Infinitives can be used as subjects, predicatives, objects.1 THE MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF THE INFINITIVE The six forms of the infinitive reveal its morphological categories.. ---PERFE
Trang 3Пособие состоит из взаимосвязанных «разделов описательного и практического характера Предназначено для студентов языковых ВУЗов й факультетов, изучающих английский язык на продвинутом уровне, а также может быть использовано широким кругом лиц, изучающих английский язык на курсах или самостоятельно.
УДК 811.111’367(075.8) ББК 81.2Англ-923
ISBN 978-985-69-30-7 © Оформление ООО "Лексис", 2013
Trang 4The Morphological Categories of the infinitive 3
THE INFINITIVE
To be, or not to be: that is the question
William Shakespeare
The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way It is treated
as the initial form of the verb and represents it in dictionaries The infinitive is also defined as the most
basic form of the verb: be, do, know It gives a name to an event, describes a state or a fact irrespective
of a person, number, a factual moment of speaking and mood The infinitive has the properties of the noun and the verb In other words, it has a double nature, verbal and nominal
verbal characteristics nominal characteristicsmorphological
categories
• Infinitives have the category of time correlation
• Infinitives have the category of aspect
• Infinitives of transitive verbs have the category of voice
syntactic
features
• Infinitives can be modified by adverbials
• Infinitives can take prepositional objects
• Infinitives of transitive verbs can take direct objects
Infinitives can be used
as subjects, predicatives, objects.1
THE MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF THE INFINITIVE
The six forms of the infinitive reveal its morphological categories
-PERFECT COMMON (to) have done (to) have been done
PERFECT CONTINUOUS (to) have been doing
-THE CATEGORY OF TIME CORRELATION
Unlike finite forms of the verb infinitives have no tense category; they usually do not refer the action
to the present, past or future2 The examples below show that the infinitive does not have direct time reference The time of the action is indicated by the finite verb
For cases when the infinitive refers an action to a particular time see THE INFINITIVE AS PART OF A COMPOUND
VERBAL MODAL PREDICATE.
Trang 54 English Grammar Practice
The time reference of the infinitive is relative: it can be understood only through its reference to
the time of the finite verb Infinitives express the time of the action as prior to, simultaneous with
or posterior to the action expressed by the finite verb The relative time reference is expressed through the category of time correlation which reveals itself in the opposition of non-perfect and perfect forms.
(to) do (to) be doing (to) be done
(to) have done (to) have been doing (to) have been done
NON-PERFECT INFINITIVES
The actions of non-perfect infinitives may
1 take place at the same time with the actions of the finite verb In other words, the actions of nonperfect infinitives and those of finite verbs are simultaneous
He was happy
to see us.
to be doing it without any help
to be shown the new picture.
2 follow the actions of the finite verbs Such infinitives denote posterior actions; they show succession
He is studying to become a dentist one day.
I did everything to be invited to the coming event.
3 precede the actions of the finite verb In such contexts actions of the infinitive and the finite verb closely follow each other and there is no time lapse between the events The infinitive describing a prior action
follows a verb denoting an emotional state: astonish, like, relieve, shock, surprise, wonder, etc.
I was surprised to learn that he was no longer in London.
He was shocked to be scolded for something he had never done.
to have written the essay.
to have been writing the essay for days.
to have been given the task earlier that month.
Trang 6The Morphological Categories of the infinitive 5
2 Perfect infinitives can be used to denote actions which were not carried out They follow the past
tense-forms of the verbs expect, mean, intend, hope, etc The same idea can be expressed by
non-perfect infinitives used after finite verbs in the past perfect tense
I hoped to have written the essay by noon = I had hoped to write the essay by noon.
THE CATEGORY OF ASPECTThe category of aspect is revealed in the opposition of the common and continuous aspect forms that express the manner in which the action is performed A common infinitive normally does not describe the character of the action A continuous infinitive expresses a longer action in progress IMPORTANT! The passive voice has no aspect opposition.
(to) have done (to) have been doing
-(to) have been done
-Non-perfect continuous infinitives denote actions in progress which are simultaneous with those of
the finite verbs
It is fun
It was fun
It will be fun
to be staving with you at the campsite.
Perfect continuous infinitives are used to express actions that precede those of the finite verbs Their
continuous forms stress that the actions have lasted for some time
They pretend They pretended They will pretend
to have been waiting for hours.
! Non-perfect common infinitives are often called indefinite.
Trang 7THE CATEGORY OF VOICE
The opposition of the active and passive forms reveals the category of voice
| Only transitive verbs have passive voice forms They are found in the common aspect exclusively
6 English Grammar Practice
(to) have done (to) have been done
Continuous (to) be doing
(to) have been doing
Active infinitives denote that the action is performed by the subject; passive infinitives show that the subject is acted upon Compare:
I still do not know which is better, to love or to be loved?
He could not have managed the job; it could not have been done yet.
Active |nd passive infinitives can have a similar passive meaning In such cases the infinitive is active
in form but passive in meaning.3 Speakers use active forms when they think about the person or the object that performs the action rather than the action itself
There are two essays to write/to be written.
I am not to blame / to be blamed.
She is easy to deal with /to be dealt with.
! If the subject of the sentence is the person who does the action, active infinitives are used to denote passive actions
He had an essay to write (NOT lie-had an essay to be written)
I have something to tell you ('NOT I have something to tell you:)
3 For details see: THE INFINITIVE AS A PREDICATIVE and THE INFINITIVE AS AN ATTRIBUTE.
Trang 8The Morphological Categories of the Infinitive 7
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECTComplete the charts.
Build the form of the infinitive according to the description.
The Indefinite Infinitive Passive — drive, wear, raise, lay.
The Perfect Continuous Infinitive — deal, lie, stay.
The Continuous Infinitive — study, buy, feel.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive — build, hang, hurt.
The Perfect Infinitive Active — arise, fall, shine, sit, win.
