learning, and Legutke

and Thomas (1991) on project work as a framework The authors discussed the issues based on the students‟ experience: stages in the development of the project, characteristics of project work, and its relevance to developing learner autonomy

Although researchers studied about learners‟ autonomy, they did not investigate in lower secondary school but mainly focused on students in higher education Moreover, in the context of Vietnam, little research was conducted to find effective ways to enhance students‟ learning autonomy for students of grade 6 Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether project work can positively affect students‟ learning autonomy

2.4 Summary

By reviewing many significant works that related to this study‟s topic, the chapter has provided the theoretical background for the whole paper through careful elaboration on many angels of the two key terms: students‟ learning autonomy and project work The review of a number of studies in this chapter indicated a research gap that the study would pursue to bridge

3.1 Research approach: Action research

Action research has been seen as a way to bridge the gulf between researchers and teachers (e.g., Brindley 1990: 25; Edge 2001: 3) and to encourage teachers to adopt an investigative stance toward their own classroom practices (e.g., Gebhard 2005: 54)

Although more complex and extended descriptions of the steps in action research have been proposed (e.g., Burns 1999; Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2000: 226; Hopkins 1993; McNiff 1988), the most widely known model is that of Kemmis and McTaggart (1988: 10):

 Develop a plan of critically informed action to improve what is already happening

 Act to implement the plan

 Observe the effects of the critically informed action in the context in which it occurs

 Reflect on these effects as the basis for further planning, subsequent

critically informed action and so on, through a succession of stages