State the form of the infinitive and explain why it is used.
1 It is pure luck to have been born into this family
2 Gold and love are hard to hide
3 He bought an alarm clock not to oversleep
4 Judging from the books and papers on the writing-table he must have been workingsince they left him in the morning
5 He seemed to be weighing something in his mind
6 People don't like to be told what to do
7 She seems to have grown taller
8 It ought to have been done long ago; at least before their leaving London
Trang 98 English Grammar Practice
9 I meant to have helped him, no offence was meant
10 When in Paris, we went to a wonderful restaurant to enjoy an open-air meal
11 I don't know what Mark's doing He may be studying in his room
12 He pretended to have forgotten her name
13 The Rolex company are the first to have developed the idea of a modern watch
14 He claims to have worked here before
15 They seem to have been fighting all their lives
16 He's a slow worker! I could have done the job twice in the time he's taken
17 An intelligence test sometimes shows a man how smart he would have been not to have taken it
Underline the correct forms.
1 Helen can't have been trying /to have tried to call us all day The phone hasn't rung once.
2 I like fo give/to be given presents to friends, but even more I like to give/to be given
gifts
3 He was sorry not to notice/not to have noticed the fax on the secretary's table.
4 The third key remained fo have been tested/to be tested.
5 That woman is still sitting She seems to be waiting/to have been waiting over an hour.
6 I intended to have been reminded/ to have reminded you of it earlier.
7 Jack appears to overtake/ to have overtaken John on the last lap — Yes, let's go and
congratulate him!
8 How can she work/be working in the garden now? It is already dark.
9 This meeting, Edwina realized, must have planned/ have been planned several hours
ago
10 The man seemed to study/to be studying me and I felt uneasy in his presence.
11 Progress might be/have been all right once, but it has gone on too long.
12 Many buildings were reported fo have damaged/to have been damaged by the fire.
13 I'd rather walk/have walked a little before going to bed later tonight.
14 If happiness could buy / be bought, few of us could pay / be paid the price.
Fill in the correct forms of the infinitives.
1 Everybody is going (to give) a rise
2 How fortunate he is (to travel) all over the world and (to see) so much of it
3 He kept late hours last night, he may still (to sleep)
4 She seems (to work) at her course paper since spring and says she has still a lot (to do)
5 She must (to be) very beautiful years ago
6 The manuscript appears (to write) in Greek
7 This book is likely (to publish) and (to appear) on sale pretty soon
8 He was seen (to disappear) in the distance
Ex 5
Ex 4
Trang 10The Morphological Categories of the Infinitive 9
9 The book was believed (to lose) until the librarian found it during the inventory It turned out (to misplace)
10 It was (to be) a non-stop flight, but the plane had to make a forced landing
11 I'd sooner (to stay) at home than see this play
12 Office affairs are easy (to begin) and difficult (to finish)
13 In the morning he was nowhere (to see)
14 Half of the modern medicines could well (to throw) out of the window except that the birds might (to eat) them
15 She seemed (to pay) no attention to what was going round her
Translate into English.
Trang 1110 English Grammar Practice
THE BARE INFINITIVE AND THE TO-INFINITIVEThe marker TO is generally put before the infinitive Still, there are cases when the so-called bare infinitives - infinitives without TO -a re used.
Ш We use bare infinitives
1 after auxiliary verbs
I will come to see you.
He didn't come on time.
2 after most modal verbs except ought to, have to, be to Compare:
Need you have paid so much ? — I needn't have done it.
You don't need to leave yet, do you ? — / need to get some sleep.
How dare you say, that? — I dared not deceive you.
He didn't dare to sav what he thought.
3 after the expressions had better, would rather/ sooner (than), cannot (choose) but.
You had better stay where you are.
I would rather be sleeping now.
4 after verbs denoting sense perception hear, see, watch, observe, notice, feel in the active voice After these verbs in the passive voice infinitives retain their marker TO Compare:
They saw the boy borrow my bicycle.
The boy was seen to borrow my bicycle.
IMPORTANT! The infinitive to be after feel is used with the marker TO.
I felt it to be the truth.
5 after the verb let.
Let me go,!
6 after the verb make in the active voice in the meaning 'to force = заставлять' Compare:
What makes you say so?
He was made to retype the passage.
7 after the verb have in the meanings 'to allow, tell or arrange for somebody to do something =
допускать, велеть, заставлять'
I will not have you argue with your Mom.
= Я не потреплю, чтобы ты спорил с мамой.
Trang 12The Morphological Categories of the Infinitive: 11
8 to introduce questions, suggestions in infinitive sentences beginning with why (not).
Why pay more?
Why not stay with us?
Ш The marker TO is optional
1 after the verb help BUT! Infinitives in the negative forms retain the marker TO after the verb help
Compare:
She helped me (to) do it.
She helped me not to do it.
2 after the expressions what smb / something does is, all somebody / something did was, the least /most we can do and the like.
What a fire-door does is (to) delay the spread of fire.
All I did was (to) give him a little push.
The most they could do was (to) leave immediately.
3 after the perfect form of know (- experience= замечать, видеть)
I have known it (to) snow in July before.
I haven't known her (to) weep before.
INFINITIVES AFTER CONJUNCTIONS
When infinitives are joined by and, as, as well as, but, except, like, or, rather than, than the marker
TO of the second infinitive is often dropped.
I want you to iron or do the rooms upstairs.
I intended to sit in the garden and write letters.
It is easier to do the dishes myself than ask you to do it.
It is as easy to smile as frown.
I have to feed the animals as well as look after the children.
Why don't you do something useful like water the flowers?
Rather than wait any more, I decided to go home.
After but and except in such phrases as do anything but / except; do nothing but / except; do everything but/ except; do much but/except bare infinitives are used.
He does nothing but complain.
Could you do anything but ask questions?
My dog does everything except speak.
We don't do much in the evening except watch television.
! When joined asyndetically (without any conjunctions), infinitives retain their markers
He came to see me, to eniov the quiet country life, to get away from it all.
Trang 1312 English Grammar Practice
INFINITIVES REPRESENTED BY THE MARKER TO
To avoid repetition, an infinitive is sometimes represented by its marker TO.
Do you live in Paris? - No, but I used to.
= Вы живете в Париже? - Нет, но раньше жил.
This is chiefly done:
• after verbs ask to, dare to, desire to, dream to, expect to, forget to, hate to, hope to, intend to, like to, love to, mean to, need to, plan to, promise to, refuse to, try to, want to, wish to.
Mark Twain said: "Man is the only animal that blushes Or needs to."
• after modal verbs ought to, have to;
Nobody wants to assist him, but I ought to / have to.
• after phrases: be able to, be afraid to, be allowed to, be determined to, be glad to, be going to, be made to, have the occasion to, have the right to, used to, would hate to, would like / love toJ etc,
He tried to swim across the stream but was not able to.
He did not feel like doing his room, but he was made to- Would you like to come with us? - Yes, I would love to.
SPLIT INFINITIVES
The markerTO may be separated from the infinitive by an adverb Split infinitives used to be considered bad style, but now they are acceptable to give a special emphasis to the verb
She does not want to even see me, to spy nothing of going out.
It would take years to really master the subject.
Trang 14Fhe Morphological Categories of the Infinitive 13
Ex 7
Ex 8
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT
■Supply the missing marker TO.
1 He never let himself be angry
2 1 have look after the children as well as feed the animals
3 You'd better not say what you think
4 You may as well tell us the truth
5 1 used live in a caravan
6 Where would you like have lunch?
7 You must take care not offend her
8 1 don't want them think you in the wrong
9 The least we can do is try and understand this idea
10 Mrs Carey rose help her lay the cloth
11 People sometimes hurt you, but it is not because they mean
12 It heartened Mary hear him speak so lightly
13 Lisa felt herself grow red to the tips of her toes
14 He was seen sneak quietly in the room
15 Jack couldn't get his car start
16 It's easier do it yourself than explain to somebody else how do it
17 Live all you can It's a mistake not
y j Use the required form of the infinitive in brackets Insert the marker 70 where necessary A.
1 Let's (not stay out) long
2 I could not but (admit) that he was right
3 How dare you (open) my letters!
4 He was heard (knock) on the door twice
5 Could you help me (carry) this bag?
6 You oughtn't (show) your feelings
7 I'd rather (go) for a walk in the rain than (do) nothing at all
8 Susan must (oversleep), because it's 10 am and she's not in the office yet
9 I'm sorry, I should (let) you (know) about it long ago
10 I heard the door (open) and saw a shadow (move) across the floor
11 Need we really (leave) so early?
12 I have never known him (speak) so rudely before.
13 There is nothing (do) but (wait) till somebody comes (let) us out
14 She had the child (drink) a glass of warm milk
15 The kidnappers told the parents (not inform) the police, and the parents didn't dare (disobey)
16 Will we need (show) our passports?
17 "If you've got nothing to say," I said, "why (try) (say) it? Why not (have) a little rest?"
Trang 1514 English Grammar Practice
B.
1 There was one announcement (make)
2 She hoped (accomplish) the task by the end of the week, but she failed
3 All I wanted (do) was (cut) the formalities short
4 I'm sorry (disappoint) you but I can't let you (have) any money till the end of the month
5 You are (not mention) this to anyone
6 I think he must (suffer) from injury now
7 He is expected (arrive) in a few days
8 I haven't done much for you You might (ask) much more at that time
9 It's very interesting (hear) you (say) that
10 She noticed that he seemed (look) at the sideboard and with her engaging smile leaned forward
11 She liked (like), (think) worthy of confidence
Change the sentences as shown.
Model: I couldn't understand the timetable, (wasn't able)
/ wasn't able to understand the timetable.
1 It's important to eat enough (You should)
2 I'd like to go sailing this summer (I might)
3 She'll probably get married in June (She expects)
4 I said I would help her (I agreed)
5 It's necessary to make careful plans (We must)
6 Perhaps he's ill (He seems)
7 I want to change my job (I wish I could)
8 I may come and see you next week (I hope)
9 You don't need to apologize (You needn't)
10 They will open a new branch in London (They have decided)
11 I will certainly pay you on Saturday (I promise)
12 I couldn't find the ticket office (I didn't manage)
13 I prefer to go by myself (I would rather)
14 She said she wouldn't see him again (She refused)
15 I can play chess (I've learnt)
Trang 16The Morphological Categories of the Infinitive 15
Join the beginning and end of the sentences using the marker TO where necessary.
1 The coffee isn't strong enough a leave the ship
2 1 have never known him b make a brilliant career
6 1 am ready to do anything but f have telephoned you, but 1 forgot
7 Why don't you do something useful like g pay for a drink himself
8 He got up very early in order (TO) h be hiding in the woods near your house
10 Is there any milk j- have annoyed your sister yesterday
12 Would you be so kind as 1 climb Everest without oxygen?
14 She would rather die than n keep us awake
15 Who was the first person 0 clean the flat?
Щ Find and correct the errors if there are any.
1 Did you feel the earth move?
2 She liked this kind of thing Some people pretended not
3 This skirt needs be cleaned
4 You look tired Why not to take a holiday?
5 Could you help me to unload the car?
6 Are you and Gillian getting married? — We hope
7 You ought have spared her feelings
8 We had nothing to do except to look at the cinema posters
9 The teacher had us to learn a long poem by heart
10 They were heard to ask the policeman for directions
11 Robert seems have been working on the same project for ages
12 I was made look stupid at yesterday's meeting
13 Writers write not because they have to but because they wish
14 The visitors were allowed take pictures in the gallery
15 The white yacht was seen leave the harbor and disappear in the distance
16 This expensive medicine is not be found anywhere
17 I couldn't but to take the abandoned kitten home
18 We like machines that think but are afraid of people who try
Trang 1716 English Grammar Practice
Translate the parts given in brackets into English.
1 (Мне пришлось) put off my trip till next summer
2 (Вам бы лучше) warn them against going there alone
3 (Позволь мне) take this decision on my own
4 (Им ничего не оставалось как) agree to their daughter's wedding
5 The child (заставили) tidy his room up
6 Are you interested in going to University? — (Да, мне бы хотелось.)
7 You (следует) respect elderly people
8 (Почему бы не) get a take-away meal tonight for a change?
9 She (должна была позвонить) me two hours ago Something terrible (должно быть, случилось)
10 (Я не могла не заметить) her new hair colour and trendy clothes
11 He (предпочел бы поехать) to ski in the Alps last winter than (лететь) to the Maldives
12 I noticed George (вздохнул с облегчением) after he read the letter
13 I would sooner recycle our rubbish (чем покупать) non-recyclable goods
14 Why can't you go with us? — (Мне не разрешают.)
15 George (помог мне) investigate the matter
16 I (пожалуй) have a cup of camomile tea before going to bed
17 Would you be so helpful as (чтобы поднести) this heavy bag for me?
Translate the sentences into English Pay attention to the marker TO.
Trang 18The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 17
THE SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE INFINITIVE
In linguistics, syntactic functions refer to constituents in a sentence - subjects, predicates, objects, attributes, etc - and relationships between them The ways in which infinitives function in sentences reflect their verbal and nominal characteristics '
Ш Syntactically, the verbal character of the infinitive is expressed in its combinability.
(a) Infinitives can be modified by adverbials.
I am afraid I cannot drive faster.
We are not prepared to wait any longer.
(b) infinitives can take prepositional objects.
He was taught to l o ^ afterhlmself.
(c) Infinitives of transitive verbs can take direct objects
He seemed to know everything.
ffl Infinitives manifest their nominal character when they are used as subjects, predicatives, objects4.
To love is to receive a glimpse of heaven, [a subject]
Our aim is to succeed, [a predicative]
Was Arabic very difficult to learn? [part of a predicative]
I promise to wait, [an object]
Ш Infinitives can perform their syntactic functions alone or in combination with other words They may form:
• infinitive phrases that operate as one syntactic whole Thus, we find phrasal subjects, phrasal
predicatives, phrasal objects, phrasal attributes and phrasal adverbials A phrasal part of
the sentence can also be expressed by a conjuctive infinitive phrase, often referred to as a
wh-phrases This phrase is introduced by a conjuctive pronoun or adverb: who, what, where, when, whether, how (long/ much) and tne like.
To study languages has been his long cherished dream, [a phrasal subject]
Where to ao was a mistery [a phrasal subject]
A victory you can get over the enemy is to beat him at politeness, [a phrasal predicative] The problem was what to tell Alice and where to ao [a phrasal predicative]
Never advise anyone to ao to war or to marry, [a phrasal object]
He didn't know what to sav [a phrasal object]
4 For details see THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBJECT, THE INFINITIVE ASA Predicate and THE INFINITIVE AS A OBJECT.
Trang 1918 English Grammar Practice
The best way to predict the future is to invent it [a phrasal attribute]
Cats are intended to teach us [a phrasal adverbial]
• predicative complexes that operate as one syntactic whole We find complex subjects, complex
predicates, complex objects, complex attributes and complex adverbials Predicative constructions with the infinitives are discussed at greater length later in this book.5
For a woman to know everything about her children is natural, [a complex subject] This problem is not for me to solve, [a complex predicate]
Everybody saw Janet leave, didn't they? [a complex object]
There is so much for a visitor to see in Prague, [a complex attribute]
He stepped aside for me to pass, [a complex adverbial]
THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBJECT
To love and be loved is to fe e l the sun from both sides.
David Viscott
It is possible to store the m ind with a million fa cts and still be entirely uneducated.
Alec Bourne
Ш Infinitive subjects follow two patterns In pattern 1 the infinitive subject is placed first Starting a
sentence with a to-infinitive is more common in formal, written English
To compromise appears advisable.
= Идти на компромиссы кажется разумным.
То have made the same mistake was unforgivable.
= To, что была сделана та же ошибка, было непростительно.
Pattern 2 is characteristic of everyday language The infinitive subject is introduced by a formal
subject IT Semantically, the subject that is moved to the end of the sentence is slightly more accentuated It here is known as the introductory IT.
It appears advisable to compromise.
Trang 20The Syntactic Functions of the infinitive 19
IMPORTANT! Interrogative sentences follow pattern 2
Would it be safe to camp here?
= Было ли бы безопасно разбить здесь лагерь?
Ш Any form of the infinitive can be used to express the subject
It was my intention to show her the change in our city.
It was a pleasure to be listening to you.
It seemed incredible to have completed so much within such a short time.
It must be nice to have been rowing for hours.
It was surprising to be recognized after years of absence.
It was a shock for him to have been questioned in such a way.
f fl If there are two or more homogeneous infinitive subjects in a sentence, all of them keep the
marker TO.
It was difficult to do nothing about it to tell nobody of it and to foraet it all.
Ш Structurally, the infinitive subjects can be
• simple - expressed by a single infinitive
To understand is to forgive.
• phrasal - expressed by (a) an infinitive phrase or (b) a conjunctive infinitive phrase.
(a) To ask him aaain was impossible.
(b) Where to ao was a mystery.
• complex - expressed by a predicative construction with an infinitive 6
For him to earn bread was a problem.
She was heard to olav the guitar in the garden
Ш The predicate of an infinitive subject takes the form of the third person singular
To talk to him bores us.
To be recognized was a joy.
6 Complex subjects are discussed at greater length later in the book For a more detailed analysis see THE FOR-TO-
INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION and THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION.
Trang 2120 English Grammar Practice
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECTTranslate into Russian and comment on the form of the infinitives.
A.
1 To go out alone in the middle of the night is risky
2 It is strange to see you alone
3 It would be wrong to be showing these letters around
4 It's nice of him to be interested in my affairs
5 To die is nothing; but it is terrible not to live
6 To have given up after such hard work seems a shame
7 To find them in so short a time would have been next to impossible
8 The girl was only four but it delighted us to be talking with her
9 'It's a shame to have woken you up/ said Sally stepping in
10 'That would be a good idea/ she said 'It's so clever of you to have thought of it.'
11 It was exciting to be discovering new things every day
12 Everybody liked Sally It was a treat to be talking to her and to be charmed by her smile
13 To have met Billie there was bad enough, but to have been noticed by Ann was even worse
14 Mike related the story for the sixteenth time It was a pleasure to have found a listener and to be listened to
B.
1 It is strange to be known so universally and yet to be so lonely
2 It is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all
3 It is tedious to be thinking about it all the time
4 When guns speak it is too late to argue
5 To err is human, but to really foul things up requires a computer
6 It sounds strange to have been living in a town for ten years and not to be able to find the right street
7 It is difficult to make predictions, especially about the future
8 It is better to be hated for what you are than to be loved for what you are not
9 Is it so small a thing to have enjoyed the sun, to have loved, to have thought, to have hoped?
10 It is possible to fail in many ways while to succeed is possible only in one way
11 Whether they give or refuse, it delights people just the same to have been asked
12 Oh, it is excellent to have a giant's strength; but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant
13 It is a good rule in life never to apologize The right sort of people do not want apologies, and the wrong sort do not deserve them
14 It is absurd to divide people into good or bad People are either charming or tedious
15 Sleep is lovely, death is better still, not to have been bom is the miracle
Trang 22The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 21
Match the parts of the sentences.
to be accused of a murder you didn't commit
to be able to conceal one's ability
to be superstitious
to change her mind
to flog a dead horse
to make a quarrel
to be brave from a safe distance
to be called the Queen
Ex 16 Paraphrase sentences according to the examples given.
Model: I can't believe what he says, (hard) -> It is hard to believe what he says.
1 I couldn't refuse his invitation (impossible)
2 We were taken to the Zoo (fun)
3 Translating this text may present difficulties, (difficult)
4 Everybody was surprised to see her again, (surprise)
5 I was delighted when we had made it up finally, (delightful)
6 Don't phone Bob He is sleeping already, (too late)
7 Whenever you have to look after children, you feel tired, (tiring)
8 We were horrified when we had our first quarrel, (horrible)
9 When we were soaring like birds in the white sky, we felt excited, (exciting)
10 I was annoyed when I had lost my key again, (annoying)
11 Worrying where the children might be is nightmarish, (nightmare)
12 When we took off our wet boots, we felt relieved, (relief)
13 It's no use discussing it (useless)
14 If you break a mirror, you will be unlucky, (bad luck)
15 I dread being alone in such a place, (dreadful)
Ex 17 Combine the sentences so as to use infinitives as subjects.
Model: She helped us It was so kind It was kind of her to help us.
He came without flowers What a mistake! -> It was a mistake to have come withoutflowers.
1 Don't eat too much It is an unhealthy habit
2 I forgot everything I knew It's a disaster!
3 We were crossing the river on a tiny boat It was dangerous
4 They left the bicycles outside It is so silly of them!
5 Why did he make that remark? It was so rude!
6 You should go by train Trains are safer than airplanes
Trang 2322 English Grammar Practice
7 Why did we believe them? We were so silly
8 He didn't contribute anything It is so selfish
9 Why don't you want to accept their offer? It would be foolish
10 You say you found the house empty? — Yes, it was so odd
11 We were sitting there silently for an hour It seemed so natural
12 You have to work on Sundays? — It's almost a crime!
13 He pulled strings to get Mrs Worting dismissed It is so mean of him
14 He recognized me after all these years What a joy!
15 Why are you wasting your time like that? It doesn't do you any good
16 He was making strange remarks through the interview It was unbecoming of him
Ex 18 Change the sentences using the continuous infinitive, the passive and perfect forms
of the infinitive Use the words in bold type as prompts.
Models: I was pleased that I was introduced to you.
pleasure -> It was a pleasure to be introduced to you.
I have been working with you for five years.
honour -> It's an honour to have been working with you for five years.
1 I felt delight when I was finally noticed
Trang 24The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive _23
13 We lost to a worthy rival It is not a failure
lost
IComplete the following using infinitives as subjects.
1. It's a silly superstition 8 It's a rigid must
2 It's beyond my powers 9 It's no picnic
3 It's out of the question 10 It's not cricket
4 It pays 11 It's sheer madness
5 It's no big deal 12 It's unfeminine
6 It's no laughing matter 13 It's something
7 It's a man-sized job 14 It's very shabby of you.
Ex 20 Translate the sentences using the phrases from exercise 19.
Ex 21 | Translate the fragments given in brackets using infinitives as subjects.
1 When the stomach is full, (легко говорить о диете)
2 (Лучше знать) some of the questions than alf of the answers
3 (Было ужасно вставать с постели) in that kind of "sleep-in" weather
4 (Лучше спросить дорогу) than go astray
5 (Глупо наказывать соседей) by fire when you live next door
6 (Бесполезно винить) the looking glass if your face is awry
7 (Выгодно казаться глупым) if one is wise
8 (Понимать, что нужно делать, и не делать этого) is lack of courage
Trang 2524 English Grammar Practice
9 (Невозможно перемещаться) fasterthan the speed of light, and certainly not desirable,
as one's hat keeps blowing off
10 (Тяжело создать хороший фильм) when every twelve minutes it is interrupted by twelve dancing rabbits singing about toilet paper
11 (Никогда не бывает слишком поздно отказаться от) our prejudices
12 (Воспринимать его всерьез и следовать его советам) was absurd
13 (Невозможно наслаждаться) idling thoroughly unless one has plenty of work to do
14 (Лучше молчать и считаться глупцом) than to speak out and remove all doubt
15 Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, (пора остановиться и обдумать это)
16 (Вечно планировать) to make a better life but never to find time for it is like putting off eating and drinking and sleeping until you're dead
Щ Translate the sentences using infinitives as subjects.
Trang 26The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 25
THE INFINITIVE AS PART OF A PREDICATE
To continue our discussion, study the diagram below
The predicate is the second main part of the sentence and its organizing centre Structurally, it can
be either simple or compound The latter consists of two parts: the structural and the notional The structural part carries grammatical information - the person, number, tense, voice, mood, modality
of the predicate It is expressed by a finite verb - a link verb, phasal verb, modal verb or modal
expression The notional part is the bearer of lexical meaning.
The infinitive can be used as the notional part of compound nominal and compound verbal predicates
THE INFINITIVE AS A PREDICATIVE
The first duty of love is to listen
Paul Tillich
Every child is an artist The problem is how
to remain an artist once he grows up.
Pablo Picasso
compound nominal predicate = link verb + PREDICATIVE
My son's ambition is.
Trang 2726 English Grammar Practice
Ш The predicative is the notional part of a compound nominal predicate It denotes an action or a state
of the subject Predicatives are mainly expressed by non-perfect infinitives, both active and passive
Her dream is to love and to be loved.
= Ее мечта - любить и быть любимой.
Ш Structurally, the infinitive predicatives can be
• simple - expressed by a single infinitive.
His plan was to return.
• phrasal - expressed by (a) an infinitive phrase or (b) a conjunctive infinitive phrase.
(a) His plan is to keen the affair secret.
(b) The problem was what to tell Alice and where to go.
• complex - expressed by a for-to-infinitive construction.7
His plan was for us to join the group.
Ш The subject of the compound nominal predicate with an infinitive predicative can be expressed by:
certain nouns
His rule was never to return.
My duty is to serve meals.
2 words all, the most, the least with an attributive clause attached to them.
A ll/ the most / the least we can do is to aet out of here.
3 a single infinitive, infinitive phrase or infinitive construction
To see is to believe.
To see her was to admire.
For Johanna to see the baby was to suffer again her loss.
4 a clause
What Napoleon wanted to do was to fiaht the whole world.
What he has done is to spoil the whole thing.
7 For details see THE FOR-TO-INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
Trang 28The Syntactic Functions o f the Infinitive 27
THE INFINITIVE AS PART OF A PREDICATIVE
A ll truths are easy to understand when they are discovered; the point is to discover them.
Galileo Galilei
f fl The infinitive can be used as part of a predicative It is mainly the non-perfect active infinitive Let
us look at the example
She is easy to deal with.
= С ней легко иметь дело.
is easy to deal with
a compound nominal predicate
is 71 easy to deal with
a link verb a predicative
p easy ^ ^ to deal with
part of a predicative
Ш The infinitive used as part of a predicative follow
• adjectives: convenient, difficult, easy, enjoyable, good, hard, impossible, pleasant, ready, quick, (un)safe, slow, etc.
My granny is pleasant to talk to but hard to please.
= С моей бабушкой приятно говорить, но ей трудно угодить.
• nouns: delight, fun, joy, problem, prompt, etc.
Such problems are fun to solve.
= Такие задачи решать одно удовольствие.
ffl In this function, the infinitives are active in form but passive in meaning
Japanese is difficult to learn.
= Японский трудно учить.
His theory is impossible to understand.
= Его теорию невозможно понять.
NOTE, study the following examples to see the difference between the infinitive as a predicative
and the infinitive as part of a predicative Compare:
My goal is to speak English fluently, [a predicative]
= Моя цель - бегло говорить по-английски.
My goal is easy to achieve, [part of a predicative]
= Мою цель легко достичь.
Trang 2928 English Grammar Practice
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECTTranslate into Russian and comment on the use of the infinitives.
A.
1 His only dream was to buy a house
2 He will be difficult to persuade
3 All he did was to print his name
4 It is easy to deal with her
5 She is easy to deal with
6 It took me an hour to get there
7 His first sign of returning strength was to ask for brandy
8 The problem was howto tell him about it
9 He is a delight to listen to
10 The part of Hamlet is difficult to cast
11 The parade was a joy to watch
12 The pudding is easy to make
13 The difficulty was where to cross the river
14 It's awfully good of you to have come here
15 A small car would be cheap to run
B.
1 Education's purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one
2 All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them
3 The most important thing is to be whatever you are without shame
4 A man's silence will be wonderful to listen to
5 The greatest mistake you can make in life is to be continually fearing you will make one
6 It takes a long time to become a personality
7 The best thing is to look natural, but it takes make-up to look natural
8 To be upset over what you don't have is to waste what you do have
9 Every child is an artist The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up
10 It is easy to be wise after the event
11 What most people need to learn in life is how to love people and use things instead of using people and loving things
12 It's dangerous to generalize from a limited number of examples
13 To read a book for the first time was to make the acquaintance of a new friend; to read
it a second time was to meet an old one
14 Life is easier than you'd think; all that is necessary is to accept the impossible, do without the indispensable, and bear the intolerable
15 To believe is to know you believe, and to know you believe is not to believe
Trang 30The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 29
Ex 24 Make up sentences, using the following infinitives with the adjectives from the table
Paraphrase the following sentences according to the model
Model: It is hard to please him -> He is hard to please.
1 It is not difficult to remember the rule
2 It's very comfortable to sit in my Grandfather's armchair
3 It was difficult to get along with him
4 It's not very easy to translate this passage
5 It is pleasant to look at the girl, but not at all pleasant to talk to her
6 It was unpleasant to watch their quarrel
7 It's always funny to listen to his stories
8 It would be useful to follow Uncle Jack's advice
9 It is difficult to explain his behaviour
10 It is rather hard to read his handwriting
11 It is very pleasant to listen to him
12 It is hard to polish a diamond
13 It is very comfortable to work at this desk
14 It was very amusing to watch the scene
15 It was easy to follow the track
Trang 3130 English Grammar Practice
Щ Paraphrase the following sentences starting with the words given.
1 He aims to become a top chef by the age of 30
His aim
2 Discussing problems with a friend can be helpful
It _
3 I have come to congratulate you and to wish you every success
What I have come for
4 There was no necessity to re-do it
7 Younger siblings want to establish their own identity That is their main priority
The main priority o f
8 All they wanted was to make themselves understood
To m ake _
9 You should take a long rest This is the only thing that could do you good
The only thing _ _
10 The question is not easy to answer
It _
11 I must ask you a few questions on the matter It is my duty
It's my d uty _
12 You are to check up the results of the observations It's your next task
Your next task
13 The sculpture was completely ruined The restoration was impossible
It _
14 I didn't want to offend you That was the last thing I meant
The last thing _
15 We have to cut costs It's the only way to survive
The only w ay _
Trang 32The Syntactic Functions of the infinitive 31
Complete the sentences using the infinitives from the right column as subjects or predicatives.
10
2 My next plan was to the house, avoiding Wells if b) to go on
6 The onlv thing she could do was the truth g) to wait
7 At this moment required more effort than she could h) to return
9 It is such a comfort vou sav so, doctor
There was no water nearby and the only thing was
The book was difficult
Our plan was _
_was very pleasant
The sentence is easy and useful
The best way to master a foreign language is
_is the only thing to do
The next thing to be done is _
would be much more useful
His only wish is
What he says is pleasant
Our only chance to see him is
but hard
is not an easy matter
Our aim was
All she cooks is nice
This problem will not be difficult
The first thing he did was
The boy is hard
What I want is _
Our next step was
and delicious
Trang 3332 English Grammar Practice
Find and correct the mistakes if there are any.
1 Is your friend easy to deal with?
2 All I want to do is to help you
3 Her neighbour was difficult to have talked to
4 The best thing to do now is to be seen what turn things will take
5 The most exciting experience he had ever had was to see himself in a film for the firsttime
6 It really hurts me to be going away
7 Bad habits are easily to acquire and hardly to break
8 The house was charming to look at, but rather inconvenient to live
9 It was very kind of you to have helped me change the wheel
10 The Gadfly was difficult to be convinced
11 It would be very hard to be found out his true identity
12 Not to act sooner is his greatest regret
13 This phenomenon is difficult to explain it
Ex 30 Translate the fragments in brackets into English.
1 My way of joking (говорить) the truth It is the funniest joke in the world
2 The most he could do at the moment (было дать) me a cup of tea
3 The reason of his success (будет легко понять)
4 The quickest way of ending a war (проиграть) it
5 His behaviour (нелегко одобрить)
6 1 belonged to neither groups, and to speak was (принимать) sides
7 The date of the letter (было невозможно разобрать)
8 To be great (быть непонятым)
9 Her attitude to her duties (будет нелегко смириться)
10 All we are asking for (это чтобы нам дали шанс)
11 Gemma was (приятно смотреть) and (интересно разговаривать)
12 Exotic animals (проблематично ухаживать)
13 (Глупо говорить) that the company is not interested in making money
14 The least we could do (было попытаться понять) their idea
15 His greatest claim to fame (состоит в том, что его выбрали) for the last Olympic squad
16 The next move (будет проконсультироваться) an experienced lawyer
17 It's impossible (делать обобщения) about what men and women are like
18 One way to make reading pleasurable (было бы найти) books that your children willlove to read
Trang 34The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 33
Translate the sentences into English using infinitives as subjects, predicatives or parts
Trang 3534 English Grammar Practice
THE INFINITIVE AS PART OF A COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE
A compound verbal predicate consists of the structural and notional parts The type of the structural element determines the kind of the predicate
THE INFINITIVE AS PART OF A COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL PREDICATE
If you have to keep som ething secret, it's because you should not be doing it in the first place!
David Nicholls
ffl In compound verbal modal predicates the structural part can be expressed by:
• modal verbs can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, ought to, will, would, need, dare, to
be to, to have to.
We needn't have hurried.
= Он зря спешил.
• modal expressions had better, would rather, would sooner.
He would sooner die than betray his friends.
= Он скорее умрет, чем предаст своих друзей.
Щ After modal expressions and most modal verbs (except ought to, have to, be to) we use bare
infinitives Compare:
Need you have paid so much? - I needn't have done it.
You don't need to leave yet, do y o u ? -I need to get some sleep.
How dare you say that? - 1 dared not deceive vou.
He didn't dare tosav what he thought.
Щ Any form of the infinitive can be used as part of a compound verbal modal predicate
I can knit.
Can she be knitting another pullover?
My great-grandmother could have knitted a better pullover for me.
She can't have been knitting all the way from New York to San Diego.
These tiny mittens can be knitted in no time at all.
But for your naughty kitten the scarf could have been knitted.
Trang 36The Syntactic Functions o f the Infinitive 35
Q There are two types of time reference in compound modal predicates The type of time reference
in compound verbal modal predicates depends on the meaning of the modal verb
1 Certain modal verbs have tense forms in some of their meanings Consequently, in these
meanings the form of the modal verb determines the time reference of the predicate.
I could not read at the age of five.
• Perfect infinitives within compound verbal modal predicates may refer actions to the past.
He mav have arrived last Thursday.
= Он, возможно, приехал в прошлый четверг.
The book should have been written when you travelled in the North.
= Должно быть, книга была написана, когда вы путешествовали по северу Jess must have been learning Spanish for at least a year.
= Джесс, наверное, уже учит испанский по крайнее мере год.
Trang 3736 English Grammar Practice
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT
Щ Translate into Russian and comment on the use of the infinitives.
A.
1 I have to meet Tom in ten minutes I'd better go now or I'll be late
2 It should have been great to see him again after so many years
3 To smoke like that must be dangerous
4 That can't have been Nick that you saw
5 It's a pity you didn't ask because I could have helped you
6 Everyone was angry because Sam wouldn't turn off the television
7 I'd rather have pasta than potatoes
8 "Well," said Lemvine "I must be going now."
9 He can't have said that; he is such an agreeable person
10 My plan was to find Roger first thing in the morning, but he was nowhere to be found
11 I'd rather have gone to the cinema last night I didn't like the performance we watched
12 There are times when the traffic here can be very heavy
13 We've almost run out of petrol We'd better stop at the next petrol station to fill up
14 I suppose Bill might have lost his way
15 Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood
B.
1 Every minute you are thinking of evil, you might have been thinking of good instead
2 A lifetime of happiness! No man alive could bear it: it would be hell on earth
3 Life was meant to be lived, and curiosity must be kept alive One must never, for whateverreason, turn his back on life
4 It's never too late to be who you might have been
5 I rejoined the others in the small fisherman's cottage and there I had to break the sadnews
6 — I won't do it! — Yes, you will!
7 The worst thing you can possibly do is worrying and thinking about what you could have
Open the brackets paying attention to the form of the infinitive.
1 I don't want (to go) swimming I'd rather (to play) tennis
2 I am not sure what Mike is doing right now He might (to sit) at home
3 We are enjoying our holiday, though the weather could (to be) better
4 A good home must (to make), not (to buy)
5 You shouldn't (to take) that book You know it's wrong to steal
6 It must (to snow) heavily, have a look, the ground and all the trees are white
7 This problem might (to deal with) long time ago Why should I remind you that?
done
Trang 38The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 37
8 The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot (to see) or even (to touch) They must (to feel) within the heart
9 We could (to buy) a small yacht with what we spent on our dog and all the things he destroyed Then again, how many yachts wait by the door all day for your return?
Paraphrase the following sentences using modal verbs or modal expressions.
A.
1 It's forbidden to park on the pavements
2 I recommend going to Brighton for a week
3 Do you want me to turn off the oven, or not?
4 I would prefer to eat in than eat out tonight
5 Is it possible that she has wrongly interpreted your words?
6 He looks very pleased, probably his work has been approved of
7 It wasn't compulsory to wear school uniform at my school
8 He isn't capable of speaking quietly!
9 I don't believe that you have lost your keys again!
10 It's \ " ;ible that this text was difficult to translate
11 Our ;o much was a waste of time
12 It is important for you to finish by 5
13 It's possible that the decision will be announced next week
14 You had better leave before Jack gets back
B.
1 It isn't a good idea to exercise on a full stomach
2 Perhaps they didn't notice the tyre was flat
3 The police refused to do anything about my noisy neighbours
4 In all probability he didn't like the holiday spent together with Aunt Augusta
5 Although you are in charge, it doesn't give you the right to be rude
6 It would have been possible for Helen to give us a lift
7 They hoped to have spent the summer together but that wasn't destined to be
8 All that was possible for us to do was to write to him
9 I expect this beach will be deserted
10 Don't worry, everything will be arranged as you want, I promise you
11 It was agreed that Jim would make a speech at the meeting but he had fallen ill, so Tom was obliged to speak instead
12 Evidently he didn't know her telephone number He would have given her a call
13 Oh, I'll make you regret your words
14 It would be better if you didn't bring Mary to the party
15 Jim keeps giving me presents
Trang 3938 English Grammar Practice
Complete the following sentences using modal verbs and the appropriate forms of the infinitives.
1 One thing is for sure, someone _ (to know) about it
2 There were plenty of tickets left for the concert W e (to buy)them in advance
3 Pay no attention to what Martin said He (to be) serious
4 It's your own fault, you (not to go) to bed so late
5 I spent last week at the beach because I _ (not to go) to school
6 George (to like) it there if he has stayed there for so long
7 I _ (to buy) that car, but I decided to look at a few others
8 The heating comes on automatically You (not to turn) it on
9 Not a living being (to be seen)
10 What about this meat? I (to roast) it o r (to stew) it?
11 I begged David to accept some money but he (to hear) of it
12 Look at these fences! The people here _(to be) very unfriendly
13 You (to be) right, but I still don't agree with you
14 Don't take a risk like that again! We _ (to lose) because
of you yesterday
15 The best thing w e (to do) is to tell everybody
16 He put the money in his pocket, and kindly told me, 'Don't make yourself uneasy.I'll take care of it It _ (to be) all right'
17 Mrs Pearce: What _ (to become) of the girl? she (to be paid) anything?
[^ K 7 jV | Correct the mistakes in the following sentences if there are any.
1 You mustn't have forgotten it already!
2 He couldn't but agree to marry Jane in order to please his mother
3 Fortunately I needn't have gone to the bank in person
4 It can have been taken months to redecorate the house if the father hadn't hired the workers to help
5 He couldn't help laughing when he saw a girl with her father's boots on
6 You should wear a helmet when you ride your bike — it's the law!
7 I'd sooner not to tell anyone
8 Something must have happened He was to come at 8
9 You must have woken up earlier — you missed the bus!
10 I am sorry I disturbed you — I ought to phone before I came
11 I would better go to the bank this afternoon
12 Harry may have won the match with a bit more effort
13 Eventually I could find the way with the help of a map
Trang 40The Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 39
14 I am afraid you oughtn't to use this phone — I'm expecting an important call
15 I'd rather had told you the truth earlier
16 You mustn't help me now if you don't want to
37 Translate into English the parts given in brackets
1 You don't look very well (Тебе бы лучше не ходить) _
at the rail wav
but 1 had no time
this report bvThursdav
14 If he came to our place another time, we (бы и говорить с ним не стали)